PHY3105 MODERN PHYSICS

NUCLEAR STRUCTURE

Semester 1 2012/2013
 NUCLEAR COMPOSITION
• Nucleons are the constitutes of a nucleus.
• Nucleons consist of proton and neutron
• The atomic number of an element is the
number of protons in each of its atomic
nuclei, which is the same number of
electrons in a neutral atom of the element
• Isotopes: the varieties of an element that
differ in the numbers of neutrons their
nuclei contain
For example: hydrogen
• Ordinary hydrogen atom
(1 proton, 1 electron)
• Deuterium:
(1 proton, 1 electron, 1 neutron)
• Tritium:
(1 proton, 1 electron, 2 neutron)
• Mass number: the number of nucleons in the
nucleus (sum of the number of proton and
neutron)
• The conventional symbol for a nuclear species,
or nuclide follows the pattern:

A
Z X X: chemical symbol of the element
Z: atomic number
A: mass number
• Nuclides with same Z but different A are
called isotopes, e.g., 173Au to 204Au
• Radionuclides decay (or disintegrate)
by emitting a particle, thereby
transforming into a different nuclide
• For example: Gold (Au) has 32 isotopes,
ranging from 173 Au to 204 Au. But only one
of them is stable
 Atomic masses
• Atomic masses refer to the masses of neutral atoms,
not the bare nuclei (always includes the masses of its Z
electrons)
• Atomic masses are expressed in atomic mass unit (u)
• The mass of a 12C atom is exactly 12 u
6

• 1 u = 1.66054  10-27 kg
• The energy equivalent of a mass unit is 931.49 MeV
• A mass of 10 MeV/c2 = energy of 10 MeV (E = mc2)
 SOME NUCLEAR PROPERTIES
• If a nuclear radius is R, the corresponding
volume is 4/3R3, so R3 is proportional to A
(mass number)

1
R  Ro A 3

15
Ro  1.2  10 m  1.2 fm
• Protons and neutrons, like electrons, are fermions
(femtometer nuclei) with spin quantum numbers of S = ½
• The spin magnetic quantum numbers of ms =1/2
• Their magnitude of spin angular momenta:
11  3
S  s( s  1 )    1   
22  2

• As in the case of electrons, magnetic moments are

associated with the spins of protons and neutrons
• Magnetic moment can be expressed in nuclear
magnetons (N):

e
N   5.051  10  27 J / T
2m p
Exercise
 Same direction as S

• Proton:  pz  2.793  N

• Neutron:  pz  1.913  N

opposite direction to S
 p S S

P n
n
• The hydrogen nucleus consists of a single
proton, and its total angular momentum is
11  3
S  s( s  1 )    1   
22  2

• A nucleon in a more complex nucleus may

have orbital angular momentum due to
motion inside the nucleus as well as spin
angular momentum.
• The total angular momentum of such
nucleus is the vector sum of the spin and
orbital angular momenta of its nucleons.
When a nucleus whose magnetic moment has the z-component
z is in a constant magnetic field B, the magnetic potential
energy of the nucleus is

Magnetic energy, Um = -zB

U  B U   B
In the presence of
Energy
magnetic field, each difference
angular momentum between the
state of the nucleus is sub-levels
split into components
(Zeeman effect)

E  2 pz B ( for a proton )
The corresponding frequency (Larmor frequency for
proton),
vL= E/h = 2pzB
E  2 pz B ( for a proton )
 STABILITY OF NUCLEI
• Not all combinations of neutrons and
protons form stable nuclei
• Light nuclei (A < 20) contain approximately
equal numbers of neutrons and protons
• For heavier nuclei, the number of neutron
(N) is greater than the number of proton
(Z)
• For example, 197Au has 118 neutrons and
only 79 protons
 unstable

stable
• Nucleons have spins of ½ - they obey the
exclusion principle
• Each nuclear energy level can contain 2
neutrons and 2 proton with opposite spins,
respectively
• Energy levels in nuclei are filled in sequence,
just as energy levels in atoms
• To achieve maximum stability, the configuration
must be in a minimum energy state
 12
For example: boron isotope B has more
5
energy than the carbon isotope 126C
because one of its neutrons is in a higher
12
energy level. So, 5 B is unstable
12
To become stable, B nucleus changes by
5
having beta decay into 126C nucleus
• In some light nuclei, N may exceed Z
• Protons are positively charged and repel one
and another electrically
• The repulsion becomes so great in nuclei with
more than 10 protons or so
• Excess neutrons are needed since they can
produce attractive forces to counter-balance the
repulsive force from protons
• Nuclei with filled levels have less tendency to
pick up other nucleons than those with partly
filled levels and hence were less likely to
participate in the nuclear reaction involved in the
formation of new elements
 Nuclear Decay
• When a nucleus undergoes alpha decay, it transforms to
a different nuclide by emitting an alpha particle (a helium
nucleus, 4He)
• Since 4He consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons, an alpha
decay reduces the Z and N of the original nucleus by 2
each
A4
A
Z A
 Z 2 Y  He 4
2
parent nucleus 
 Daugther nucleus  Alpha particle

Example:
238
U 234 Th  4 He (42-22)
 Beta decay
• If the resulting daughter nucleus from alpha
decay has either too small or too large a
neutron/proton ratio for stability, it may beta-
decay to a more appropriate configuration.
• In a negative beta decay, a neutron is
transformed into a proton and an electron is
emitted:  
n 
 p  e
o

• In positive beta decay, a proton becomes a

neutron and a positron is emitted
 
p 
 n  e o

(positron emission)
• Hence, negative beta decay decreases the
proportion of neutrons
• Positive beta decay increases the proportion of
neutrons
• The electron may be absorbed by a nuclear
proton to forma neutron:

 
p e 
 n o

• This process is known as “electron capture”

 Exercise
1. The iridium-168 isotope is known to go through alpha
decays. Write out a decay equation that shows this
process.

2. Write out the beta negative decay reaction for calcium-

46.

3. Potassium-40 is known to go through beta positive

decays. Write out the decay equation for this decay.
NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY

•The mass M of the nucleus is less than the total

mass of its individual nucleons Sm → nucleus
has less energy Mc2 than all the separated
nucleons S(mc2) →
•The difference between their masses are called
“mass defect”
• this energy difference (binding energy) favors
the nucleons binding into a nucleus.
 Ebe    mc 2  - Mc 2  binding energy  (42-7)
Or
the binding energy Ebe in MeV of the nucleus
A
Z X , which has
N = A – Z neutrons, is given by:

 
Ebe  Zm p  Nmn  M A  931 .494 MeV / u

mp = mass of the proton

Mass is expressed in
mn = mass of the neutron
atomic mass unit
A
MA = mass of nucleus Z X

If we could tear apart a nucleus into its separate

nucleons, the work required would be Ebe.
 Binding energy per nucleon

Ebe
Eben   binding energy per nucleon  (42-8)
A

A – mass number

Eben represents the average energy

holding each nucleon into the nucleus.
If weakly bound nuclei transform into more strongly bound nuclei, the total
mass can be reduced and the mass energy of the final state is lower than the
mass energy of the initial state. Where does the excess initial mass energy
go?

Fission: A nucleus with a

larger mass (U, Pu) splits
into nuclei with smaller
total mass (larger binding
energy). Energy is
released, e.g., nuclear
reactor, nuclear weapons.

Fusion: Two nuclei

combine to form a single
more tightly bound
nucleus, e.g., H+H →He
hydrogen bomb and the
sun
Example
 Question
3
The binding energy of He is 7.7181 MeV.
2

(i) Calculate its binding energy per nucleon.

(ii) Find its atomic mass.

• Mass of proton = 1.007825 u

• Mass of neutron = 1.008665 u
 
Ebe  Zm p  Nmn  M A  931 .494 MeV / u
 solution
i. A=3, E be  7.7181 MeV
Ebe 7.7181 MeV
Eben  = =2.57 MeV
A 3

ii.