J Brand Manag

https://doi.org/10.1057/s41262-018-0101-9

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Strengthening internal brand equity with brand ambassador

programs: development and testing of a success factor model
Holger J. Schmidt1 • Carsten Baumgarth1

 Macmillan Publishers Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract Particular in service and b-to-b-sectors, Introduction

employees’ brand commitment is a prerequisite for build-
ing a strong brand. While many areas of interest within the Internal branding is a relatively new term, which was first
field of internal branding have been tested by empirical used in 1999 (Keller 1999; Thomson et al. 1999), followed
studies, knowledge of internally oriented brand ambassador by numerous books and articles that have been published
programs (BAPs) is predominately anecdotal. The aim of since then. The increasing relevance of the internal
this article is to identify BAPs’ success factors by first anchorage of the brand is particularly reasoned by broad-
defining the corresponding term, followed by a BAP ening the brand concept to services, b-to-b and non-profit
framework based on the literature, using 25 success factors markets, which are dominated by corporate brands. These
in six categories. A longitudinal case study from the ser- markets are characterized by a lower relevance of mass
vice industry tested the practical application of the communication and packaging and a higher relevance of
framework, while the results of the case study were used to face-to-face communication and personal interaction.
adapt the model. The findings show that a BAP is not an Therefore, company employees are pivotal brand touch
isolated instrument of internal brand management, but that points and fundamental drivers of brand equity, while they
its impact depends on important background factors such are also positive brand communicators.
as brand orientation, brand management and C-level sup- Much academic research has tested the link between
port. Overall, the updated BAP success factor model con- internal brand anchorage and external brand performance
tains 31 factors. The research supports the planning and (Baumgarth and Schmidt 2010; Burmann et al. 2009a;
implementation of BAPs, as well as the monitoring of Henkel et al. 2007), while most studies have supported the
ongoing and the reflection of completed BAPs. positive impact of the former on the latter; hence, the
question of how management can increase internal brand
Keywords Brand ambassador
Case study research
anchorage, has gained importance. Leadership, communi-
Internal branding
Brand orientation
Success factors cation and human resource management were identified as
potential areas of interest (Burmann and Zeplin 2005).
While leadership (Morhart et al. 2009; Vallaster and de
Chernatony 2006; Dunn and Davis 2004) and communi-
cation (Gilly and Wolfinbarger 1998; Wentzel et al. 2010)
were tested by empirical studies, scientific knowledge of
the impact of HR activities on brand anchorage has
& Holger J. Schmidt received less attention amongst marketing scholars.
[email protected]; Therefore, knowledge about brand ambassador programs
https://www.hs-koblenz.de (BAPs) is predominately anecdotal (Causon 2004; Rehmet
1 and Dinnie 2013; Koch 2014).
Department of Business Science, Koblenz University of
Applied Sciences, Office K.003, Konrad-Zuse-Str. 1, The aim of this article was to identify BAPs’ success
56075 Koblenz, Germany factors by first defining the corresponding term, followed
 H. J. Schmidt, C. Baumgarth

by a BAP framework based on the literature that was • BAs network: the BAP is based on several linked BAs
reviewed. A longitudinal case study about an insurance at different levels of the hierarchy, departments and
company that we for reasons of anonymity called Bet- locations within the company.
terLife tested the practical application of the framework,
while the results of the case study were used to adapt the
model.
State of research and BAP framework

Review of BAP-specific literature

Brand ambassador programs (BAPs)
Few publications have explicitly discussed BAPs. From a
The term brand ambassador (BA) is not well defined in the
practitioner’s viewpoint, Ind (2007) describes the functions
literature. For example, Upshaw and Taylor (2000) men-
and characteristics of ‘‘good’’ BAs, as well as a BAP’s
tion BAs in their framework without any further descrip-
success factors. Causon (2004) presents a project of inter-
tion. Different meanings of the term BA or synonyms such
nal branding for a specific company. One major building
as brand evangelist (Doss 2014; Doss and Carstens 2014)
block of this project was the appointment of 50 BAs from
and brand champion (Causon 2004; King et al. 2013;
all levels across the organization. Davis and Dunn (2002)
Löhndorf and Diamantopoulos 2014; Merrilees 2016)
discuss structured brand assimilation programs, and an
increase the ambiguity.
important idea from this is the phase-oriented view of
The term ‘‘ambassador’’ is a metaphor, which was
BAPs: they differentiated between ‘‘Hearing it’’, ‘‘Believ-
borrowed from the political world. An ambassador is a
ing it’’ and ‘‘Living it’’. Furthermore, they recommend
person who does or says anything in another’s name
segmenting employees regarding their ‘‘closeness’’ to
(Fisher-Buttinger and Vallaster 2008) and, therefore, a BA
customers, as well as their attitudes and motivations.
can be described as a person who acts in the name of a
Little empirical research has been conducted on BAPs.
brand. Fisher-Buttinger and Vallaster (2008) identify three
An intensive database search identified a total of only two
main interpretations of the term BA: customers (e.g.
research papers, which deal with the topic. Both use
members of a brand community); celebrities (e.g. testi-
qualitative approaches and analyse BAPs in the context of
monial communication); and employees (e.g. sales people).
place branding. Anderson and Ekman (2009) analysed the
The employee perspective can be classified as both external
implementation of BAPs in 23 different cities, regions and
and internal perspectives. The external perspective
countries. Firstly, they identified that BAPs fulfil an
involves employees delivering the brand promise via
effective communication role by word-of-mouth, as well as
interactions with stakeholder groups. The internal per-
by their expertise and creativity. Secondly, participation in
spective assigns to the BA a specific role within the context
a BAP as a BA increases citizens’ pride and commitment.
of internal branding; hence, the BA receives a specific
First-hand information, quick updates, the opportunity of
mission to act on behalf of the brand (Fisher-Buttinger and
being involved in the marketing of the place and the
Vallaster 2008). This mission includes: authentic and
opportunity of attending meetings and events were the
trustworthy communication of brand-related information;
most important motives for BAs. Thirdly, BAP could also
sharing best practices and brand-related information to all
create undesirable effects such as high costs and citizens’
employees; communicating feedback from employees to
negative attitudes, which are not selected as BAs for the
the brand management team; and developing recommen-
BAP. Fourthly, the research revealed the pivotal role of the
dations to improve the brand (Braun et al. 2013; Ind 2007).
coordinator. Potential success factors include formulation
A brand ambassador program (BAP) or network (An-
of a clear purpose, support from top leadership and
derson and Ekman 2009) is a planned program which
empowering the coordinator, as well as the coordinator’s
selects and manages a group of BAs with means to anchor
skills (networking competency, place branding
the brand inside the company. Hence, a BAP is charac-
knowledge).
terized by the following attributes:
Rehmet and Dinnie (2013) explored the motivations of
• Goal-oriented: the BAP should increase internal brand ten BAs who participated in a city branding campaign. The
equity (brand knowledge, brand commitment and brand researchers found that the BAs’ benefit-driven motivation
behaviour of employees); is more relevant than altruistic motivation. Additionally,
• Planned program: the BAP should be initiated and the interviewed BAs fulfilled more the role of an infor-
managed and is characterized by explicit organizational mation receiver than the role of an active message sender
settings (structure and process); and in their own networks. Hence, the two researchers
Strengthening internal brand equity with brand ambassador programs: development and testing…

recommended more interactions with the BAs in order to organizational levels (political and cultural resistance). The
increase benefits for the single BA. literature offers several strategies and tactics to overcome
these barriers (Cummings and Worley 2008), amongst
General theoretical foundations them empathy, support, communication and participation.
A prerequisite of change or the internal anchorage of the
Three general research fields were identified, which are brand is basic acceptance and understanding of the brand.
required for the development of the BAP framework and Xiong et al. (2013) identify employee perceived brand
were divided into three levels, namely the macrolevel, knowledge, brand importance and brand role relevance as
which deals with brand orientation as a BAP background key antecedents of internal brand commitment and equity.
factor, the mesolevel, which delivers information about the On a more tactical level, both literature streams offer
superordinate field of internal brand management and the catalogues of instruments (Burmann and Zeplin 2005;
more general topic of change management, and the Burmann et al. 2009b) and in-depth analysis of single tools.
microlevel, which covers the functions, roles and compe- The most important instruments are: internal and external
tences of the person who acts as BA. communication (Gilly and Wolfinbarger 1998; Swap et al.
2001; Wolfinbarger Celsi and Gilly 2010); HR manage-
Macrolevel: brand orientation ment (Aurand et al. 2005; Punjaisri and Wilson 2007);
leadership (Henkel et al. 2007; Morhart et al. 2009; Val-
The concept of brand orientation as an inside-out approach laster and de Chernatony 2006); internal brand communi-
is a competing strategic orientation for the classical market ties (Devasagayam et al. 2010; Saleem and Iglesias 2016);
orientation (Urde et al. 2013). Specifically, ‘‘brand orien- and artefacts such as brand books and corporate design
tation is an approach in which the process of the organi- guidelines (Henkel et al. 2007). Since a BAP can integrate
zation revolves around the creation, development and all instruments, the literature on tactical tools of internal
protection of brand identity in an ongoing interaction with brand management offers insight into potential success
target customers with the aim of achieving lasting com- factors.
petitive advantages in the form of brands’’ (Urde 1999, Considering the outcome of internal branding, the lit-
p. 119). This relatively new concept is characterized by erature offers different models and categorizations: single
focussing on brands as resources and a strategic platform performance measurements such as brand commitment
(Urde 1994, 1999). Baumgarth (2009, 2010; similar: Sch- (King and Grace 2012) and brand identification (Löhndorf
midt et al. 2015) broadens this view and interprets brand and Diamantopoulos 2014); and summary approaches such
orientation as a specification of corporate culture. A brand- as the buy-in-framework (Thomson et al. 1999) and inter-
oriented company can be described by its brand-driven nal brand equity (Baumgarth and Schmidt 2010). Corre-
values, norms, symbols and behaviours. Conceptual spondingly, the goal of a BAP is to increase those
(Hankinson 2001) as well as empirical research (Baum- measures.
garth and Schmidt 2010) shows the positive impact of
brand orientation on the employee’s involvement and Microlevel: WoM, opinion leader, change agent and brand
internal brand equity. evangelist

Mesolevel: internal brand and change management The microlevel encompasses personal communication and
the person who serves as a BA. Different research streams
A BAP can be interpreted as a specific type of change such as word-of-mouth communication (Godes and May-
management project and as an instrument of internal brand zlin 2004; Katz and Lazarsfeld 1955; Richins and Root-
management. On a strategic level, change management Shaffer 1988), opinion leaders (Rogers 2003; Valente and
research pinpoints the relevance of different phases of Davis 1999), change agents (Buchanan and Badham 1999)
change management. On the basis of the three classical and brand evangelists or fans (Pimentel and Reynolds
phases of unfreezing, movement and refreezing (Lewin 2004) confirm the superiority of personal communication
1951), authors have developed phase models of change with peers in comparison with top-down communication
(Beverland and Lindgreen 2007; Kotter 1996). Internal from leaders to the workforce, or the use of medial com-
brand management literature also recommends a phase- munication. These findings are motivation for the imple-
oriented approach (Davis and Dunn 2002). One major mentation of a BAP. For deduction of the BAP framework,
challenge of change management projects, as well as it is more relevant that this research field analyses the
internal brand management, is overcoming resistance to attributes (competences, motives) of a powerful BA, which
change (Piderit 2000; Strebel 1996), which can be divided is relevant for the general selection of BAs. Important
into personal (anxiety, low motivation, missing trust) and attributes are: (1) brand identification, motivation,
 H. J. Schmidt, C. Baumgarth

commitment and ‘‘buy-in’’ (Becerra and Badrinarayanan phases. Finally, element G represents the outcome of a
2013; de Matos and Rossi 2008; Rehmet and Dinnie 2013; BAP and, therefore, is not a potential success factor.
Thomson et al. 1999); (2) extraversion and openness (Doss Potential measurements could be satisfaction with the BAP
and Carstens 2014; Hennig-Thurau et al. 2004); (3) (top management), as well as the final performance (in-
sociability and good at involving others (Doss 2014); and crease of internal brand equity).
(4) self-enhancement (Sundaram et al. 1998). On the basis of this framework and the mentioned lit-
Finally, this research field mentions the relevance of the erature, Table 1 summarizes a list of 25 potential success
‘‘right’’ method to identify BAs and the necessity for factors.
training and support (Cummings and Worley 2008; Valente
and Pumpuang 2007).
Life insurance company ‘‘BetterLife’’
Preliminary BAP success factor model
Methodological approach
In order to structure the potential success factors of BAPs,
a framework was developed (see Fig. 1) that, based on the The research goal sought to evaluate, generalize and pos-
BAP-specific literature (‘‘Review of BAP-specific litera- sibly improve the preliminary BAP success factor model
ture’’ section) and the general theoretical foundations and to develop a corresponding model that could serve as a
(‘‘General theoretical foundations’’ section), features seven point of reference for the future design of such programs in
elements (elements A to G). practice. It was decided to use case study research. The
Element A covers all background factors such as cor- study relied on a single object of analysis, which should
porate culture, C-level and brand management. These serve as a critical case to determine whether the proposi-
factors have an indirect and supporting impact on the tions the preliminary BAP framework were correct, or
success of the BAP. The elements B-D are the BAP whether alternative explanations could make more sense
characteristics. Element B pinpoints the role of the BAP (Yin 2014). This implies that the research focused on
coordinator. Element C describes the design of the BAP. implementation of a BAP in one single company, which,
Element D covers the traits and tasks of the BA. Element E for reasons of anonymity, will be called BetterLife. Bet-
incorporates the target groups of the BAP, middle man- terLife was chosen because the researchers had direct
agement, as well as the complete workforce. Element F access to its management, knew the company and its cul-
emphasizes that a BAP is a dynamic process with different ture and hence had useful insider information, which could

C-level A
Brand ambassadors
Corporate culture

Target groups (middle

(including internal brand management)

management
and employees)

G
Outcomes

A
Brand management

B C Program
Coordinator design

F
Installation Diffusion Routine

Fig. 1 BAP framework

Strengthening internal brand equity with brand ambassador programs: development and testing…

Table 1 Potential success factors of BAP

Potential success factor Explanation Theoretical foundation

A. Background factors
Corporate culture A brand-oriented corporate culture supports the acceptance of the brand Macrolevel*
concept in the whole company and increases the internal support of the
BAP by top- and middle management
Brand management Internal, as well as external brand management supports the brand Causon (2004) and mesolevel*
orientation indirectly and the BAP directly
C-level The C-level is responsible for the support of the BAP coordinator and the Causon (2004), Ind (2007) and
BAP’s power and resources. Furthermore, charismatic leadership could mesolevel*
increase the brand orientation, and hence acceptance and enthusiasm for
the BAP
B. Coordinator
Expertise in brand The coordinator should be equipped with profound expertise in strategies Anderson and Ekman (2009)
management and brand and techniques of brand management, as well as brand values
knowledge
Internal power and network The coordinator is in need of a high level of internal (formal or informal) Anderson and Ekman (2009)
capabilities power and capabilities to build and maintain internal networks
C. Program design
Controlling A BAP should formulate clear and measureable goals. Also, monitoring Anderson and Ekman (2009)
these goals at different stages of the BAP could be an important building
block
Resources A BAP should be supported by an adequate and explicit formulated budget Causon (2004) and Ind (2007)
Selection of BA The BA should be selected by a deliberate process, based on explicit Microlevel*
requirements and not by chance
Identification and removal At the beginning and throughout the whole BAP, identification and removal Mesolevel*
of resistances of organizational and personal resistances are pivotal
Enduring motivation of the During the whole BAP, the BA’s motivation should be high because of Anderson and Ekman (2009) and
BA communication and pride Rehmet and Dinnie (2013)
Training and support of the The BA should be trained and supported at the beginning and throughout the Microlevel*
BA BAP
Interaction with the BA In order to maintain motivation and to use critical feedback as an instrument Rehmet and Dinnie (2013)
in order to improve the BAP, a vertical, as well as a horizontal interaction,
is necessary
Symbols and artefacts Artefacts such as badges, certificates and brand books communicate the Mesolevel*
brand relevance on a symbolic level, as well as brand meaning and
importance of the BA
D. Brand ambassadors
Credibility within the BAs should have high credibility amongst their own networks Causon (2004) and Ind (2007)
organization
Initiative and creativity BAs should not only be senders of brand information, but should also be Anderson and Ekman (2009) and
creative and proactive shapers of the BAP and brand management Ind (2007)
Motivation of others BAs should have skills to involve and motivate their peers Ind (2007) and microlevel*
Deep understanding of the BAs need a deep understanding of brand positioning and brand values Anderson and Ekman (2009) and
brand Ind (2007)
Brand identification BAs should voluntarily identify with the brand Microlevel*
Extraversion and openness BAs should be extroverts Microlevel*
E. Target groups
Segmentation The target groups should be segmented in accordance with closeness to the Davis and Dunn (2002)
customer. A BAP should focus on employees having direct customer
contact
Participation Communication with target groups should not only be a one-direction Mesolevel*
approach, but a two-way and participative communication approach
Brand knowledge The target groups should have a basic understanding of brand management Mesolevel*
and the brand’s values
Brand relevance Mesolevel*
 H. J. Schmidt, C. Baumgarth

Table 1 continued
Potential success factor Explanation Theoretical foundation
The target groups should recognize the relevance of the brand for the
company’s success
Brand role relevance The target groups should recognize the role of all employees and their own Mesolevel*
role in the brand’s success
F. Time
Phase orientation A BAP should be organized in different stages because the number of BAs, Causon (2004), Davis and Dunn
knowledge, motivation, and resistances change (2002) and mesolevel*
* Macro-, meso- and microlevel and corresponding literature are discussed in ‘‘General theoretical foundations’’ section

be helpful for data interpretation. It posed an ideal situation The researchers followed an epistemological interpre-
to obtain access to critical data and unpublished informa- tivist position, which judged the research quality based on
tion for a post hoc examination of BetterLife’s BAP its confirmability, credibility, transferability and depend-
(Lindgreen et al. 2012). The authors wanted to find out ability (Beverland and Lindgreen 2010). Building on this,
more about the decision of this company to implement a research quality was ensured in various ways: conforma-
BAP, to understand why it was taken, how the BAP was bility was given by considering multiple perspectives,
implemented, and what results were achieved (Schramm using two different coders, discussing findings with infor-
1971). mants, using general questions (‘‘grand tour’’; Lindgreen
To assess a case that is as specific as this one requires et al. 2012, p. 13) to allow the informant control and
highly heterogeneous data (Cova and Pace 2006), and building on the trust between the informant and the
researchers recommend in-depth data collection, ‘‘involv- researchers. Credibility was achieved by triangulation,
ing multiple sources of information rich in context’’ using various data sources, informants and methods. The
(Creswell 1998, p. 61). Therefore, multiple means of data emergent findings were reviewed by informants. Trans-
collection were used. As suggested by Yin (2014), the ferability can be claimed because the case provided only
BetterLife case study considered different sources (see some additional information for the BAP framework, as
Table 2). most of the information that was needed to develop the
The generated data were carefully analysed in five updated BAP success factor model emerged from the
phases: first, the sources of evidence were broadly explored preliminary BAP success factor model, which was based
by both authors of this article individually in order to on a broad literature analysis. Lastly, the findings did not
understand the case in a holistic and detailed manner. depend on time and place: multiple entries to the site of
Second, the researchers met to discuss their first impres- interest were used, and informants were asked to reflect on
sions of the case and the general adaptability of it to the current and past practices.
BAP framework (see ‘‘Preliminary BAP success factor
model’’ section). Open questions that resulted from the Case description
discussion were defined and sent to the responsible man-
agers of BetterLife. Third, both researchers individually BetterLife is a major and internationally well-known entity
analysed the now complete data. A content analysis was in the finance and insurance industry and has millions of
conducted, considering the 25 potential success factors and clients. It operates mainly in North American and European
the material. At this point, the main insights of the case markets. The analysis focused on the BAP, which was
were assigned to the model’s elements. Findings that did implemented in one of the multiple country organizations
not correspond with the framework were individually of BetterLife in 2010. With around 500 employees at the
marked. In the fourth step, the researchers compared their end of 2015, BetterLife can be considered as a challenger
findings and made a common decision to support, drop or in the market, while its market share is below the market
add success factors to the model. Finally, in the last and average, and brand awareness is below that of most com-
fifth step, and as proposed by Yin (2014), the case petitors. This is, inter alia, owing to the fact that BetterLife
description and the most important conclusions were dis- began its operations within this country long after others—
cussed with BetterLife representatives. the country of interest is not the home market of BetterLife,
and this specific market can be characterized by multiple
Strengthening internal brand equity with brand ambassador programs: development and testing…

Table 2 Sources of evidence

Sources of evidence Sources

Interviews Interviewee A: Female manager from the Marketing and Product Management department; younger than
40 years; joined the company in 2007; had been engaged with the BAP from the first day; interviewed via
telephone
Interviewee B: Director Marketing and Product Management; male; younger than 60 years; joined the antecessor
of BetterLife in 1996; written interview after the researchers had talked to him personally about the research
goals
Interviewee C: Former Managing Director of BetterLife; male; over 60 years old; joined the company in 2000;
agreed to establish the program and supported it for about 5 years before retiring; personal, semi-structured
face-to-face interview
Interviewee D: Head of Brand Communication and Sponsoring who also served as program coordinator since the
introduction of the BAP in 2010; female; younger than 50 years; joined BetterLife in 2001; she was first
interviewed via e-mail, open points were then discussed in a telephone interview in which she also critically
reviewed the written case
Additional open questions were discussed with Interviewee A and D on an ongoing basis via e-mail
Documentation and archival Official timelines of the program
records Job description and checklists for BAs
E-mails to new BAs
Agendas and minutes of meetings of the management board and for BA training
Screenshots of the area that was reserved for BAs in BetterLife’s intranet
Presentations and welcome e-mails for new employees
Results of a survey of brand ambassadors and senior management in the form of a PowerPoint presentation to the
board of management (program evaluation)
General employee survey–2010 (the latest available survey)
Physical artefacts BetterLife’s brand folder with all its content
BetterLife’s homepage
Pictures of branded giveaways that were handed over to new employees by the BAs
Poster for the initial recruitment of BAs
Certificate of honour for BAs
Participant observation Participation in three BA meetings and observation of BAs’ interactions and discussions
Participation in one management board meeting, where the BAP was discussed
General observations when interacting with BetterLife’s representatives

strong local players. Furthermore, when we mention Bet- the BAs. A job description was distributed throughout the
terLife, we refer to the corresponding country organization. company. The job advertisement described the required
The Director of Marketing and Product Management competencies and tasks and mentioned that they would
presented the idea of a BAP to the Board of Directors in receive a 1.5 training day in respect of their new tasks.
2009, and they decided to implement the program rela- Candidates were encouraged to apply for the new addi-
tively independent of headquarters and the marketing team. tional role via their manager, who then forwarded the
Following approval, a program coordinator was named, application to the Marketing and Communications depart-
and this part time role was assigned to the Head of Brand ment. For any additional information, candidates could
Communication and Sponsoring, who took care of it contact the Marketing and Communications department
besides her daily job. Furthermore, it was decided to link directly. It was clear that the BAs had to fulfil their future
the introduction of the BAP to an internal campaign, which role in addition to their current responsibilities.
focused on celebrating an important milestone of Bet- The BAs were selected in mid-2010. Most of them
terLife’s history. The campaign with the headline, ‘‘This is applied by choice, while some of them were asked by their
us’’, began early in 2010 with a motivational letter from the managers to do so. Training took place shortly after
management board to the employees, and an introduction recruitment, where topics such as ‘‘what is a brand’’, ‘‘what
of the planned tasks in senior management meetings. does our brand stand for’’ and ‘‘how can we connect our
Within the next weeks, the recruitment process began for brand strategy with the day-to-day-experience of our
 H. J. Schmidt, C. Baumgarth

employees’’ were discussed. Furthermore, the BAs were history of the insurance industry and BetterLife; a folder
introduced to material that they could use when facilitating with basic rules of the brand; a folder that explained the
a similar workshop with their team members. On returning logo and its use; and a short introduction of the BA
home, they had the necessary skills to hold a similar, but responsible for the new employees’ team.
shorter session with their peers. In those sessions, they During 2012, the motto of the formal internal brand-
collected employees’ proposals on what management and related campaign changed from ‘‘This is us’’ to ‘‘You are
employees themselves could do to strengthen the brand. BetterLife’’. More important for the BAP was that some
The coordinator summarized and presented results of those structural decisions were taken, namely:
workshops to the management board. Simultaneously, the
• Each year began with a formal meeting of all BAs,
campaign continued with different actions such as visual-
which was facilitated by the coordinator. Usually, a
izing the brand at the two major subsidiaries within the
member of the board also participated in that meeting.
country. At the end of 2010, the company gathered all its
The first yearly kick-off meeting took place in January
employees during a 2-day-event, which included speeches,
2012. The coordinator reflected on the past year, while
interactive presentations and other activities that centred on
celebrating the year’s successes and determining new
the idea to celebrate the rich and successful history of the
tasks, which were identified by the process that is
company, and to connect with the brand emotionally. Here,
described in the following two points;
the BAP was explained and the BAs were introduced to all
• Each year adopted a specific theme that helped the BAs
employees. The event closed with a hand-out of the new
to focus on an area of improvement. In the yearly kick-
brand manual. In 2011, which was the first ‘‘regular’’ year
off meeting, the BAs provided input according to that
for the BAP, there were between 25 and 30 BAs, and in the
theme and proposed concrete brand-related measures.
following years up to 2016, the number varied between 22
In 2012, the theme was ‘‘transparency’’, which is one of
and 31. Participants came from different hierarchies, and
BetterLife’s brand values;
all four BetterLife subsidiaries, as well as the major
• The BAs proposals were collected by the coordinator
departments, were represented.
and discussed at the next board meeting. The board
The motto ‘‘This is us’’ continued to be used from 2011
members decided, which proposal would be chosen;
to communicate all brand-related issues to employees.
• To ensure ongoing communication between the coor-
Within the BAP, the work of the BAs was characterized by
dinator and the BAs, monthly TelCos were introduced
discussions within five task forces, which focused on
and conducted between the coordinator and the ‘‘Main
brand-related topics within the areas of technology, train-
BAs’’ (see next point). Additionally, local BA meet-
ing, internal communications, brand awareness and inno-
ings, facilitated by the responsible ‘‘Main BA’’, were
vation. Until August, this work was informal, but a lot of
established;
focus was placed on the BAs by a special issue of Bet-
• The structure of the BA program was optimized: the
terLife’s internal journal that was dedicated to report about
BAs were divided into ‘‘Main BAs’’ and ‘‘Regular
the BAP. In August, all BAs met to discuss how the sug-
BAs’’. The former ones were responsible for the
gestions that resulted from the last year’s workshops with
coordination of all brand-related activities at one of
employees have been or could be implemented. Addition-
the three subsidiaries of BetterLife, while the latter
ally, the BAs’ tasks were more formally defined. It was
were in charge of the local team in which they worked;
agreed that BAs should be:
and
• Motivators for the brand; • The tasks of the BAs were integrated into their personal
• The first contact point for colleagues in all brand- score cards.
related matters;
During 2013 and 2016, no major structural changes were
• Observers of general brand awareness;
made. The BAs followed their regular tasks, but also
• Carriers of brand-related information to and from
contributed under the supervision of the coordinator to
external stakeholders; and
specific brand-related projects such as analysis of brand
• In permanent contact and discussion with other BAs.
touch points, improvements in internal communications
A corresponding checklist was developed that helped (e.g. employees’ use of social media) and development of a
the BAs to evaluate whether they fulfilled all BA tasks sponsoring concept. The BAP is still in place today. At the
properly. At the end of 2011, the Marketing Department end of December 2016, the program was based on the
developed a starter kit for new employees, which would be shoulders of 27 BAs who had an average job tenure of
distributed by the BAs. This starter kit contained several 7.8 years.
branded giveaways and included the following: a brief
Strengthening internal brand equity with brand ambassador programs: development and testing…

Findings before 2015 that BetterLife invested in an external adver-

tising campaign.
The following paragraphs present the BAP framework and The support of the C-Level was defined as the third
the corresponding success factors that emerged from the background factor within the BAP model. Interestingly,
sources of evidence that were used. New insights are also before the BAP was established at BetterLife, the man-
discussed. agement board participated in a brand management work-
shop. In the following years, as stated by Interviewee D,
Background factors the key activities of the BAs were also regularly discussed
by the board. The BAP coordinator received strong support
Within the BAP model, brand orientation was defined as from the executive team and, reflecting on this, perceived
one of three background factors. Interviewee B stated that this support as being important. Also, Interviewee C told
the brand is a major success factor within BetterLife’s the researchers that the BAP was broadly supported by top
markets, and Interviewee C attributed ‘‘tremendous management, while he also supported it. Interviewee B
importance’’ to the brand. The above statements support stated that he personally supported the program by pro-
the idea that the brand is seen to be of major value. Clearly viding it with his own time and presence, with further
defined brand values, which are described in BetterLife’s human resources and a budget. Since both are members of
brand book and even on its homepage, serve as norms for BetterLife’s C-Level, there was evidence that this back-
brand management. Symbols of BetterLife’s brand can be ground factor was influential. Additionally, in all the
found everywhere within the company, and many of them researchers’ contact with BetterLife’s top management
are included in the welcome package for new employees. representatives, there was evidence of a high degree of
Brand-related behaviour can be observed, for example, appreciation for the program. Nevertheless, the researchers
when BetterLife regularly analyses its brand awareness and had no reason to believe that the top managers were
image. Another example of brand-oriented behaviour is exceptionally charismatic, or that they performed a trans-
that the company uses its brand values within its slogan. formational leadership approach, which is contradictory to
Overall, there was evidence that BetterLife is a brand- the preliminary BAP model.
oriented company.
In the BAP framework, the researchers argue that a Brand ambassador program
systematic approach to brand management is required
when implementing a BAP. Systematic means that brand- In the preliminary BAP framework, the following elements
related decisions are not solely taken on the basis of a gut are named to be of key interest: the coordinator, the pro-
feeling, but that it follows a certain thought-out practice. gram design, the brand ambassadors themselves and the
Such a practice, for example, can be seen in the use of a group of middle management and employees. Concerning
brand management model, which is offered by various the program coordinator, the organization of the BAP was
authors regarding the identity school brand management, placed in the hands of the Head of Brand Communications,
amongst others (Burmann et al. 2009a, b; Keller 2001). who enjoyed a strong marketing background and a long
Internal branding includes all actions that engage and history within the company: before she joined BetterLife,
inspire employees to deliver the brand promise (King and she began her career working for an advertising agency. At
Grace 2008). the start of the BAP, still young of age, she could already
During analysis of this case study, the researchers look back to about 12 years in the insurance industry, and
learned that BetterLife followed a brand identity approach. about 10 years at BetterLife. It seemed that she could rely
Interviewee C mentioned that everything that they com- on a strong favourable reputation and network within the
municate to the outside must be in line with the company’s company, which could partly be owing to the fact that she
reality internally, which is in line with a major assumption was one of the first employees who was hired when Bet-
of the identity school. He also said that a major task for all terLife entered the market. The researchers observed that
employees and, more specifically, for the BAs, is to check she also enjoyed a high level of internal acceptance and
whether the promises of the brand are grounded within the was committed and motivated. Her personal scorecard
company. Furthermore, BetterLife followed an inside-out- included her responsibilities as program coordinator, and
approach, which is a major building block of the identity therefore, according to her, she always had enough time to
based view by first defining their brand identity and com- fulfil this role. In line with this, Interviewee C strongly
municating it to their employees (also with the help of the recommended that a program coordinator should always
BAP), and then, in a second step, to communicate the have a marketing background.
brand to the outside world via marketing communications: As far as the program design is concerned, the existence
though the BAP was already established in 2010, it was not of clear goals and measurements was mentioned to be a
 H. J. Schmidt, C. Baumgarth

success factor. However, the researchers did not perceive had access to a three page document, namely the job
this to be clear, as Interviewee C said that concrete description, which clearly described the BAs’ tasks and
objectives were not defined in the beginning. On the con- monthly workloads in the form of hours for the duties. The
trary, Interviewee B stated that goals were to focus the document stated that BAs should be a motivator for the
company on its brand and to render the brand consistently brand and should be the contact person for colleagues who
from the internal to the external world. Nevertheless, the have questions about the brand. Furthermore, the job
program was evaluated in 2015 by asking general questions description was accompanied by a checklist, which the BA
to managers and BAs about their personal perceptions of could use to evaluate his own performance against his
the program. It must be said that within the evaluation, responsibilities. Of course, this was a prerequisite for being
there was a comment that the program would need more able to fulfil the job description is the corresponding time.
clearly defined goals. When evaluating the program, the BAs openly criticized
Considering resources, only in the year of its introduc- that they lacked the time to engage more with the program.
tion did the BAP have its own budget. In the following Furthermore, the program coordinator and/or the BAs
years, the costs of the program were credited against the had access to professional tools that had been specifically
overall marketing budget. As mentioned before, an explicit developed for them. Marketing provided PowerPoint pre-
time budget was not available. Considering the recruitment sentations about the brand and a brand-related starter
of BAs, the process of selecting them was thoughtful when package for new employees. There was a special space on
the program was introduced in 2010: potential candidates the intranet, which was reserved for the BAs, where they
could apply via their team managers and were finally could share information, chat about the latest brand-related
selected following synchronization between the coordina- news or discuss concrete actions.
tor and the team managers. The job advertisement descri- Analysing the brand ambassadors themselves, there are
bed the ideal candidate as being open minded and several factors from the preliminary framework, which
enthusiastic. He/she was expected to have fun, while being require discussion. Assessing the credibility of the BAs
progressive, identifying themselves with the mission within BetterLife, the researchers found at least one com-
statement of BetterLife and being eager to contribute even ment amongst the program’s evaluation, which indicated
more than in the past to the team’s success. Once the first that, in the past, BA’s sometimes carried out their tasks in
BAs were selected, they received intensive training. Pre- an extreme manner, which was felt to be odd and far-
sently, the proposal to replace a BA with a new candidate is fetched. This is partly connected to the high level of
made by the team manager himself, usually after consul- motivation and buy-in on the part of the BAs: most of
tation with the team members, who then involve the them, according to the evaluation in 2015, regarded the
coordinator. As described earlier, new BAs are personally BAP as something that was important for the overall suc-
welcomed by the program coordinator and obtain imme- cess of the company, were proud to be in their current role
diate access to brand management documents (e.g. the and reported a high degree of motivation. The authors
brand book) and other brand-related tools and symbols, but conclude that there is a thin line between inspiring the BAs
they are not trained in the same intense manner as the first and keeping their feet on the ground.
ones. Various opportunities were afforded to the BAs to play
The preliminary success factors include enduring moti- an active role in the program. Though the researchers did
vation of the BAs. Hence, Interviewee A confessed that the not have too much information about the BA’s degree of
emotional activation of BAs was difficult. Contrary to this, taking initiative, it must also be said that, according to a
the program’s evaluation, as well as the researchers’ per- comment in the program evaluation, some BAs perceived
sonal experiences when participating in BA meetings, that they are only used to forward information instead of
showed a high level of motivation. A source of the moti- being proactive. The researchers were also not able to
vation may have been the high level of interaction of the evaluate the BAs’ abilities to involve others. Furthermore,
executive team and the coordinator with the BAs, and the the researchers’ participation in BA meetings only partially
interaction between the BAs: the program was designed in supported the idea that BAs are extroverts by nature.
a way so that the BAs continuously had a chance to net- The researchers were also not sure if the BAs firmly
work within the company. They could not only meet their believed in the theories of brand management and fully
peers at the regular annual meetings, but were also understood what they mean, but at least, in the training
involved in presentations at board meetings and at local workshop for the first BAs in 2011, general brand man-
entities. Interviewee C pointed out that the role of a BA agement theories were discussed.
could even speed up one’s career.
The authors also discovered a potential success factor,
which they did not mention in the BAP model: the authors
Strengthening internal brand equity with brand ambassador programs: development and testing…

Target groups Though the researchers did not have access to surveys
that analysed employees’ acceptance of the BAP who were
According to the list of potential success factors, target not officially involved, overall, they perceived that the
groups should be segmented according to closeness to the program was well received: Interviewee B stated that the
customer. This was not evident in the case study. Con- overall acceptance of the program within the company was
trarily, the program first centred on the idea to implement good. Notwithstanding, the researchers perceived that he
projects, which would enhance the internal brand experi- may have misinterpreted the general tune: one manager
ence. But in line with the researchers’ argument, a lot of stated that the BAP was smiled at, while another said that
emphasis was placed on involving the internal target people could not identify with it. Due to the opinions of
groups: occasionally, managers were invited to the annual some managers, there were also employees who perceived
BA meetings. Besides this, managers and employees could the BAP as a marketing program that followed the task to
participate in workshops that were organized by BAs and sell the brand inside. Interviewee D stated that, corre-
contributed to some of the projects. spondingly to what she said about the middle managers,
However, the researchers did not receive any informa- employees’ acceptance strongly depended on perceived
tion about the brand knowledge and perceived the brand improvements for their own working group.
relevance of middle managers and employees. Concerning
the acceptance of the BAP amongst middle management, Phases
the researchers received biased information: Interviewee C
said that, overall, the BAP received plenty of support from The preliminary framework proposed that a BAP incor-
managers. Interviewee D pointed out that the acceptance porated different phases. The results of the analysis support
strongly depended on the concrete value, which was per- this idea: when the BAP was introduced at BetterLife, the
ceived by the manager for his own area of influence, as BAs were able to shape the program. They worked on their
well as on the perceived qualifications of the local BA. own job descriptions, proposed projects and, therefore, at
More specifically, all managers who participated in the least in some way, influenced the overall program struc-
program evaluation rated the importance of the BAP, in ture. This was not the case anymore after the introduction
terms of the overall success of the company, as being phase. It also seems that enthusiasm for the BAP has
somewhere in the middle of a 4-point scale from unim- declined over time: Interviewee B, for example, admitted
portant to very important. One manager said that it would that after some years there appeared to be increasing crit-
be more urgent to improve the external image than to work icism and rejection of the BAP. In the evaluation one
on internal issues, hence the common understanding that in manager stated the following: ‘‘It (the BAP) was great
brand management, external activities are more important during the 10 year campaign, but I am not sure if the role
than internal ones. Interestingly, according to further of brand ambassador is necessary anymore …’’ In line with
results of the evaluation, most BAs at BetterLife perceived this, Interviewee A said that people were naturally more
that their managers supported them adequately to fulfil euphoric in the beginning than some time after imple-
their roles, but many of them also stated that they could mentation of the program. Interviewee D supported this
not, or seldom participated in taking brand-related deci- view and asserted that after about 5 years, in the so-called
sions. This was mirrored by the managers’ answers: the phase of stagnation, people perceived that everything was
results indicated that managers are likely to assign working said and done. She argued that a company permanently
time to BAs, but that they are not keen to involve them in experiences change and that, therefore, a BAP must change
the decision-making process, even if the brand is con- accordingly and must incorporate evolving company goals.
cerned. Since it is clearly defined in BetterLife’s job Interviewee C proposed the idea that a BAP should con-
description for the BAs that it is not their task to replace tinuously be adjusted over time and can be characterized by
team leaders or managers, but to support them in brand- changing intensity.
related activities, this was not surprising. The researchers Additionally, the authors found support for the idea that
conclude that, generally, in BA programs, the question of a BAP should be implemented at a favourable point in
how much influence can be given to BAs—especially in time. At BetterLife, a survey in 2010 showed that
demarcation to managers who officially possess decision employees broadly identified with the company and its
power—is a central one, while the degree of authority mission statement. Together with the fact that BetterLife
given to the BAs can be a source of dissatisfaction on both celebrated a big birthday in 2010 and the introduction of
sides. Therefore, it was not surprising that Interviewee B the BAP was linked to this milestone, this may also have
said that the key success factor for such a program is to get contributed to the overall success of the program, accord-
the managers ‘‘on the boat’’. Interviewee C called this a ing to Interviewee D.
golden rule.
 H. J. Schmidt, C. Baumgarth

Outcomes anchorage of the brand inside the company, this paper

discussed the BAP as a concrete tool. The findings show
Though the researchers generally thought that the BAP at some new insights: firstly, a BAP is not an isolated
BetterLife was successful in directly improving internal instrument of internal brand management, but its impact
brand equity and indirectly adding to a positive brand depends on background factors such as brand orientation,
perception through external stakeholders, they did not have brand management, as well as the C-level support. Sec-
numbers to prove this: BetterLife did not measure internal ondly, the success of a BAP is based on a combination of
brand equity or overall brand strength before and after the specific characteristics of the coordinator, the program
implementation of the BAP. When asked for the main design, the BAs, as well as the target groups. Thirdly, BAP
effects of the BAP on the internal (employees) and external is not a static program, but a dynamic and phase-oriented
environments (customers), Interviewee B stated that the approach. The derived BAP model, with 31 potential suc-
BAP helped to increase the team spirit and to involve cess factors, supports the planning and implementation of
employees in the brand-building process. He said that the BAPs, as well as the monitoring of ongoing and the
understanding of customer needs and expectations had reflection of completed BAPs.
grown and that the brand was more visible. Interviewee A
stated that the program was successful and that the impact Management implications
was positive for all stakeholders. He also argued that the
internal improvements that were encouraged by the BAs There are various practical implications, which can be
indirectly improved the company’s standing within its derived from this research paper. Most importantly, the
market. following three areas of interest can be identified: firstly,
So far, the BAP has not served as a blueprint for when considering implementation of a BAP, the model
implementation within other country organizations of does not only provide a holistic overview of the necessary
BetterLife. But in the market in focus, the CEO decided to steps and phases, but also, in the sense of a universal
extend and relaunch the program during 2016. blueprint, offers specific and concrete recommendations
that can be derived from every single identified success
Updated BAP success factor model factor (e.g. person of the coordinator, favourable charac-
teristics of the BAs). Secondly, the framework can be used
Table 3 shows, which elements of the preliminary frame- to monitor the BAP during its implementation and fol-
work could or could not be confirmed in the BetterLife case lowing its possible termination. Monitoring can be done by
study, and provides new aspects that were not considered in an internal auditing team, which evaluates the program
the preliminary model, and proposes a final list of BAP with the help of the success factors. Thirdly, the model can
success factors. support internal communication. Confronted with the
framework, new managers and employees, in particular,
can quickly grasp the purpose and objectives of a BAP.
Conclusion It must also be mentioned that the research revealed at
least four general areas of conflict that practitioners should
Summary and research implications be aware of when implementing a BAP. The relationship
between managers without any specific role within the
The authors believe to their best knowledge that this program and the BAs will be one of those four. Their
research paper is the first that empirically analyses the dissimilar information levels and abilities to influence daily
concept of BAPs in a business context. The derived success business bear room for mutual misunderstandings. This
factor model makes a significant impact on internal brand highlights a second point that needs consideration: BAs
management literature. Most importantly, it brings to our that are enthusiastic about their role could overemphasize
attention that instruments of internal branding are rarely the importance of the program. A third possible area of
successful when used in an isolated context. On the con- conflict is presented by the need for a BAP’s clearly
trary, background factors such as the support of the defined structure and precise goals and, at the same time, a
C-level, the brand orientation of the company, as well as a certain degree of flexibility, which is required to adapt the
professional brand management, strongly influence the program to the specific needs of an ever changing organi-
effectiveness of BAPs. A further contribution to research zation. A final paradox emerges regarding implementation
on internal brand management is the emphasis on a phase- by two different organizations (similar to Kotter 2012) with
oriented view. different philosophies: the BAP organization (lateral
On the basis of the general insight that the success of communication, network) versus the organization of the
brand management partly depends on the internal daily business (top-down communication, hierarchy).
Strengthening internal brand equity with brand ambassador programs: development and testing…

Table 3 Updated BAP success factor model

Final BAP success factors Comment BetterLife
case

A. Background factors
Brand orientation (formerly: Interview C, the existence of norms documented in a brand model, as well as a several ??
corporate culture) artefacts (e.g. brand book, welcome package), show characteristics of a brand-oriented
corporate culture
Brand management Interview C, the BA training, the corporate design, external communication and actions of ??
brand controlling, prove the existence of professional brand management
C-level Interviews B and C, the brand management workshop for the board and own observations ?
document the support of the BAP by the C-level. However, a charismatic and visionary
leadership was not supported by the case study
B. Coordinator
Expertise in brand management The program coordinator presently has more than 20 years of experience in brand ??
and brand knowledge management and marketing and has worked for BetterLife since 2001
Internal power and network The researchers’ observations showed that the coordinator has a strong intra-company ?
capabilities network, but there was no proof of her internal power
Motivation (new) The researchers’ observations showed high levels of internal motivation for the program ??
coordinator for the BAP
Time (new) The coordinator did not receive a formal time budget that she could spend on her role, but ?
could decide how she spent her working time
C. Program design
Controlling Clear goals and measurements did not exist in the case study, but Interviewees B and C –
formulated this gap and the need for clear purposes
Resources An adequate and explicit formulated budget (money, time) did not exist. The cost of the –
program was credited against the overall marketing budget
Selection of BA Job adverts, which included personal traits, show that the selection process was thoughtful. ??
Later, a clear job description existed, which helped to identify new candidates
Identification and removal of No major resistances could be identified 0
resistances
Enduring motivation of the BA Interviewee A confessed that the emotional activation of BAs was difficult. Results of the ?
program evaluations, as well as the researchers’ personal experiences when participating in
BA meetings, showed high levels of motivation
Training and support of the BA The agenda and minutes of meetings for BA training proved that there have been intensive ??
investments in this field
Interaction with the BA Vertical interaction was supported by BA meetings and a specific online community for ??
BAs. Horizontal interaction was confirmed by interviews C and A
Symbols and artefacts The welcome package and the brand book are examples of symbols that are used in the BAP ??
Clear job descriptions (new) An explicit job description existed. It was formulated by the first BAs themselves ??
Professional tools (new) BAs had access to professional tools (PowerPoint presentations, training guidelines, online ??
community)
D. Brand ambassadors
Credibility within the organization Program evaluation only partially supported the idea that BAs enjoyed high credibility ?
within the organization
Initiatives and creativity Interview C, our participation in BA meetings and selected results from the program ??
evaluation show that BAs showed initiative and possessed an active personality
Motivation of others The researchers did not obtain any information about BAs’ skills to involve and motivate 0
their peers
Deep understanding of the brand Agendas and minutes of the meetings of the initial BA training sessions showed that at least ?
the first BAs should have had a deep understanding of the brand positioning and brand
values. Mails to new BAs with corresponding information and the brand book served as
additional sources for the brand values
Brand identification Program evaluation and the researchers’ participation in BA meetings showed a picture of ??
BAs who highly identified with the brand on a voluntary basis
Extroversion and openness The researchers’ participation in BA meetings only partially supported the idea that BAs are ?
extroverts
 H. J. Schmidt, C. Baumgarth

Table 3 continued
Final BAP success factors Comment BetterLife
case

E. Target groups
Participation Managers and employees could participate in workshops that were organized by BAs and ??
contributed to some of the projects. Managers were occasionally invited to the annual BA
meetings
Brand knowledge There was no information available about the target groups’ brand knowledge 0
Brand relevance There was no information available about the target groups’ perceived brand relevance 0
Brand role relevance There was no information available about the target groups’ perceived brand role relevance 0
Acceptance of the BAP (new) Interviews B and C, as well as selected results from the program evaluations, showed a high ??
(but declining) acceptance of the BAP within the organization
F. Time
Phase orientation Results from interviews B and C suggest that a BMP should be handled differently within ??
different phases of the program
Adjusted and changing intensity Interviewee C proposed that a BAP should be adjusted over time and can be characterized by ??
(new) changing intensity
Timing of the introduction (new) Interviewee D proposed that the timing of the introduction of a BAP must be carefully ??
chosen
??: strong support; ?: partial support; –: contradiction; 0: no information available
The potential success factor ‘‘segmentation’’ was not included in the final framework. The analysed BA program did not focus on employees who
had direct customer contact

Limitations and further research (e.g. Asia). It may be possible that the lateral approach
BAP is not so efficient in cultures that have a higher power
The study has revealed certain limitations: firstly, the distance (Hofstede 2001). In these cultures, more central
complexity and huge number of identified success factors and top-down approaches of internal branding could be
are a limitation. Future research should try to reduce the more efficient and effective. Thirdly, the researchers had
number of factors and analyse the causal links between the good, but not perfect access to the field. For example, some
most relevant factors in more detail. For example, in a first of the potential success factors regarding the characteristics
step, workshops or a Delphi study (Linstone and Turoff, of the BAs and the target groups could not be analysed in
1975) with managers who have experience in managing the case study. Future research projects should try to close
BAPs could support the identification of the main success the gap by using approaches with stronger ties to the
factors. On this reduced basis, in a second step, a more empirical field (e.g. action research, McNiff and Whitehead
quantitative-based approach with a heterogeneous sample 2011). Lastly, the research study is generally based on the
of companies with BAPs could test and quantify the impact idea of success factor research. This type of research
of the various success factors on output measurements such framework is keenly criticized regarding the method and
as satisfaction with the BAP. Also, a combination of a the content (March and Sutton 1997). Future research
management survey for the measurement of potential should complement this research by implementation of
success factors and an employee survey for the measure- additional empirical master techniques (Kornhauser and
ment of internal brand equity (similar, e.g. Baumgarth and Lazarsfeld 1955) such as experimental research, expert
Schmidt 2010) could provide additional quantitative interviews or surveys.
results. Secondly, the study is based only on one in-depth
case study in one industry (insurance) and on one country
in Europe. Future studies should use the adjusted BAP
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Schmidt, H.J., C. Baumgarth, K.-P. Wiedmann, and F. Lückenbach. Holger J. Schmidt is Full Professor of Marketing and Business
2015. Strategic orientations and the performance of Social Administration at Koblenz University of Applied Sciences. His main
Entrepreneurial Organisations (SEOs): A conceptual model. subjects of research and teaching as well as consulting include brand
Social Business 5(2): 131–155. management, brand orientation, internal branding, strategic manage-
Schramm, W. 1971. Notes on case studies of instructional media ment, technology marketing, empirical methods, social entrepreneur-
projects. Stanford: Stanford University. Working paper no. ship and social businesses. Before his academic career, he worked for
ED092145. consultants, advertising agencies and a global service provider.
Strebel, P. 1996. Why do employees resist change? Harvard Business Professor Schmidt is the author of numerous books and academic
Review 74(3): 86–93. publications.
Sundaram, D.S., K. Mitra, and C. Webster. 1998. Word-of-mouth
communications: A motivational analysis. In NA—Advances in Carsten Baumgarth has been Full Professor of Marketing and Brand
consumer research, vol. 25, ed. J.W. Alba, and J.W. Hutchinson, Management at the Berlin School of Economics and Law (Germany)
527–531. Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research. since 2010. He has published around 300 papers and books with a
Swap, W., D. Leonard, M. Shields, and L. Abrams. 2001. Using focus on brand management, B2B marketing, sustainable marketing,
mentoring and storytelling to transfer knowledge in the work- arts marketing and empirical methods. His work has been published in
place. Journal of Management Information Systems 18(1): Industrial Marketing Management, Journal of Business Research,
95–114. European Journal of Marketing and International Journal of Arts
Thomson, K., L. de Chernatony, L. Arganbright, and S. Khan. 1999. Management amongst others.
The buy-in benchmark: How staff understanding and commit-
ment impact brand and business performance. Journal of
Marketing Management 15(8): 819–835.