Linear Equations In One Variable Class 8 Notes- Chapter 2

In this type of equations, the expressions which are involved in the formation of the equation are
made up of one variable. I.e. the highest power of the variables used in the equations is 1. The
solution to this linear equation can be any rational number. This equation may consist expressions
which are linear on both sides of the equal to sign.
Just like numbers, we can also transpose the variables from one side of the equation to the other
side. The simplification of the equations which was formed by expressions and this can be done by
bringing the equation into a linear form by equating the expression by multiplication using suitable
techniques. Utilization of linear equation can be seen in diverse scenarios such as problems on
numbers, perimeter, ages, currency, and even algebra has linear equations applications.

Solving Linear Equations

Performing Mathematical Operations on Equations
When we are doing mathematical operations on a linear equation, we should do it on both sides of
the equality otherwise the equality won’t hold true.
Suppose,  4x + 3 = 3x +7 is a linear equation. If we want to subtract 3 from the given equation, then
we do it on both sides of the equality, so that the equality holds true.
4x+3−3=3x+7−3
⇒4x=3x+4
Similarly, if we want to multiply or divide the equation, we multiply or divide all the terms on the left
side of the equality and to the right side of the equality by the given number.
Note: we can not multiply or divide the equation by 0.

Solving Equations with Linear Expression on one side and

numbers on the other Side
Suppose we have to find the solution of 2x−3=7, where the linear expression is on the left-hand side,
and numbers on the right-hand side.
Step 1: Transpose all the constant terms from the left-hand side to the right-hand side.
2x=7+3=10⇒2x=10
Step 2: Divide both sides of the equation by the coefficient of the variable.
In the above equation 2x is on the left-hand side. The coefficient of 2x is 2.
On dividing the equation by two, We get:
12 × 2x = 12  × 10
⇒x=102  = 5, Which is the required solution.

Solving Equations with variables on both sides

Suppose we have to solve 3x – 3 = x + 2. In this equation, there are variables on both sides of the
equation.
Step 1: Transpose all the terms with a variable from the right-hand side to the left-hand side of the
equation and all the constants from the left-hand side to the right-hand side of the equation.
3x−x=2+3
⇒2x=5
Step 2: Divide both sides of the equation by the coefficient of the variable.
12 ×2x=12 ×5
⇒x=52

Applications (Word Problems)

Sum of two numbers is 74. One of the numbers is 10 more than the other. What are the numbers?
Let one of the numbers be x.
Then the other number is x + 10.
Given that the sum of the two numbers is 74.
So, x+(x+10)=74
⇒2x+10=74
⇒2x=74−10=64
⇒x=642 =32
One of the number is 32 and the other number is 42.

Questions
Equations Reducible to the Linear Form
Solve: x+12x+3 =38
Multiplying both sides with 2x + 3
⇒x+12x+3 ×(2x+3)=38 ×(2x+3)
⇒x+1=3(2x+3)8
Multiplying both sides with 8
⇒8(x+1)=3(2x+3)
⇒8x+8=6x+9
⇒8x=6x+9−8
⇒8x=6x+1
⇒8x−6x=1
⇒x=12

Reducing Equations to Simpler Form

Simplify the equation 6x+13 +1=x−36 .
6x+13 +1=x−36
⇒6(6x+1)3 +6×1=6(x−3)6   (Multiplying both sides by 6)
⇒2(6x+1)+6=(x−3)
⇒12x+2+6=x−3                     (opening the brackets)
⇒12x+8=x−3
⇒12x−x+8=−3
⇒11x+8=−3
⇒11x=−3−8
⇒11x=−11
⇒x=−1 (required solution)
LHS: 6(−1)+13 +1=−6+13 +1=−53 +33 =−23 RHS: (−1)−36  =−46  =−23 LHS = RHS
Introduction to Linear Equations in One Variable
Variables and Constants
A constant is a value or number that never changes in an expression and it’s constantly the same.
A variable is a letter representing some unknown value. Its value is not fixed, it can take any value.
On the other hand, the value of a constant is fixed.
For example, in the expression 4x+7, 4 and 7 are the constants and x is a variable.

Algebraic Equation
The statement of equality of two algebraic expressions is an algebraic equation. It is of the form
P=Q, where P and Q are algebraic expressions.
6x + 5 and 5x + 3  are algebraic expressions. On equating the algebraic expressions we get an
algebraic equation.
6x + 5 = 5x + 3 is an algebraic equation.

Linear Equations in One Variable

A linear equation is an algebraic equation in which each term is either a constant or the product of
a constant and a single variable, where the highest power of the variable is one.
If the linear equation has only a single variable then it is called a linear equation in one variable.
For example, 7x + 4 = 5x + 8 is a linear equation in one variable.
Understanding Quadrilaterals Class 8 Notes- Chapter 3

What are Quadrilaterals?

Quadrilaterals are one type of polygon which has four sides and four vertices and four angles along
with 2 diagonals. There are various types of quadrilaterals.

Types of Quadrilaterals
The classification of quadrilaterals are dependent on the nature of sides or angles of a quadrilateral
and they are as follows:

 Trapezium
 Kite
 Parallelogram
 Square
 Rectangle
 Rhombus

Trapezium
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with a pair of parallel sides.

Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel and equal.

Rhombus
 A rhombus is a quadrilateral with sides of equal length.
 Since the opposite sides of a rhombus have the same length, it is also a parallelogram.
 The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular bisectors of one another.
Revisiting Geometry
Introduction to Curves
A curve is a geometrical figure obtained when a number of points are joined without lifting the
pencil from the paper and without retracing any portion. It is basically a line which need not be
straight.
The various types of curves are:

 Open curve: An open curve is a curve in which there is no path from any of its point to the
same point.
 Closed curve: A closed curve is a curve that forms a path from any of its point to the same
point.

A curve can be :

 A closed curve

  an open curve

 A closed curve which is not simple

 
Polygons
A simple closed curve made up of only line segments is called a polygon.
Various examples of polygons are Squares, Rectangles, Pentagons etc.
Note:
The sides of a polygon do not cross each other.
For example, the figure given below is not a polygon because its sides cross each other.

Classification of Polygons on the Basis of Number of Sides /

Vertices
Polygons are classified according to the number of sides they have. The following lists the different
types of polygons based on the number of sides they have:

 When there are three sides, it is triangle

 When there are four sides, it is quadrilateral
 When there are fives sides, it is pentagon
 When there are six sides, it is hexagon
 When there are seven sides, it is heptagon
 When there are  eight sides, it is octagon
 When there are nine sides, it is nonagon
 When there are ten sides, it is decagon

Diagonals
A diagonal is a line segment connecting two non-consecutive vertices of a polygon.

In the above figure, PR and QS are the diagonals.

Polygons on the Basis of Shape

Polygons can be classified as concave or convex based on their shape.
  A concave polygon is a polygon in which at least one of its interior angles is greater than
90∘. Polygons that are concave have at least some portions of their diagonals in their
exterior.
 A convex polygon is a polygon with all its interior angle less than 180∘. Polygons that are
convex have no portions of their diagonals in their exterior.

                               Classification of Polygons based on their

shape.

Polygons on the Basis of Regularity

Polygons can also be classified as regular polygons and irregular polygons on the basis of
regularity.

 When a polygon is both equilateral and equiangular it is called as a regular polygon. In a
regular polygon, all the sides and all the angles are equal. Example: Square
 A polygon which is not regular i.e. it is not equilateral and equiangular, is an irregular
polygon. Example: Rectangle

Introduction to Quadrilaterals
Angle Sum Property of a Polygon
According to the angle sum property of a polygon, the sum of all the interior angles of a polygon
is equal to (n−2)×180∘, where n is the number of sides of the polygon.

                               Division of a quadrilateral into

two triangles.

As we can see for the above quadrilateral, if we join one of the diagonals of the quadrilateral, we get
two triangles.
The sum of all the interior angles of the two triangles is equal to the sum of all the interior angles of
the quadrilateral, which is equal to 360 ∘ = (4−2)×180∘.
So, if there is a polygon which has n sides, we can make (n – 2) non-overlapping triangles which
will perfectly cover that polygon.

The sum of the interior angles of the polygon will be equal to the sum of the interior angles of
the triangles = (n−2)×180∘

Sum of Measures of Exterior Angles of a Polygon

The sum of the measures of the external angles of any polygon is 360∘.

Properties of Parallelograms
Elements of a Parallelogram
 There are four sides and four angles in a parallelogram.
 The opposite sides and opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.
 In the parallelogram ABCD, the sides ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯AB and ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯CD are opposite sides and the
sides ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯AB and ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯BC are adjacent sides.
 Similarly, ∠ABC and ∠ADC are opposite angles and  ∠ABC and ∠BCD are adjacent
angles.

Angles of a Parallelogram
The opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.
In the parallelogram ABCD, ∠ABC=∠ADC and ∠DAB=∠BCD.
The adjacent angles in a parallelogram are supplementary.
∴ In the parallelogram ABCD, ∠ABC+∠BCD=∠ADC+∠DAB=180∘

Diagonals of a Parallelogram
The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other at the point of intersection.
In the parallelogram ABCD given below, OA = OC and OB = OD.

Properties of Special Parallelograms

Rectangle
A rectangle is a parallelogram with equal angles and each angle is equal to 90∘.
Properties:

 Opposite sides of a rectangle are parallel and equal.

 The length of diagonals of a rectangle is equal.
 All the interior angles of a rectangle are equal to 90∘.
 The diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other at the point of intersection.

Square
A square is a rectangle with equal sides. All the properties of a rectangle are also true for a
square.
In a square the diagonals:

 bisect one another

 are of equal length
 are perpendicular to one another
Data Handling Class 8 Notes- Chapter 5

What is Data handling?

Data handling is referred to the procedure done to organize the information provided in order to
perform mathematical operations on them.

Pie Charts
A pie chart shows the relationship between a whole circle and its parts. The circle is divided into
sectors. The size of each sector is proportional to the information it represents. Pie charts are
also known as circle graphs.

The above pie chart shows the composition of milk.

Creating Different Pie Charts

For creating a pie chart the following steps needs to be followed:

 For each list of item or activity calculate the fraction or part which it represents.
 Convert each fraction into degrees by multiplying it with 360 ∘.
 Draw a circle and divide it into sectors. The central angle of each sector is equal to the
fraction of 360∘ as calculated above.
 
Amoun
Item Fraction Angle
t
MovieRs. 30 30120=14 30120×360=90∘
Book Rs. 50 50120=512 50120×360=150∘
Food Rs. 40 40120=13 40120×360=120∘
Each sector in the pie chart is proportional to the amount spent for that particular activity or item.

Introduction to Data Handling

Raw Data
Raw data is also known as primary data which is available in an unorganized form.

Pictographs and Bar Graphs

Organisation of Raw Data
Raw data is unorganised. To draw meaningful inferences we organise data. There are various
ways in which we can organise data. For example, we can organise raw data using Frequency
distribution table, Bar graphs etc.

Pictographs
A pictograph is the pictorial representation of data using symbols.
For example, If 10 Apples were sold in January, 40 were sold in February, 25 were sold in March,
and 20 were sold in April. We can represent the given data as a pictograph as given below:

Scale Factor
The scale factor is the ratio of the length of a side of one figure to the length of the
corresponding side of the other figure. The scale factor is used in making maps. The scale of a
map is the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground.

Bar Graphs
A bar graph is a representation of data using a rectangular bars that are having heights that are
proportional to the values that are represented by them.
For example, the bar graph below shows the sale of cars of various brands in the month of April:
 

Multiple Bar Graphs

Multiple bar graphs is a bar graph which is used for comparing more than one kind of information.
Example:
The above figure is a double bar graph. It shows the number of cup of coffees sold in cafes and
canteens for the months January, February, March, April and May, June and July.

Grouped Data
Frequency
Frequency is the number of times that a particular observation/event occurs.

Grouped Frequency Distribution

In a grouped frequency distribution a large amount of raw data is represented by making groups
or class intervals and obtain a frequency distribution of the number of observations falling in
each group.
The marks scored(out of 100) by the students of class 10th are given below:
93,98,87,65,75,77,67,88,67,97,72,73,75,90.
The above data can be represented as a frequency distribution table as:
Marks Frequency
60-70 3
70-80 5
80-90 2
90-1004
Here, 60-70, 70-80, 80-90, 90-100 are the class intervals.
In the class interval 60-70, 60 is the lower limit and 70 is the upper limit.
Class width  or size = upper limit – lower limit
Note:

 The value equal to the upper limit is not included in that class interval. It is included in the
next higher class interval. For example, here in the case of 90, it is not included in the class
interval 80-90, it is included in the class interval 90-100.

Tally Marks
Tally marks are used to represent and count data. In tally marks, one vertical line is made for each
count for the first four numbers and the fifth number is represented by a diagonal line across the
previous four. The table below shows the tally marks for the numbers 1 to 10.

Tally marks representation for 1 to 10

Histogram
A Histogram is a type of bar diagram, where:

 The horizontal axis represent the class intervals.

 The frequency of the class interval is represented by the height of the bars.
 Since there is no gap between the class intervals, there is no gap between the bars.
 Below is the Histogram representing the distribution of marks scored out of 20 by 24
students.

Equally Likely Outcomes

Random Experiment
A random experiment is an experiment for which the outcome cannot be predicted with
certainty. Example: Rolling a dice.
Experiment and Outcomes
An Experiment is any procedure that can be infinitely repeated and has a well-defined set of
possible outcomes, known as the sample space.
Each outcome of an experiment or a collection of outcomes make an event.
For example, rolling of a die is an experiment. Getting 1, 2, 3, or getting even numbers when a die is
rolled is an event.

Equally Likely Outcomes

Equally likely outcomes are those which have the same chance of occurring.
Example: Tossing a coin – the probability of getting a head and probability of getting a tail is equal.

Probability of an Event
Probability is the likelihood of occurrence of an event. An event is a set of outcomes of an
experiment.
When the outcomes of an experiment are equally likely, the probability of an event is given by:
P(E)=numberofoutcomesthatmakeaneventtotalnumberofoutcomesoftheexperiment Outcomes of an
experiment are equally likely if each has the same chance of occurring.

Experimental Probability
When we toss a coin we get only one outcome either a head or a tail. The probability of getting a
head or a tail is 0.5.
However, if a coin is tossed ten times its not necessary that we will get a head five times and a tail
five times.
So, based on what we observe as the outcomes of our trials, we find the experimental or
empirical probability.
Experimental or empirical probability: P(E)=numberoftrialswheretheeventoccurredtotalnumberoftrials
where E is any event.
Comparing Quantities Class 8 Notes: Chapter 8
Comparing Quantities Class 8 Notes given here has been carefully put together by experts to help
students understand all the concepts given in chapter 8 clearly and at the same time allow them to
practice sums effectively. The notes are further designed to help students complete timely revisions
and score better marks in the exams.

Introduction to Fraction and Ratios

Fractions and Ratios
A fraction represents a part of a whole which consists of numerators and denominators and it is
the division of two same quantities.
Eg: 35
Ratio is the comparison of one value to the other or the comparison of two different quantities.
Eg:3:5

Finding the Increase or Decrease in Percent

Finding Increase or Decrease Percentage in Situations
Finding new number, when there is increase in percentage.
New number = original number + (increase in percentage × number)
Ex : The Cost of a mobile phone  is Rs 15,000. Find the new price if there is a increaseof 5%
New price = original price + 5% of original price
New price = 15,000+5100 ×15,000
New price = 15,000+750 = 15,750
Here Rs 750 is increase in the price.
The new number can be found out using,
New number = original number × percentage increase
Ex : New price = 15,000×105÷100=15,000×1.05=15,750
Finding new number, when there is decrease in percentage.
New number = original number – (decrease in percentage × number)
Also, New number = original number × percentage decrease
Ex : The Cost of a mobile phone  is Rs 15,000. Find the new price if there is a decrease of 5%
New price = 15,000×95÷100=15,000×0.95=14,250

Finding Discounts
Finding SP without Finding Discount Percentage
A reduction (decrease) on the marked price is known as discount.
If the discount is given in numbers then it is calculated by
Discount = Marked price – Sale price
If the discount is given in percentage then it is calculated by
Discount = Discount % of Marked price

Finding Discounts
If the discount is given in numbers.
Example : Marked price of a shirt is Rs 535. Its selling price is Rs 495. Find the discount.
Solution : Discount = Marked price – Sale price
Discount = Rs 535 – Rs 495 = Rs 40
If the discount is given in percentage.
Example : A toy priced Rs 500 is available at a discount of 5%. Find the discount.
Solution : Discount = Discount % of Marked price
Discount = 5% of 500=5100  × 500
Discount = Rs 25

Estimation of Amounts (In Percentages)

Estimating amounts when there is a discount or hike on the marked price.
Example : Anil bought a  pair of shoes priced Rs 650, at a discount of 10%. Find the billing amount.
Solution : Billing amount = Marked price – discount
Billing amount = Rs 650−10100 ×650
Billing amount = Rs 650−Rs 65=Rs 585
Example : Shilpa bought a new mobile for Rs 15,000. She has to pay 2% as delivery charges.
Find the billing amount.
Solution : Billing amount = Marked price + Hike
Billing amount = Rs 15,000+2100  × 15000
Billing amount = Rs 15,000+Rs 300=Rs 15,300

Prices Related to Buying and Selling

Prices / Charges Related to Buying and Selling
Profit = Selling price – Cost price
Profit % =ProfitCostprice ×100
Loss = Cost price – Selling price
Loss % =LossCostprice ×100

Finding Prices / Charges Related to Buying and Selling

Example : A shopkeeper sold a T.V priced Rs 12,000 at Rs 13,500. Find his profit percentage.
Profit = Selling price – Cost price
Profit = Rs 13,500−Rs 12,000=Rs 1,500
Profit % =ProfitCostprice ×100
Profit % = 150012000 ×100=12.5%
Example : Amit sold his laptop, priced Rs 20,000 at Rs 18,000. Find his loss percentage.
Loss = Cost price – Selling price
Loss = Rs 20,000−Rs 18,000=Rs 2000
Loss % =LossCostprice ×100
Loss% = 200020,000 ×100=10%

Sales Tax and Value Added Tax

Sales Tax / VAT
Sales tax or value added tax(VAT) is the tax that should be paid to the government on sale of an
item
and it is added to the bill amount.
Normally, VAT is included in the price of items like groceries.

Finding Sales Tax / VAT

Sales tax or VAT =  Tax % of  Selling price
Billing Amount = Selling price + VAT
Example : Megha bought a wrist watch for Rs 1,200 and VAT is charged at 8%. Calculate the VAT
and billing amount.
Solution : VAT = Tax % of selling price
VAT = 8% of 1,200=8100 ×1200=Rs 96
Billing amount = S.P + VAT = Rs 1,200 + Rs 96 = Rs 1296.

Simple and Compound Interest

SI
Simple interest is the extra money charged on a loan where the principal amount will be fixed
for a  particular time period.
Interest is the extra money that a bank gives for saving or depositing money with them.
Similarly, when anybody borrow money, they pay interest.

Simple interest =P.T.R100 , where

P is the principal amount
T is the number of years.
R is the interest rate

Calculating CI
Compound interest is the interest, calculated on the principal and the interest for the previous
period.
The principal amount  increases with every time period, as the interest payable is added to the
principal.
Eg : Find CI on Rs 10,000 for 2 years at an interest rate of 5%.
Ans : Interest for the 1st year
For 1st year, P = 10,000, T = 1 year, R = 5%
I1=P.T.R100  = 10000.1.5100  =Rs 500
A=P+I1=10,000+500=10,500
Interest for the 2nd year
For 2nd year, P = 10,500, T = 1 year, R = 5%
I2=P.T.R100 =10500.1.5100  =Rs 525
C.I=I1+I2=Rs 500+Rs 525=Rs 1025

Deducing a Formula for Compound Interest

Formula for CI
Calculation of compound interest can be generalized.
let P1 be the sum on which the interest is compounded annually at the rate of R
Then the interest  for the 1st year,
I1=P1.1.R100 =P1.R100
A1=P1+I1=P1+P1.R100
A1=P1(1+R100 )=P2
For 2nd year,
P2=P1(1+R100 ),T=1 year and R=R%
I2=P2.1.R100 =P2.R100
I2=P1(1+R100 )×R100
I2=P1R100 (1+R100 )
A2=P2+I2
A2=P1(1+R100 )+P1R100 (1+R100 )
A2=P1(1+R100 )(1+R100 )  [taking P1(1+R100 ) as common ] A2=P1(1+R100 )2
Continuing this way, the amount at the end of n years will be,
An=P(1+R100 )n
i.e., A=P(1+R100 )n
Where, P is the principal amount, R is the rate of interest and n is the number of years.
We get the formula for the amount to be paid at the end of n years.
Compound Interest can be calculated using the formula,

CI=A−P
Rate Compounded Annually and Half Yearly
Rate Compounded Annually or Half-Yearly
If interest is compounded annually,
time span, n = 1 year, here the principal amount varies yearly.
Principal amount (A=P+I1)  for first year will serve as the principal for the second year.
If interest is compounded half – yearly,
time span, n  = 6 months, here the principal amount varies half – yearly.
Principal amount (A=P+I1) for first 6 months will be the principal for the next 6 months.

Finding CI When Rate Compounded Annually or Semi –

Annually
When compound interest is compounded annually,

A=P(1+R100 )n
C.I=A−P
Where, P is the principal amount, R is the rate of interest and n is the number of years.
When compound interest is compounded half yearly,
the interest rate will be half of the annual interest rate and the time period will be doubled.

A=P(1+R200 )2n
C.I=A−P
Where, P is the principal amount, R is the rate of interest and n is the number of years.

Application of Compound Interest

Application of Formula of CI
Application of compound interest are :
1.To calculate the growth rate of population (increase or decrease).
2. To calculate change in the  price of an item (increase or decrease).
Example : If the population of a town increases 2% annually and the present population is
3,26,40,000, find its population after 2 years.
Solution. P = 3,26,40,000   n = 2 years, R = 2%
Therefore,    Population after 2 years
A=P(1+R100 )n
A=32640000(1+2100 )2
A=32640000×(5150 )2
A=32640000×5150  × 5150
A=13056×51×51
⇒A=33958656
∴The population after 2 years is 3,39,58,656
Example : A motorcycle is bought at Rs 1,60,000. Its value depreciates at the rate of 10% per
annum. Find its value after 2 years.
Solution. P = 1,60,000  n = 2 years, R = 10%
A=P(1−R100 )n
A=160000×(1−10100 )2
A=160000×910  × 910
A=129600
∴ The value of the motorcycle after 2 years is Rs 1,29,600.

Algebraic Expressions and Identities Class 8 Notes: Chapter 9

Algebraic Expressions and Identities Class 8 Notes is specially designed to help students
understand important chapter concepts clearly and study productively. These notes will also enable
students to have an effective math practice session and be ready to tackle chapter questions that
could be asked in the exams.

Introduction to Algebraic Expressions and

Identities
Algebraic Expressions
Algebraic expressions are expressions made up of variables and constants along with
mathematical operators. Algebraic expressions have no sides or equal to sign like algebraic
equations.
Examples of algebraic expressions are : 2x+4, 7y−3+6x, 3t2+4t−1.

Terms
Terms are the individual building blocks of expressions. They add up to form expressions. A term
is a product of its factors.
For example, the expression 5xy – 3, is made up of two terms, 5xy and (-3).

Factors
Factors are those variables or constants, whose product form a term of an expression.
For example, 8, p and q are the factors of the term 8pq.
Factors are such that they can not be factorised further.
The product of factors forms a term and the summation of the terms forms an expression.

Coefficients
The numerical factor of a term is called the coefficient of that term.
For the terms, 6y and 2xy, the coefficient of 6y is 6 and the coefficient of 2xy is 2.
Like Terms
Like terms are those terms which have same variables raised to the same power. Like terms have
same algebraic factors. The numerical coefficient of like terms can be different.
For example, 3x2y and 5x2y are like terms.

Monomial
An expression with only one term is called a monomial.
Examples of monomials: 6x,7pq,x2y,9xyz,4bc etc.

Binomial
An expression which contains two unlike terms is called a binomial.
Examples of binomials: 4y−3z,x6−2,pq+1, etc.

Polynomial
Expressions that have more than two terms with non-zero coefficients and variables having non-
negative integral exponents are called polynomials.
Examples: a+b+c+2, 7xy−8x+2+3y, 5t3−7t+k+3.

Algebraic Identities
Algebraic Identities
 (a+b)2=a2+2ab+b2
 (a−b)2=a2−2ab+b2
 (a+b)(a−b)=a2−b2

Addition and Subtraction of Algebraic Expressions

When we are adding or subtracting two algebraic expressions, we can only add or subtract like
terms. The sum of two or more like terms is a like term, with a numerical coefficient equal to the
sum of the numerical coefficient of all the like terms.
Similarly, the difference between two like terms is a like term with a numerical coefficient equal to
the difference between the numerical coefficients of the two like terms.
Suppose if we have to add 3x2y+y+z and 4x2y+7a+5z, we will combine all the like terms and then
add their numerical coefficients.
(3x2y+4x2y)+(y)+(7a)+(z+5z)=7x2y+y+7a+6z

Multiplication of Algebraic Expressions

Multiplication of Monomials
When we multiply two monomials:

 the numerical coefficient of the terms is equal to the product of the numerical coefficient of
both the terms.
 the exponent or power of each algebraic factor is equal to the sum of the exponents of that
algebraic factor in both the monomials.

Multiplying two monomials:

 x×3y=x×3×y=3×x×y=3xy
 3x×2y=3×x×2×y=3×2×x×y=6xy
 5x×(−2z)=5×(−2)×x×z=−10xz

Multiplying three or more monomials:

 2x×3y×5z=(2x×3y)×5z=6xy×5z=30xyz
 4xy×5x2y2×6x3y3=(4xy×5x2y2)×6x3y3=20x3y3×6x3y3=120x6y6

Distributive Property of Multiplication

The distributive property is an algebraic property that is used to multiply a single value and two or
more values within a set of parenthesis.
Consider the expression : 6×(2+4x)
=(6×2)+(6×4x)
=12+24x
Here, we have used distributive law to mutiply a monomial and a binomial.

Multiplication of any Polynomial

When we multiply any two polynomials, we multiply all the terms or monomials of one polynomial
with all the terms of another polynomial.
When we multiply two binomials, every term in one binomial multiplies every term in the other
binomial.

 Multiplying a binomial by a binomial

(3a + 4b) × (2a + 3b)

= 3a × (2a + 3b) + 4b × (2a + 3b)
= (3a × 2a) + (3a × 3b) + (4b × 2a) + (4b × 3b)
= 6a2 + 9ab + 8ab + 12b2
= 6a2 + 17ab + 12b2
When we multiply a binomial by a trinomial, each of the three terms of the trinomial is multiplied by
each of the two terms of the binomial.

 Multiplying a binomial by a trinomial

(p + 4) × (p2 + 2p + 3)
= p × (p2 + 2p + 3) + 4 × (p2 + 2p + 3)
= (p3 + 2p2 + 3p) + (4p2 + 8p + 12)
= p3 + 6p2 + 11p + 12

Mensuration Class 8 Notes- Chapter 11

What is Mensuration?
Mensuration is a branch of mathematics which mainly deals with the study of different kinds of
Geometrical shapes along with its area, length, volume and perimeters. It is completely based on the
application of both algebraic equations and geometric calculations. The results obtained by the
Mensuration are considered very accurate. There are two types of geometric shapes:

Volume of Solids
Volume of a 3D Object
Volume is the space occupied by the three dimensional object. It is a three dimensional quantity.

Volume of a Cuboid

Volume of a cuboid =l×b×h

where, l is the length, b is the breadth and h is the height of the cuboid.

Volume of a Cube
Volume of a cube =l3
Where, l is the length of the each side of the cube.

Volume of a Cylinder

Volume of the cylinder =πr2h

Where r is the radius of the base and h is the height of the cylinder.

Basics Revisited
Introduction to Mensuration
Mensuration is the study of geometry that deals with the measurement of length, areas and
volumes.
Perimeter is the total length or path of a given shape.
Area is the total region covered by the given shape.
Volume is the total space occupied by the given shape.

Identifying Shapes and Areas of Different Regular Figures

Area of a Rectangle : length×breadth,  perimeter : 2(length+breadth)
Area of Square : side×side, perimeter : 4×side
Area of  Triangle : 12(base×height), perimeter : a+b+c (sum of 3 sides)
Area of Parallelogram : base×height , perimeter : 2(length+breadth)
Area of Circle : π×(radius)2, perimeter : 2×π×radius.

Trapezium
Area of Trapezium by Division into Shapes of Known Area
Consider the trapezium where a and b are parallel sides, h is the height. Trapezium is divided into 3
parts : two triangles, one rectangle.

Here h is the height, a and b are 2 parallel sides.

Area of trapezium = Area of 2 triangles + Area of rectangle
=[12 ×c×h+12 ×d×h]+[a×h]
=[12 ×c×h+12 ×d×h]+[12  ×2a×h]  [Multiplying and dividing by 2] =12 ×h(c+d+2a)
=12 ×h(c+d+a+a)
=12 ×h(b+a)    [∵ c + d + a = b]
Area of trapezium =12 ×h (sum of 2 parallel sides)

Area of Trapezium by Finding the Area of a Triangle of Same

Area
The area of the trapezium can be found out by dividing it into a triangle and a polygon.
Consider a trapezium WXYZ. Mark a midpoint A for side XY and join AZ. Cut the trapezium along AZ
and obtain a ΔAZY
Flip the ΔAZY and place it as shown below. Now the new polygon is a triangle.

We know that,
Area of a triangle=12 ×base×height
Substituting the values we get,
Area of a triangle=12 ×(a+b)×h
But the original polygon is a trapezium. So,
Area of a trapezium=12 ×(a+b)×h
Quadrilaterals in General
Area of a General Quadrilateral
Consider a quadrilateral ABCD. Draw diagonal AC. From B and D draw perpendiculars h1,h2 to AC

Area of quadrilateral = Area of triangle ABC + Area of triangle ADC

=12 ×base×height+12×base×height
=(12 ×AC×h1)+(12 ×AC×h2)  [Where, h1, h2 are the heights, AC is the base] =12 ×AC×(h1+h2)
=12 ×d×(h1+h2)  [∵ AC is a diagonal]
∴Area of a Quadrilateral=12 ×d×(h1+h2)
where d is diagonal and h1,h2 are perpendicular drwan to a diagonal.

Area of Rhombus
Area of rhombus =12 ×d1×d2,

where d1 and d2 are the diagonals.

Area of Polygons
The area of any given polygon can be found by cutting the polygon into shapes whose area is
known and adding the area of these shapes.
Some of the ways to find the area is shown below.

Area of this polygon = area of 2 trapeziums

Area of this polygon = Area of 2 triangles + Area of rectangle.

Area of this polygon = Area of 4 triangles.

Surface Area of Solids

Solid Shapes
Solid shapes or solid figures are the three dimensional figures which have length, breadth and
height. Using these, surface areas and volumes of these figures are found out.

Solids with a Pair or More of Identical Faces

Solids with a pair of identical faces are:

Surface Area of Solid Shapes

The surface area of the object is the total area occupied by the surface of the object.
or  surface area is simply the sum of the areas of the flat surfaces (called faces).

Surface Area of a Cuboid

Total Surface area of cuboid =2(lb+bh+lh)

Lateral Surface area of cuboid =2h(l+b)
Where, l is the length, b is the breadth and h is the height.

Surface Area of a Cube

Total Surface area of a cube =6l2
Lateral Surface area of a cube  =4l2
Where l is the length of each side of the cube.

Surface Area of a Cylinder

Curved surface area of cylinder (C.S.A) =2πrh

Total Surface area of cylinder(T.S.A) =2πr(r+h)
Where, r is the radius of the cylinder and h is the height of the cylinder.
Summary of Mensuration
Relation between Volume and Capacity
Volume is the total space occupied by an object. Volume is measured in cubic units,
Capacity refers to the maximum measure of an object’s ability to hold a substance, like a solid, a
liquid or a gas. Capacity can be measured in almost every other unit, including liters, gallons,
pounds, etc.
Eg : A bucket contains 9 litres of water, then its capacity is 9 litres.
Direct and Inverse Proportions Class 8 Maths Notes - Chapter
13
When two variables change in the same sense i.e as one amount increases, the other amount also
increases at the same rate it is called direct proportionality. When two variables such as x and y are
given, y is directly proportional to x if there is non zero constant k. The constant ratio is called
constant of proportionality or proportionality constant.

Inverse Proportions
If the value of variable x decreases or increases upon corresponding increase or decrease in the
value of variable y, then we can say that variables x and
y are in inverse proportion.
For example : In the table below, we have variable y – Time taken (in minutes) reducing
proportionally to the increase in value of variable x – Speed (in km/hour). Hence the two variables
are in inverse proportion.

Relation for Inverse Proportion

Considering two variables x and y,
xy=k or x=ky  establishes the relation for inverse proportionality between x and y, where k is a
constant.
So if x and y are in inverse proportion, it can be said that
x1x2 = y2y1  where y1 and y2 are corresponding values of variables x1 and x2

Time and Work

It is important to establish the relationship between time taken and the work done in any given
problem or situation. If time increases with increase in work, then the relation is directly proportional.
In such a case we will use x1y1  =x2y2  to arrive at our solution.
However if they are inversely proportional we will use the relation x1x2  = y2y1  to arrive at our answer.
For example : In the table below, we have the number of students (x) that took a  certain number of
days (y) to complete a fixed amount of food supplies. Now we have to calculate the number of days
it would take for an increased number of students to finish the identical amount of food.
10
Number of students 125
0

Number of days 20 y

We know that with greater number of people, the time taken to complete the food will be lesser,
therefore we have an inverse proportionality relation between x and y here.
Hence by applying the formula, we have:
100125 = y20  ⇒ y = 20.100125  =16 days

Introduction to Direct Proportions

Direct Proportion
If the value of a variable x always increases or decreases with the respective increase or
decrease in value of variable y, then it is said that the variables x and y are in direct proportion.
For example : In the table below, we have variable y – Cost (in Rs) always increasing when there is
an increase in variable x – Weight of sugar (in kg). Likewise if the weight of sugar reduced, the cost
would also reduce. Hence the two variables are in direct proportion.

Relation for Direct Proportion

Considering two variables x and y,
xy = k or x=ky establishes the simple relation for direct proportion between x and y, where k is a
constant.
So if x and y are in direct proportion, it can be said that
x1y1 = x2y2  where y1 and y2 correspond to respective values of x1 and x2.
Playing With Numbers Class 8 Notes- Chapter 16

What is the General Form of Numbers?

If a two digit number pq needs to represented in general form, then
pq=10p+q

Playing with 2 – Digit and 3 – Digit Numbers

Numbers in General form

A two digit number(ab) in its general form, is written as:ab=(10xa)+(1xb)
Similarly, a three digit number (abc) is written as:
abc=(100xa)+(10xb)+c

Reversing the 2 digit numbers and adding them

When a two digit number is reversed and added with the number, the resulting number is
perfectly divisible by 11 and the quotient is equal to the sum of the digits

For eg: The reverse of 29 is 92.

The sum of 29 and 92 = 29 +92 = 121.

On dividing the sum by 11, we get 121/11 = 11 = 9+2.

So, the sum is divisible by 11 and the quotient is equal to the sum of the digits of the number.

Reversing the 2 digit numbers and Subtracting them

When a two digit number is reversed and the larger number is subtracted from the smaller
number, the resulting number is perfectly divisible by 9 and the quotient is equal to the
difference of the digits of the number.

For example, the reverse of the number 39 is 93.

Now, 93 > 39.

So, 93 – 39 = 54

On dividing the difference of the two number by 9, we get, 54/9 = 6 = 9−3

So, the difference is divisible by 9 and the quotient is equal to the difference of the digits.
Reversing the 3 digit numbers and Subtracting them
When a three digit number is reversed and the smaller number is subtracted from the larger
number, the resulting number is perfectly divisible by 99 and the quotient is equal to the
difference between the first and third digit of the selected number.

For example, the reverse of 123 is 321.

Now, 321 > 123.

321 – 123 = 198

Now,198/99 = 2 = 3 – 1

So, the difference between 123 and 321 is divisible by 99 and the quotient is equal to the
difference between 3 and 1.

Taking all the combinations of 3 digit numbers and adding them

If all the combinations of a three-digit number are taken and added together, then the resulting
number is perfectly divisible by 111.

Let us take 123.

The various numbers that can be formed using the digits of 123 are 123, 132, 213, 231, 312 and
321.

The sum of these numbers is equal to (123 + 132 + 213 + 231 + 312 + 321 = 1332)

Now,1332/111 = 12

So, the sum of all the combinations is divisible by 111.

Puzzles with Digits

Letters for digits

Here we have puzzles in which letters take the place of digits in an arithmetic ‘sum’, and the
problem is to find out which letter represents which digit.

For example, if :
4Q1
38Q
——— (+)
803
———
Then the value of Q will be 2 as 2 is the only digit which results in 3 when 1 is added to it. Also,
2+8 =10, 1 as carry and then 1+4+3 =8. So, the value of Q is 2.

Why Divisibility Rules?

Divisibility by 10
If the units digit of a number is 0 then the number is divisible by 10.

For example, 1390 is divisible by 10. 113 is not divisible by 10 because it has 3 in its units place.

Divisibility by 5
If the units digit of a number is either 5 or 0 then it isdivisible by 5.

For example, 135 is divisible by 5 but 133 is not divisible by 5.

Divisibility by 2
If the units digit of a number is 0,2,4,6 or 8, then it is divisible by 2.

For example 22, 24, 68 are divisible by 2 but 23, 33, 45 are not.

Divisibility by 3
A number is divisible by 3 if thesum of its digits is divisible by 3.

For eg:The sum of digits of 144 = 1 + 4 + 4 = 9, which is divisible by 3. So, 144 is divisible by 3.

The sum of digits of 266 = 2 + 6 + 6 = 14, which is not divisible by 3. So, 266 is not divisible by
3.

Divisibility by 9
A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.

For example, the sum of digits of 277 = 2 + 7 + 7 = 16, which is not divisible by 9. So, 277 is not
divisible by 9.

The sum of digits of 783 = 7 + 8 + 3 = 18, which is divisible by 9. So, 783 is divisible by 9.