Survey Microproject
Survey Microproject
Survey Microproject
SYCE
ADVANCED SURVEYING-(22301)
GROUP MEMBERS
1. YASH JADHAV-726
2. FARDEEN MULANI-730
3. RASIK PANDIT-728
4. ARYAN SANDAV-729
5. MOHAMMED AQUIB-727
BASIC CONCEPTS OF REMOTE SENSING
1. Introduction
Remote sensing is an art and science of obtaining information about an object or feature
without physically coming in contact with that object or feature. Humans apply remote
sensing in their day-to-day business, through vision, hearing and sense of smell. The data
collected can be of many forms: variations in acoustic wave distributions (e.g., sonar),
variations in force distributions (e.g., gravity meter), variations in electromagnetic energy
distributions (e.g., eye) etc. These remotely collected data through various sensors may be
analyzed to obtain information about the objects or features under investigation. In this
course we will deal with remote sensing through electromagnetic energy sensors only.
Thus, remote sensing is the process of inferring surface parameters from measurements of the
electromagnetic radiation (EMR) from the Earth’s surface. This EMR can either be reflected
or emitted from the Earth’s surface. In other words, remote sensing is detecting and
measuring electromagnetic (EM) energy emanating or reflected from distant objects made of
various materials, so that we can identify and categorize these objects by class or type,
substance and spatial distribution [American Society of Photogrammetry, 1975].
2. Electromagnetic Energy
Electro-magnetic energy (E) can be expressed either in terms of frequency (f) or wave length
(λ) of radiation as
where h is Planck's constant (6.626 x 10-34 Joules-sec), c is a constant that expresses the
celerity or speed of light (3 x 108 m/sec), f is frequency expressed in Hertz and λ is the
wavelength expressed in micro meters (1µm = 10-6 m).
As can be observed from equation (1), shorter wavelengths have higher energy content and
longer wavelengths have lower energy content.
Radio waves
In light
Microwave
Ultraviolet
rays
frare
Visible
d
Near
rays
X
Wave 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
length (μm)
All matters reflect, emit or radiate a range of electromagnetic energy, depending upon the
material characteristics. In remote sensing, it is the measurement of electromagnetic radiation
reflected or emitted from an object, is the used to identify the target and to infer its properties.
Different objects reflect or emit different amounts of energy in different bands of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The amount of energy reflected or emitted depends on the
properties of both the material and the incident energy (angle of incidence, intensity and
wavelength). Detection and discrimination of objects or surface features is done through the
uniqueness of the reflected or emitted electromagnetic radiation from the object.
A device to detect this reflected or emitted electro-magnetic radiation from an object is called
a “sensor” (e.g., cameras and scanners). A vehicle used to carry the sensor is called a
“platform” (e.g., aircrafts and satellites).
In the case of passive remote sensing, source of energy is that naturally available such as the
Sun. Most of the remote sensing systems work in passive mode using solar energy as the
source of EMR. Solar energy reflected by the targets at specific wavelength bands are
recorded using sensors onboard air-borne or space borne platforms. In order to ensure ample
signal strength received at the sensor, wavelength / energy bands capable of traversing
through the atmosphere, without significant loss through atmospheric interactions, are
generally used in remote sensing
Any object which is at a temperature above 0o K (Kelvin) emits some radiation, which is
approximately proportional to the fourth power of the temperature of the object. Thus the
Earth also emits some radiation since its ambient temperature is about 300o K. Passive
sensors can also be used to measure the Earth’s radiance but they are not very popular as the
energy content is very low.
In the case of active remote sensing, energy is generated and sent from the remote sensing
platform towards the targets. The energy reflected back from the targets are recorded using
sensors onboard the remote sensing platform. Most of the microwave remote sensing is done
through active remote sensing.
As a simple analogy, passive remote sensing is similar to taking a picture with an ordinary
camera whereas active remote sensing is analogous to taking a picture with camera having
built-in flash (Fig. 5).
Remote sensing platforms can be classified as follows, based on the elevation from the
Earth’s surface at which these platforms are placed.
From each of these platforms, remote sensing can be done either in passive or active mode.
In airborne remote sensing, downward or sideward looking sensors mounted on aircrafts are
used to obtain images of the earth's surface. Very high spatial resolution images (20 cm or
less) can be obtained through this. However, it is not suitable to map a large area. Less
coverage area and high cost per unit area of ground coverage are the major disadvantages of
airborne remote sensing. While airborne remote sensing missions are mainly one-time
operations, space-borne missions offer continuous monitoring of the earth features.
LiDAR, analog aerial photography, videography, thermal imagery and digital photography
are commonly used in airborne remote sensing.
In space-borne remote sensing, sensors mounted on space shuttles or satellites orbiting the
Earth are used. There are several remote sensing satellites (Geostationary and Polar orbiting)
providing imagery for research and operational applications. While Geostationary or
Geosynchronous Satellites are used for communication and meteorological purposes, polar
orbiting or sun-synchronous satellites are essentially used for remote sensing. The main
advantages of space-borne remote sensing are large area coverage, less cost per unit area of
coverage, continuous or frequent coverage of an area of interest, automatic/ semiautomatic
computerized processing and analysis. However, when compared to aerial photography,
satellite imagery has a lower resolution.
Landsat satellites, Indian remote sensing (IRS) satellites, IKONOS, SPOT satellites, AQUA
and TERRA of NASA and INSAT satellite series are a few examples.
i. A Uniform Energy Source which provides energy over all wavelengths, at a constant,
known, high level of output
ii. A Non-interfering Atmosphere which will not modify either the energy transmitted
from the source or emitted (or reflected) from the object in any manner.
iii. A Series of Unique Energy/Matter Interactions at the Earth's Surface which generate
reflected and/or emitted signals that are selective with respect to wavelength and also
unique to each object or earth surface feature type.
iv. A Super Sensor which is highly sensitive to all wavelengths. A super sensor would be
simple, reliable, accurate, economical, and requires no power or space. This sensor
yields data on the absolute brightness (or radiance) from a scene as a function of
wavelength.
v. A Real-Time Data Handling System which generates the instance radiance versus
wavelength response and processes into an interpretable format in real time. The data
derived is unique to a particular terrain and hence provide insight into its
physicalchemical-biological state.
vi. Multiple Data Users having knowledge in their respective disciplines and also in
remote sensing data acquisition and analysis techniques. The information collected will
be available to them faster and at less expense. This information will aid the users in
various decision making processes and also further in implementing these decisions.
Fig. 7 Components of an ideal remote sensing system
Real remote sensing systems employed in general operation and utility have many
shortcomings when compared with an ideal system explained above.
i. Energy Source: The energy sources for real systems are usually non-uniform over
various wavelengths and also vary with time and space. This has major effect on the
passive remote sensing systems. The spectral distribution of reflected sunlight varies
both temporally and spatially. Earth surface materials also emit energy to varying
degrees of efficiency. A real remote sensing system needs calibration for source
characteristics.
ii. The Atmosphere: The atmosphere modifies the spectral distribution and strength of the
energy received or emitted (Fig. 8). The effect of atmospheric interaction varies with
the wavelength associated, sensor used and the sensing application. Calibration is
required to eliminate or compensate these atmospheric effects.
Fig. 8. Interactions of the electromagnetic energy with the atmosphere
(Source: https://earth.esa.int/)
iii. The Energy/Matter Interactions at the Earth's Surface: Remote sensing is based on the
principle that each and every material reflects or emits energy in a unique, known way.
However, spectral signatures may be similar for different material types. This makes
differentiation difficult. Also, the knowledge of most of the energy/matter interactions
for earth surface features is either at elementary level or even completely unknown. iv.
The Sensor: Real sensors have fixed limits of spectral sensitivity i.e., they are not
sensitive to all wavelengths. Also, they have limited spatial resolution (efficiency in
recording spatial details). Selection of a sensor requires a trade-off between spatial
resolution and spectral sensitivity. For example, while photographic systems have very
good spatial resolution and poor spectral sensitivity, non-photographic systems have
poor spatial resolution.
v. The Data Handling System: Human intervention is necessary for processing sensor
data; even though machines are also included in data handling. This makes the idea of
real time data handling almost impossible. The amount of data generated by the sensors
far exceeds the data handling capacity.
vi. The Multiple Data Users: The success of any remote sensing mission lies on the user
who ultimately transforms the data into information. This is possible only if the user
understands the problem thoroughly and has a wide knowledge in the data generation.
The user should know how to interpret the data generated and should know how best to
use them.
9. Advantages and Disadvantages of Remote Sensing Advantages