DMiT, School of Civil and Water Resource Engineering Reinforced Concrete I

INTRODUCTION

In Ethiopia, the British Standard (BS) has been the main source of structural design code. However, since
2013, the design code has been withdrawn and is progressively replaced by Euro code 2. In line with the
it, relevant authorities have made compulsory the full implementation for adoption of Euro code 2 (EC2)
by practicing engineers in the industry for submission purposes. To prepare local structural engineering
practitioners for the adoption of the Euro codes in the design of reinforced concrete structures, this course
will focus on analysis and design of reinforced concrete building structure in accordance with the
requirements of EC2.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTON TO REINFORCED CONCRETE

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Traditionally, the study of reinforced concrete structure design begins directly with a chapter on materials,
followed by chapters dealing with design. In this material, a departure is made from that convention. It is
desirable for the student to have first an overview of the world of reinforced concrete structures, before
plunging into the finer details of the subject. Accordingly, this section gives a general introduction to
reinforced concrete structure, reinforced concrete and its applications. It also explains the role of structural
design in reinforced concrete construction, and outlines the various structural systems that are commonly
adopted in buildings.

A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support forces (loads) applied on it and its self-
weight or a system connected parts that is designed to bear loads, even if it is not intended to be occupied
by people. Buildings, bridges and towers are examples for structures in civil engineering. In buildings,
structure consists of walls floors, roofs and foundation. In bridges, the structure consists of deck,
supporting systems and foundations. In towers the structure consists of vertical, horizontal and diagonal
members along with foundation. A structure can be broadly classified as (i) sub structure and (ii) super
structure. The portion of building below ground level is known as sub-structure and portion above the
ground is called as super structure. Foundation is sub structure and plinth, walls, columns, floor slabs
with or without beams, stairs, roof slabs with or without beams etc. are super structure. A structure can be
also classified based on the material it constructed. If a structure is constructed from reinforced concrete
materials it is said to be reinforced concrete structure.

Reinforced concrete is strong durable building material that can be formed into many varied shapes and
sizes ranging from a simple rectangular column, to a slender curved dome or shell. It is a composite
material made up of concrete and reinforcement. It is concrete in which reinforcing bars or other types of
reinforcement have been integrated to improve one or more properties of the concrete. For many years,
reinforced concrete has been utilized as an economical construction material in one form or another in
buildings, bridges, and many other types of structures throughout the world.

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Concrete is a hard or stone-like construction material made from a mixture of inert-aggregate materials
(fine &course), cement, and water in predetermined proportions, with or without admixtures, no doubt,
well known. Structural concrete is used extensively in the construction of various kinds of buildings,
stadia, auditoria, pavements, bridges, piers, breakwaters, berthing structures, dams, waterways, pipes,
water tanks, swimming pools, cooling towers, bunkers and silos, chimneys, communication towers,
tunnels, etc. It is the most commonly used construction material, consumed at a rate of approximately one
ton for every living human being. “Man consumes no material except water in such tremendous
quantities”.

Reinforcement is a supporting material such as steel bars or rods used to make strong or hard. Steel bars
are often used in concrete to take case of tensile stresses. Often they are called as rebar, steel bar induces
ductility to composite material i.e. reinforced concrete steel is stronger than concrete in compression also.
Plain mild steel bars or deformed bars are generally used. Due to poor bond strength plain bars are not
used. Yield strength of steel bars are denoted as characteristic strength.

1.2 PLAIN AND REINFORCED CONCRETE

Plain Concrete

Concrete may be defined as any solid mass made by the use of a cementing medium; the ingredients
generally comprise sand, gravel, cement and water. That the mixing together of such disparate and
discrete materials can result in a solid mass (of any desired shape), with well- defined properties, is a
wonder in itself. Concrete has been in use as a building material for more than a hundred and fifty years.
Its success and popularity may be largely attributed to:

(1) Durability under hostile environments, including resistance to fire and water (corrosion protection)
(2) Ease with which it can be cast into a variety of shapes and sizes, and
(3) Its relative economy and easy availability.
(4) Rigidity

The main strength of concrete lies in its compression-bearing ability, which surpasses that of traditional
materials like brick and stone masonry. Advances in concrete technology, during the past four decades in
particular, have now made it possible to produce a wide range of concrete grades, varying in mass density
(1200−2500 kg/m3) and compressive strength (10 −100 MPa).

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Concrete may be remarkably strong in compression, but it is equally remarkably weak in tension [Figure
1-1(a)]. Its tensile strength is approximately one-tenth of its compressive strength. Hence, the use of plain
concrete as a structural material is limited to situations where significant tensile stresses and strains do not
develop, as in hollow (or solid) block wall construction, small pedestals and ‘mass concrete’ applications
(in dams, etc.).

Reinforced Concrete

Concrete would not have gained its present status as a principal building material, but for the invention of
reinforced concrete, which is concrete with steel bars embedded in it. The idea of reinforcing concrete
with steel has resulted in a new composite material, having the potential of resisting significant tensile
stresses, which was hitherto impossible. Thus, the construction of load-bearing flexural members, such as
beams and slabs, became viable with this new material. Its utility and versatility are achieved by
combining the best features of concrete and steel. Consider some of the widely differing properties of
these two materials that are listed below in Table 1-1.

Table 1-1- Complementary properties of Concrete and Steel

Concrete Steel
Strength in Tension Poor Good
Strength in Compression Good Good, but slender bars will buckle
Strength in Shear Fair Good
Durability Good Corrodes if unprotected
Fire resistance Good Poor, suffers rapid loss of strength at high temperature

It can be seen from this list that the materials are more or less compatible. The steel bars (embedded in the
tension zone of the concrete) compensate for the concrete’s incapacity for tensile resistance, effectively
taking up all the tension, without separating from the concrete [Figure 1-1(b)]. The bond between steel
and the surrounding concrete ensures strain compatibility, i.e., the strain at any point in the steel is equal
to that in the adjoining concrete. Moreover, the reinforcing steel imparts ductility to a material that is
otherwise brittle. In practical terms, this implies that if a properly reinforced beam were to fail in tension,
then such a failure would, fortunately, be preceded by large deflections caused by the yielding of steel,
thereby giving ample warning of the impending collapse [Figure 1-1(c)].

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Tensile stresses occur either directly, as in direct tension or flexural tension, or indirectly, as in shear,
which causes tension along diagonal planes (‘diagonal tension’). Temperature and shrinkage effects may
also induce tensile stresses. In all such cases, reinforcing steel is essential, and should be appropriately
located, in a direction that cuts across the principal tensile planes (i.e., across potential tensile cracks). If
insufficient steel is provided, cracks would develop and propagate, and could possibly lead to failure.

The development of reliable design and construction techniques has enabled the construction of a wide
variety of reinforced concrete structures all over the world: building frames (columns and beams), floor
and roof slabs, foundations, bridge decks and piers, retaining walls, grandstands, water tanks, pipes,
bunkers and silos, folded plates and shells, etc.

The steel bars are used in tension zone of the element to resist tension as shown in Fig 1.1. The tension
caused by bending moment is chiefly resisted by the steel reinforcements, while concrete resist the
compression. Such joint action is possible if relative slip between concrete and steel is prevented. This
phenomenon is called “bond”. This can be achieved by using deformed bass which has high bond
strength at the steel-concrete interface. Rebar’s imparts “ductility” to the structural element, i.e. RC
elements has large deflection before it fails due to yielding of steel, thus it gives ample warning before its
collapse.

(a). Plain concrete beam cracks and fails in flexural

tension under a small load

(b). Reinforced concrete beam supports load

with acceptably low deformations

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(c) Ductile mode of failure under heavy loads

( d ) Reinforced concret

Figure 1-1 - Contribution of steel bars in

reinforced concrete

1.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE FOR A

STRUCTURE

Reinforced concrete may be the most important material available for construction. It is used in one form
or another for almost all structures, great or small—buildings, bridges, pavements, dams, retaining walls,
tunnels, drainage and irrigation facilities, tanks, and so on.
The tremendous success of this universal construction material can be understood quite easily if its
numerous advantages are considered. These include the following:
1. It has considerable compressive strength per unit cost compared with most other materials.
2. Reinforced concrete has great resistance to the actions of fire and water and, in fact, is the best
structural material available for situations where water is present. During fires of average intensity,
members with a satisfactory cover of concrete over the reinforcing bars suffer only surface damage
without failure.
3. Reinforced concrete structures are very rigid.
4. It is a low-maintenance material.

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5. As compared with other materials, it has a very long service life. Under proper conditions,
reinforced concrete structures can be used indefinitely without reduction of their load-carrying
abilities. This can be explained by the fact that the strength of concrete does not decrease with time
but actually increases over a very long period, measured in years, because of the lengthy process
of the solidification of the cement paste.
6. It is usually the only economical material available for footings, floor slabs, basement walls, piers,
and similar applications.
7. A special feature of concrete is its ability to be cast into an extraordinary variety of shapes from
simple slabs, beams, and columns to great arches and shells.
8. In most areas, concrete takes advantage of inexpensive local materials (sand, gravel, and water)
and requires relatively small amounts of cement and reinforcing steel, which may have to be
shipped from other parts of the country.
9. A lower grade of skilled labor is required for erection as compared with other materials such as
structural steel.
10. It has considerable reduced cross sectional dimensions of structural members.

To use concrete successfully, the designer must be completely familiar with its weak points as well as its
strong ones. Among its disadvantages are the following:

1. Concrete has a very low tensile strength, requiring the use of tensile reinforcing.
2. Forms are required to hold the concrete in place until it hardens sufficiently. In addition, false
work or shoring may be necessary to keep the forms in place for roofs, walls, floors, and similar
structures until the concrete members gain sufficient strength to sup-port themselves. Formwork is
very expensive. In the United States, its costs run from one-third to two-thirds of the total cost of a
reinforced concrete structure, with average values of about 50%. It should be obvious that when
efforts are made to improve the economy of reinforced concrete structures, the major emphasis is
on reducing formwork costs.
3. The low strength per unit of weight of concrete leads to heavy members. This becomes an
increasingly important matter for long-span structures, where concrete’s large dead weight has a
great effect on bending moment s. Lightweight aggregates can be used to reduce concrete weight,
but the cost of the concrete is increased.
4. Similarly, the low strength per unit of volume of concrete means members will be relatively large,
an important consideration for tall buildings and long-span structures.
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5. The properties of concrete vary widely because of variations in its proportioning and mixing.
Furthermore, the placing and curing of concrete is not as carefully controlled as is the production
of other materials, such as structural steel and laminated wood.
6. Time-dependent volume changes of concrete’s (shrinkage and creep) are other characteristics that
can cause problems.

1.4 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE AND REINFORCEMENT

Mechanical Properties of Concrete

1.4.3.1 Compressive strength

Compressive strength it a number obtained from a compression test by loading a cube (Common 150mm
or 100mm cube size) or cylinder (common 150mm diameter & 300mm height) specimen up to failure in
uniaxial compression(fig). It is given in terms of the characteristic compressive strength of cubes(fcu)
or cylinder tested at 28 days (fck). Compressive Strength of concrete may also have defined as the
characteristic strength of concrete cubes or cylinders @28 days. Concrete Compressive Strength is
affected by water/cement ratio, moisture conditions during curing., type of cement, temperature conditions
during curing.

Compressive strength of concrete on 28th day after casting is considered as one of the measure of quality,
which is the most important measurable property of concrete, as the other properties can be inferred from
it.

For convenience other strength para meters, as tensile strength or bond strength, shear strength, modulus
of elasticity, etc., can be expressed relative to the compressive strength.

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1.4.3.2 Characteristic Strength

Concrete is a material whose strength is subject to considerable variability. Cube or cylindrical specimens
that are taken from the same mix give different values of compressive strength in laboratory tests. This
may be attributed largely to the non-homogeneous nature of concrete. The variability in the strength
evidently depends on the degree of quality control. Statistically, it is measured in terms of either the
‘standard deviation’ (S) or the coefficient of variation (V), which is the ratio of the standard deviation to
the mean strength (fcm). At least 4 specimens of cubes should be tested for acceptance criteria.

In view of the significant variability in the compressive strength, it is necessary to ensure that the designer
has a reasonable assurance of a certain minimum strength of concrete. This is provided by the Code by
defining a characteristic strength, which is applicable to any material (concrete or steel)

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The characteristic strength is defined as the strength of the concrete below which not more than 5% of the
test results are expected to fall. It is the strengths of materials upon which design is based are those
strengths below which results are unlikely to fall. It is assumed that for a given material, the distribution
of strength will be approximately 'normal', so that a frequency distribution curve of a large number of
sample results would be of the form shown in figure 2.1.

Statistical theory gives the formula:

Characteristic strength(fk) = Mean strength(fm) — 1.64 x Standard deviation(s)

The term 1.64 x Standard deviation(s) is called margin. If there is no appropriate data, the margin can be
simply taken as 8MPa (cylinder) and 10MPa (cube) constant irrespective of strength class. The number
1.64 is derived from the fact that characteristic strength as the value below which we can expect 5% of the
cubes to fail.

The relationship between characteristic and mean values accounts for variations in results of test
specimens and will, therefore, reflect the method and control of manufacture, quality of constituents, and
nature of the material.
The coefficient of variation is generally expected to reduce with increasing grade of concrete, in view of
the need for increased quality control.

NB: Poor control……………. …. V > 14%

Average control……………. V = 10.5%

Excellent control……………V < 7%

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standard deviation, which can be obtained thus: if we make n specimen (e.g. n cube tests and their
crushing strengths are fcu1, fcu2, …fcun, then the mean crushing strength(fcum) and the standard
deviation(S) for cube and cylindrical sample are defined by:
n n

∑ fcui ∑ fck i
1 1
fcum = fckm =
n n
n n

∑ (fcu ¿ ¿ i−fcum)2 ∑ (fck ¿ ¿ i−fckm )2

1 1
s= ¿ s= ¿
n−1 n−1
Although the load is applied uniaxial, the test machine platens offer greater lateral restraint due to the
lower aspect ratio (the friction) between the loading plate and the contact faces of the test specimen which
has more effect on cube strength than the cylinder strength.

Because of this, the cube strength gives more strength than the true compressive strength of concrete,
whereas, cylinder strength gives reasonably the true compressive strength.

According to EC2, the cylinder strength is, on average, about 0.8 times the cube strength for normal
strength concrete. All design calculations to EC2 are based on the characteristic cylinder strength fck.

1.4.3.3 Stress-Strain Curves

Stress strain curve of concrete is a graphical representation of concrete behavior under load, which is
calculated from easily measurable quantities (normal load, diameter, elongation, original length). It is
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produced by plotting concrete compress strain at various interval of concrete compressive loading (stress).
Concrete is mostly used in compression that is why its compressive stress strain curve is of major interest
to study its behavior from the point it is loaded until it breaks.

Typical stress-strain curves of concrete of various grades, obtained from standard uniaxial compression
tests, are shown in Figure 1-5. The curves are somewhat linear in the very initial phase of loading, while
the load is increased from zero; the non-linearity begins to gain significance when the stress level exceeds
about one-third to one-half of the maximum (ultimate strength). This lack of linearity of concrete stress
strain curves at higher stresses causes some problems in the structural analysis of concrete structures
because their behavior is also nonlinear at higher stresses; Of particular importance is the fact that
regardless of strengths, all the concretes reach their ultimate strengths at strains of about 0.002; beyond
this point, an increase in strain is accompanied by a decrease in stress. Concrete does not have a definite
yield strength; rather, the curves run smoothly on to the point of rupture (strain at failure) at strains of
from 0.003 to 0.005 for the usual range of concrete strengths.

The ultimate strain for most structural concretes tends to be approximately 0.0035, irrespective of the
strength of the concrete. This value, which is conservative for normal-strength concretes, may not be
conservative for higher-strength concretes; as it is likely to reduce for concretes with cube strengths above
about 60 N/mm2.

The higher the concrete grade, the steeper is the initial portion of the stress-strain curve, the sharper the
peak of the curve, and the less the failure strain. For low-strength concrete, the curve has a relatively flat
top, and a high failure strain. It should be further noticed that the weaker grades of concrete are less brittle
than the stronger ones—that is, they will take larger strains before breaking.

When the stress level reaches 70–90 percent of the maximum, internal cracks are initiated in the mortar
throughout the concrete mass, roughly parallel to the direction of the applied loading. The concrete tends
to expand laterally, and longitudinal cracks become visible when the lateral strain (due to the Poisson
effect) exceeds the limiting tensile strain of concrete (0.0001—0.0002). The cracks generally occur at the
aggregate-mortar interface. As a result of the associated larger lateral extensions, the apparent Poisson’s
ratio increases sharply.

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Figure 1-5 - Typical stress-strain curves of concrete in compression

The descending branch of the stress-strain curve can be fully traced only if the strain-controlled
application of the load is properly achieved. For this, the testing machine must be sufficiently rigid (i.e., it
must have a very high value of load per unit deformation); otherwise, the concrete is likely to fail abruptly
(sometimes, explosively) almost immediately after the maximum stress is reached. The fall in stress with
increasing strain is a phenomenon which is not clearly understood; it is associated with extensive micro-
cracking in the mortar, and is sometimes called softening of concrete.

For the design of cross sections, the simplified stress−strain relationships are proposed in Euro code 2.
The stress−strain relationship shown in Fig.2.2 is a combination of a parabola and a straight line.
The mathematical equation for it is given by
n
Ꜫ
Stress,σ c =f ck
[ ( )]
1− 1− c
Ꜫ c2
for 0 cc2 (3.17)

Stress,σ c =f ck for c2ccu2 (3.18)

where: according to EBCS EN 1992-1-1
n is the exponent according to Table 3.1
εc2 is the strain at reaching the maximum strength according to Table 3.1
cu2 is the ultimate strain according to Table 3.1

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1.4.3.4 Modulus of Elasticity

The Young’s modulus of elasticity (E-value) is a constant, defined as the ratio between axial stress
(load/area) and axial strain (deformation, or change of length/length)., within the linear elastic range,
under uniaxial loading. In the case of concrete under uniaxial compression, it has some validity in the very
initial portion of the stress-strain curve, which is practically linear [Figure 6]; that is, when the loading is
of low intensity, and of very short duration.

The elastic deformations of concrete largely depend on its composition (especially the aggregates), which
has no clear-cut modulus of elasticity as there is as there is no fixed ratio of stress/strain to define it or as
concrete is not a truly elastic material, the relationship between stress and strain is not constant.

There are two types of elastic modulus. The static modulus is measured by plotting the deformation of a
cylinder under an applied load, usually 30–40% of the ultimate load. The dynamic modulus is determined
by resonance methods or by the measurement of ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV). The two test procedures
do not give the same measured value of the modulus. Static modulus is the value usually quoted by
concrete producers.
Three E-value conventions are used:
 The secant modulus
 The tangent modulus

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 The initial tangent modulus (see Figure 7).

These are all measurements of the static modulus. The initial tangent modulus is also approximately equal
to the dynamic modulus and, by definition, is only applicable at very low stress levels. The slope of the
initial straight portion is the initial tangent modulus.

At any point, the slope of the line joining the point to the origin is the secant modulus. The secant
modulus (Ecm) at a stress of about one-third the cube strength of concrete is generally found acceptable in
design for representing an average value of Ec under service load conditions (static loading).

In the absence of more accurate data in design, the secant modulus, Ecm (in GPa), is derived from the
mean compressive strength, fcm(in MPa), from the expression:
Ecm= 22 [ fcm /10]0.3GPa (17)

Approximate values for the modulus of elasticity Ecm, secant value between σc=0 and 0.4fcm for concretes
with quartzite aggregates, are given in Table 3.1. For limestone and sandstone aggregates the value should
be reduced by 10% and 30% respectively. For basalt aggregates the value should be increased by 20%.

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1.4.3.5 Grade of concrete

The quality or grade of concrete is based on the compressive strength of concrete; they are designated
with letter ‘C’, which refers to concrete, followed by an integer number represented characteristic strength
of concrete at 28-days, expressed in MPa (or, equivalently, N/mm2). Thus, for example, C 25/30 grade
concrete denotes a concrete whose mix is so designed as to generate a characteristic cylindrical strength of
25 MPa and a characteristic cube strength of 30 MPa.

The selection of the minimum grade of concrete is dictated by considerations of durability (related to the
kind of environment that the structure is exposed to), on the basis of considerations of strength which is
related to cross-sectional dimension requirements. Such that under more adverse environmental exposure
conditions, higher grades of concrete are called for. The term 'strength class’ is often referred to as the
‘grade' of concrete and through-out this course the two terms are taken to be synonymous.

1.4.3.6 Tensile Strength

Concrete is not normally designed to resist direct tension. However, tensile stresses do develop in
concrete members as a result of flexure, shrinkage and temperature changes. Principal tensile stresses may
also result from multi-axial states of stress. Often cracking in concrete is a result of the tensile strength (or
limiting tensile strain) being exceeded. As pure shear causes tension on diagonal planes, knowledge of the
direct tensile strength of concrete is useful for estimating the shear strength of beams with unreinforced
webs, etc. Also, knowledge of the flexural tensile strength of concrete is necessary for estimation of the
‘moment at first crack’, required for the computation of deflections and crack widths in flexural members.

As pointed out earlier, concrete is very weak in tension, the direct tensile strength being only about 7 to 15
percent of the compressive strength or on average it is about a tenth of the compressive strength. It is
difficult to perform a direct tension test on a concrete specimen, as it requires a purely axial tensile force
to be applied, free of any misalignment and secondary stress in the specimen at the grips of the testing
machine. Hence, indirect tension tests are resorted to, usually the flexure test or the cylinder splitting test.

The mean characteristic tensile strength fctm is related to mean cylinder compressive strength fcm as
follows.
2
f ctm=0.3 X ( f ck ) 3 for f ck ≤50 Mpa
f cm
f ctm=2.2 ln ⁡[1+ ] for f ck >50 Mpa
10

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The 5% and 95% fractiles of the characteristic tensile strength of concrete are fctk ,0.05=0.7 fctm and
fctk ,0.95=1.3 fctm, respectively. For design purpose fctk ,0.05 is used.

1.4.3.7 Creep
Creep is the continuous(time-dependent) deformation (strain) of a member under sustained load,
excluding non-load-induced deformations such as shrinkage, swelling, thermal strain.
It is a phenomenon associated with many materials, but it is particularly evident with concrete. The
precise behaviour of a particular concrete depends on the aggregates and the mix design as well as the
ambient humidity, member cross-section, and age at first loading, but the general pattern is illustrated by
considering a member subjected to axial compression. For such a member, a typical variation of
deformation with time is shown by the curve in figure 1.11.
The characteristics of creep are
1. The final deformation of the member can be two to four times the short-term elastic deformation.
2. The deformation is roughly proportional to the intensity of loading and to the inverse of the
concrete strength.
3. If the load is removed, only the instantaneous elastic deformation will recover – the plastic
deformation will not.
4. There is a redistribution of load between the concrete and any steel present.
The redistribution of load is caused by the changes in compressive strains being transferred to the
reinforcing steel. Thus the compressive stresses in the steel are increased so that the steel takes a larger
proportion of the load.
The effects of creep are particularly important in beams, where the increased deflections may cause the
opening of cracks, damage to finishes, and the non-alignment of mechanical equipment. Redistribution of
stress between concrete and steel occurs primarily in the un-cracked compressive areas and has little
effect on the tension reinforcement other than reducing shrinkage stresses in some instances. The
provision of reinforcement in the compressive zone of a flexural member, however, often helps to restrain
the deflections due to creep.
Knowledge of creep is needed for several reasons:
 To estimate long-term deflections in beams and long-term shortening in columns and walls. This
may be important, for example, in establishing tolerances for movement when fixing rigid, brittle
partitions to a concrete frame.
 To estimate pre-stress losses.

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 To estimate stress relaxation and redistribution over time. This may be beneficial in reducing the
risk and/or extent of cracking. Creep in tension may also partly relieve the stresses induced by
other restrained movements, for example, drying shrinkage, thermal contraction; or by loading.

The ultimate creep strain is calculated by multiplying the elastic strain by a creep coefficient using the
EC2 3.6 expressions.

1.4.3.8 Shrinkage
Shrinkage is the reduction in volume of concrete due to loss of moisture. For design purposes, the total
shrinkage strain is composed of two parts, the drying shrinkage strain and the autogenous shrinkage strain.
Drying shrinkage develops slowly due to migration of water and is irreversible but alternate wetting and
drying causes expansion and contraction of concrete. The autogenous shrinkage strain develops during
the hardening of concrete and develops quite fast during the early days after casting of concrete. While it
is recognised that shrinkage may occur while concrete is in its plastic state, these deformations are not
considered within the design process.
Knowledge of shrinkage is important for several reasons:
 If shrinkage is restrained, cracking may occur and the concrete will require adequate reinforcement
to limit crack widths.
 In pre-stressed concrete, shrinkage will result in loss of pre-stress.
 In asymmetrically reinforced concrete, deflections will increase.
 Axially loaded columns or walls may be subject to increased shortening.
 Creep may be increased with increased shrinkage.

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The aggregate type and content are the most important factors influencing shrinkage. The larger the size
of the aggregate is, the lower is the shrinkage and the higher is the aggregate content; the lower the
workability and water-to-cement ratio are, the lower is the shrinkage. Aggregates that change volume on
wetting and drying, such as sandstone or basalt, produce concrete which experiences a large shrinkage
strain, while concrete made with non-shrinking aggregates such as granite or gravel experience lower
shrinkage strain. A decrease in the ambient relative humidity also increases shrinkage.
Euro code 2 gives necessary data for calculating the drying shrinkage in equations (3.9) −(3.10) and in
equations (3.11) −(3.13). Values of shrinkage strain are used in deflection calculations.
1.4.3.9 Thermal expansion
The coefficient of thermal expansion, αc, of concrete is a measure of the free strain produced in concrete
subject to a unit change in temperature and is usually expressed in micro strain per degree centigrade
(με/°C). Values are typically in the range 8–13 μ ε/°C. The occurrence of thermal strain has a number of
design implications as follows:
 The need to provide joints to accommodate the movement.
 The provision of tolerances for elements attached to the concrete, for example, cladding panels.
 Design of reinforcement to control crack widths when the thermal contraction is restrained. This
may be of particular concern at early age when the heat of hydration from the cement and
additions (see Section 14) may lead to temperature changes up to about 50°C, and subsequent
contraction on cooling can lead to early-age thermal cracking.
The Euro code states that unless more accurate information is available, the coefficient of thermal
expansion may be taken as 10 micro strain/°C.
Physical properties of concrete
 Unit weight 25 kN/m3 for reinforced and 24 kN/m3 for normal weight concrete.
Properties of Reinforcement

Rebar (short for reinforcing bar) is collectively known as reinforcing steel and reinforcement steel, is a
steel rod(bars), mesh of steel rods (welded wire fabric), or wires used in reinforced concrete as a tension
device, in masonry structures to reinforce(strengthen) and improve(holed) the tensile strength and in
compression to hold the concrete. It is usually formed from carbon steel.

1.4.4. Types based on surface characteristics

Steel bars can be classified as plain bars and deformed bars or rebar’s according to their surface profiles.
Plain bars are reinforcing bares which contain smooth surface and deformed bars are the bars with
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longitudinal and transverse ribs rolled into the surfaces (sometimes without longitudinal ribs). The ribs,
which may be in the shape of a spiral, chevron or crescent, etc. (Fig.2.1), can effectively increase the
bonding between steel bars and concrete or form a better bond with concrete. The cross -sectional area of
a deformed bar varies with its length, so the diameter of the deformed bar is a nominal dimension, i.e., an
equivalent diameter is the same as that of a plain bar of identical weight. Generally, the diameters of plain
bars are 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18,20 and 22 mm, while the diameter s of deformed bars are 6, 8, 10, 12, 14,
16, 18, 20,22, 25, 28, 32, 36, 40 and 50 mm.

Reinforcement steel bars of small diameter (e.g., <6 mm) are also called steel wires, whose surface is
generally smooth. If indentations are rolled into the surface of a steel wire to improve the bond, the steel
wire is called indented wire.
For usual construction, bars (called deformed bars) having lungs or protrusions(deformations)are used fig.
Such deformations serve to prevent slip of the bar relative to the concrete or to ensure adequate bond.
Although deformed bars are prescribed for most design applications, plain reinforcing bars may be used
for spirals; if smaller than 10mm in diameter, these bars may also be used for stirrups and ties.

Plain Rebar Deformed Rebar

Less friction Good friction
Less bond strength with concrete Good bond strength with concrete
Good slippage Less slippage
Can be used in gates, windows, staircase and Used in all type of RCC construction work
dowel and may be also as stirrup in other know a day.
structure.

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1.4.4.1. Designation
Most of the time designated in the following order: reinforcing steel; the nominal diameter, in millimeters;
and the steel grade. the concrete.

EXAMPLE

Reinforcing steel S –20 400

1.4.4.2. Bar Sizes

Steel bars are made in different sizes. Bar size in metric bar designations, in general, represent the
nominal bar diameter in Millimeters. In Ethiopia the nominal diameter of bars varies from 6 to 50mm.But
reinforcement bars having diameters 8mm to 32mm are extensively utilized. For building slabs
8mm,10mm,12mm diameters are common. For beams and columns 8mm to 24 mm depending upon the
span and size are mostly common. Bars whose diameter ranges from 24 to 50mm are commonly used for
hydraulic structure such as dam, bridge etc.

The preferred delivery length of a straight reinforcing bar is 12mm as a common size, unless otherwise
agreed upon between the manufacturer and purchaser. Theoretically most commonly available nominal
diameter of deformed bars those may be used in construction are shown below. But in practice nominal
diameter of 6mm deformed bars are not available in market.

Table — Dimensions, mass per unit length and permissible deviations

Nominal bar Nominal cross-

Mass per unit length
diameter sectional area
Requirement Permissible
d (mm) An(mm2)
(kg/m) deviation (%)
6 28,3 0,222 ±8
8 50,3 0,395 ±8
10 78,5 0,617 ±6
12 113 0,888 ±6
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14 154 1,21 ±5
16 201 1,58 ±5
20 314 2,47 ±5
24 491 3,85 ±4
28 616 4,84 ±4
32 804 6,31 ±4
40 1 257 9,86 ±4
50 1 964 15,42 ±4
For diameters larger than 50 mm and for those not available in the market should be agreed between the
manufacturer and purchaser or other appropriate measurement shall be made. The permissible deviation
on such bars shall be ± 4 %.

1.4.4.3. Strength
The yield strength or yield stress is a material property and is the stress corresponding to the yield point,
well defined deviation from the perfect elasticity, at which the material begins to deform plastically. The
yield strength is often used to determine the maximum allowable load in a mechanical component, since it
represents the upper limit to forces that can be applied without producing permanent deformation. In some
materials, such as aluminum, there is a gradual onset of non-linear behavior, making the precise yield
point difficult to determine. In such a case, the offset yield point (or proof stress) is taken as the stress at

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which 0.2% plastic deformation occurs (value obtained by offset strain). Yielding is a gradual failure
mode which is normally not catastrophic, unlike ultimate failure.

The yield strength fyk (or the 0.2% proof stress, f0.2k) and the tensile strength ftk can be defined
respectively as the characteristic value of the yield load, and the characteristic maximum load in direct
axial tension, each divided by the nominal cross sectional area.

1.4.4.4. Grades
Grade of rebar is illustrated (defines) with the lowest permitted yield strength. Rebar is available in grades
and specifications that vary in yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, chemical composition, and
percentage of elongation.

The grade designation in Ethiopian (identical to EC2) and similarly in countries which use the metric
system, is equal to the minimum yield strength of the bar in Mpa or N/mm2, for example grade 400 rebar
has the minimum yield strength of 400Ppa(400N/mm2). The application rules for design and detailing in
EC2 code of practice are valid for a specified yield strength range, fyk=400 to 600 MPa.

1.4.4.5. Stress –strain properties

Typical stress– strain curves of steel bars used in reinforced concrete structures are obtained from
monotonic tension tests, in which the loads are monotonically applied (without any unloading) until the
failure of specimens in a short time.

Typical stress-strain curves for (a) mild steel, and (b) high yield steel are shown in fig. Mild steel behaves
as an elastic material, with the strain proportional to the stress up to the yield, at which point there is a
sudden increase in strain with no change in stress (yield plateau). After the yield point, mild steel
becomes a plastic material and the strain increases rapidly up to the ultimate value (strain hardening).
Finally, there is a descending branch wherein the nominal stress (load divided by original area) decreases
until fracture occurs. High yield steel, on the other hand, does not have a definite yield point but shows a
more gradual change from an elastic to a plastic behaviour. The ultimate strength is reached gradually
under an increase of stress. The yield strength or proof stress is considered the stress that leaves a residual
strain of 0.2% on the release of load, or a total strain of 0.5 to 0.6% under load.

The specified strength used in design is based on the yield stress for mild steel, whereas for high yield
steel the strength is based on a specified proof stress. A 0.2 per cent proof stress is defined in figure 1.5
by the broken line drawn parallel to the linear part of the stress-strain curve.

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Not only for the two materials but for all grades, there is an initial linear elastic portion with constant
slope (a similar slope of the elastic region), which gives a modulus of elasticity (Es) that is practically the
same for all grades. The modulus of elasticity is the slope of the stress–strain curve in the elastic range up
to the proportional limit; Es= stress/strain. The EC2 specifies that the value of Es to be considered in
design as 200 GPa= 200 kN/mm2 or 2 × 105MPa (N/mm2).

For design purposes, the increase in strength beyond the ‘yield point’ (due to strain-hardening) is
gene rally ignored. Most design codes recommend the use of an ideal elasto-plastic stress-strain curve
(with an initial linearly elastic line up to yield, followed by a line at constant stress, denoting the post-
yielding behaviour).

1.4.4.6. Poison ratio

For normal design, assumptions stress strain curve may be made as a horizontal top branch without the
need to check the strain limit (see fg)

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Figure 3.8: Idealized and design stress diagram for reinforcing steel (tension and compression).

The mean value of density may be assumed to be 7850 kg/m3 and Poisson’s ratio may be taken equal to
0.3 for reinforcing steel. Unless more accurate information is available, the linear coefficient of thermal
expansion may be taken equal to 1.2.10-6 K-1

1.5 . OBJECTIVES OF DESIGN

A structural engineer is a member of a team that works together to design a building, bridge, or other
structure. In the case of a building, an architect generally provides the overall lay-out, and mechanical,
electrical, and structural engineers design individual systems within the building.
The structure should satisfy four major criteria:
1. Appropriateness: The arrangement of spaces, spans, ceiling heights, access, and traffic flow must
complement the intended use. The structure should fit its environment and be aesthetically pleasing.
2. Economy: The overall cost of the structure should not exceed the client’s budget. Frequently,
teamwork in design will lead to overall economies.
3. Structural adequacy: Structural adequacy involves two major aspects.
a) Strength: -A structure must be strong enough to support all anticipated loadings safely or Stresses
should not exceed the critical values.
b) Serviceability: -A structure must not deflect, tilt, vibrate, or crack in a manner that impairs its
usefulness.

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c) Stability: - the structure should be safe against overturning, buckling and Sliding.
4. Maintainability: A structure should be designed so as to require a minimum amount of simple
maintenance procedures.

1.6 THE DESIGN PHASES

The design process is a sequential and iterative decision-making process. The three major
phases are the following:
1. Definition of the client’s needs and priorities. All buildings or other structures are built to fulfill a
need. It is important that the owner or user be involved in determining the attributes of the proposed
building. These include functional requirements, aesthetic requirements, and budgetary requirements.
The latter include initial cost, premium for rapid construction to allow early occupancy, maintenance,
and other life-cycle costs.
2. Development of project concept. Based on the client’s needs and priorities, a number of possible
layouts are developed. Preliminary cost estimates are made, and the final choice of the system to be
used is based on how well the overall design satisfies the client’s needs within the budget available.
Generally, systems that are conceptually simple and have standardized geometries and details that
allow construction to proceed as a series of identical cycles are the most cost effective.
During this stage, the overall structural concept is selected. From approximate analyses of the
moments, shears, and axial forces, preliminary member sizes are selected for each potential scheme.
Once this is done, it is possible to estimate costs and select the most desirable structural system.
The overall thrust in this stage of the structural design is to satisfy the design criteria dealing with
appropriateness, economy, and, to some extent, maintainability.
3. Design of individual systems. Once the overall layout and general structural concept have been
selected, the structural system can be designed. Structural design involves three main steps. Based on
the preliminary design selected in phase 2, a structural analysis is carried out to determine the
moments, shears, torques, and axial forces in the structure. The individual members are then
proportioned to resist these load effects. The proportioning, sometimes referred to as member design,
must also consider overall aesthetics, the constructability of the design, coordination with mechanical
and electrical systems, and the sustainability of the final structure. The final stage in the design
process is to prepare construction drawings and specifications.
For a given structural system, the design problem consists of the following steps:

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1. Idealization of structure for analysis (dimension of members, support condition of structure and etc.)
2. Estimation of loadings.
3. Analysis of idealized structural model to determine stress-resultants (axial forces, shear forces,
torsions & bending moments) and their effects (deformations).
4. Design of structural elements (if assumed dimensions are adequate).
5. Detailed structural drawings and schedule of reinforcing bars.

1.7 DESIGN CODES AND HANDBOOKS

1.7.1. PURPOSE OF CODES

The design engineer is usually guided(regulated) by specifications called the codes of practice. A code is a
set of technical specifications or document intended to control the design and construction. The code can
be legally adopted to see that sound structure are designed and constructed. Code specifies acceptable
methods of design and construction to produce safe and sound structures. National building code have
been formulated in different countries to lay down guidelines for the design and construction of structures.
The codes have evolved from the collective wisdom of expert structural engineers, gained over the years.
These codes are periodically revised to bring them in line with current research, and often, current trends.

The codes serve at least four distinct functions:

1. They ensure adequate structural safety, by specifying certain essential minimum requirements
for design.

2. They render the task of the designer relatively simple; often, the results of sophisticated
analyses are made available in the form of a simple formula or chart.

3. The codes ensure a measure of consistency among different designers.

4. They have some legal validity, in that they protect the structural designer from any liability due
to structural failures that are caused by inadequate supervision and/or faulty material and
construction.

The codes are not meant to serve as a substitute for basic understanding and engineering judgment. The
student is, therefore, forewarned that she/he will make a poor designer if she/he succumbs to the
unfortunate (and all-too-common) habit of blindly following the codes. On the contrary, in order to

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improve her/his understanding, she/he must learn to question the code provisions — as, indeed, she/he
must, nearly everything in life!

1.7.2. INTRODUCTION TO EURO CODES

Current code of practice in Ethiopia is the Euro code 2. The development of the Euro codes started in
1975; since then they have evolved significantly and are now claimed to be the most technically advanced
structural codes in the world. There are ten Euro codes covering all the main structural materials (see
Figure 1-2). The structural Euro codes were initiated by the European Commission but are now produced
by the Comate European de Normalization (CEN) which is the European standards organization. CEN is
publishing the design standards as full European Standards EN (Euro norms):

EN 1990: Euro code: Basis of design (EC0)

EN 1991: Euro code 1 Actions on structures (EC1)
Part 1-1: General actions – Densities, self-weight and imposed loads
Part 1-2: General actions on structures exposed to fire
Part 1-3: General actions – Snow loads
Part 1-4: General actions – Wind loads
Part 1-5: General actions – Thermal actions
Part 1-6: Actions during execution
Part 1-7: Accidental actions from impact and explosions
Part 2: Traffic loads on bridges
Part 3: Actions induced by cranes and machinery
Part 4: Actions in silos and tanks
EN 1992: Euro code 2: Design of concrete structures (EC2)
Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings (EC2 Part 1-1)
Part 1-2: General rules - Structural fire design (EC2 Part 1-2)
Part 2: Reinforced and pre-stressed concrete bridges (EC2 Part 2)
Part 3: Liquid retaining and containing structures (EC2 Part 3)
EN 1993: Euro code 3: Design of steel structures (EC3)
EN 1994: Euro code 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures (EC4)
EN 1995: Euro code 5: Design of timber structures (EC5)

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EN 1996: Euro code 6: Design of masonry structures (EC6)

EN 1997: Euro code 7: Geotechnical design (EC7)
EN 1998: Euro code 8: Earthquake resistant design of structures (EC8)
EN 1999: Euro code 9: Design of aluminum alloy structures (EC9)
All Euro codes follow a common editorial style. The codes contain ‘Principles’ and ‘Application rules’.
Principles are identified by the letter P following the paragraph number. Principles are general statements
and definitions for which there is no alternative, as well as, requirements and analytical models for which
no alternative is permitted unless specifically stated.

Application rules are generally recognized rules which comply with the Principles and satisfy their
requirements. Alternative rules may be used provided that compliance with the Principles can be
demonstrated, however the resulting design cannot be claimed to be wholly in accordance with the Euro
code although it will remain in accordance with Principles.

1.8 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES

Over the years, various design philosophies have evolved in different parts of the world, with regard to
reinforced concrete design. A ‘design philosophy’ is built up on a few fundamental premises
(assumptions), and is reflective of a way of thinking.

The earliest codified design philosophy is the working stress method of design (WSM). Close to a
hundred years old, this traditional method of design, based on linear elastic theory, is still surviving in
some countries, although it is now sidelined by the modern limit states design philosophy.

Historically, the design procedure to follow the WSM was the ultimate load method of design (ULM),
which was developed in the 1950s. Based on the (ultimate) strength of reinforced concrete at ultimate
loads, it evolved and gradually gained acceptance. This method was introduced as an alternative to WSM
in the ACI code in 1956 and the British Code in 1957.

Probabilistic concepts of design developed over the years and received a major impetus from the mid-
1960s onwards. The philosophy was based on the theory that the various uncertainties in design could be
handled more rationally in the mathematical framework of probability theory. The risk involved in the
design was quantified in terms of a probability of failure. Such probabilistic methods came to be known as
reliability-based methods. However, there was little acceptance for this theory in professional practice,
mainly because the theory appeared to be complicated and intractable (mathematically and numerically).

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In order to gain code acceptance, the probabilistic ‘reliability-based’ approach had to be simplified and
reduced to a deterministic format involving multiple (partial) safety factors (rather than probability of
failure). The European Committee for Concrete (CEB) and the International Federation for Pre-stressing
(FIP) were among the earliest to introduce the philosophy of limit states method (LSM) of design, which
is reliability-based in concept. Based on the CEB-FIP recommendations, LSM was introduced in the
British Code CP 110 (1973). In the United States, LSM was introduced in a slightly different format
(strength design and serviceability design) in the ACI 318−71 (now ACI 318-95).

Thus, the past several decades have witnessed an evolution in design philosophy — from the traditional
‘working stress method’, through the ‘ultimate load method’, to the modern ‘limit states method’ of
design.

1.8.1. WORKING STRESS METHOD (WSM)

This was the traditional method of design not only for reinforced concrete, but also for structural steel and
timber design. The conceptual basis of WSM is simple. The method basically assumes that the structural
material behaves in a linear elastic manner, and that adequate safety can be ensured by suitably restricting
the stresses in the material induced by the expected ‘working loads’ (service loads) on the structure. As
the specified permissible (‘allowable’) stresses are kept well below the material strength (i.e., in the initial
phase of the stress-strain curve), the assumption of linear elastic behavior is considered justifiable. The
ratio of the strength of the material to the permissible stress is often referred to as the factor of safety.

The stresses under the applied loads are analyzed by applying the methods of ‘strength of materials’ such
as the simple bending theory. In order to apply such methods to a composite material like reinforced
concrete, strain compatibility (due to bond) is assumed, whereby the strain in the reinforcing steel is
assumed to be equal to that in the adjoining concrete to which it is bonded. Furthermore, as the stresses in
concrete and steel are assumed to be linearly related to their respective strains, it follows that the stress in
steel is linearly related to that in the adjoining concrete by a constant factor (called the modular ratio),
defined as the ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete.

However, the main assumption of linear elastic behavior and the tacit assumption that the stresses under
working loads can be kept within the ‘permissible stresses’ are not found to be realistic. Many factors are
responsible for this — such as the long-term effects of creep and shrinkage, the effects of stress
concentrations, and other secondary effects. All such effects result in significant local increases in and

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redistribution of the calculated stresses. Moreover, WSM does not provide a realistic measure of the
actual factor of safety underlying a design.

WSM also fails to discriminate between different types of loads that act simultaneously, but have different
degrees of uncertainty. This can, at times, result in very un-conservative designs, particularly when two
different loads (say, dead loads and wind loads) have counteracting effects.

Nevertheless, in defense against these and other shortcomings leveled against WSM, it may be stated that
most structures designed in accordance with WSM have been generally performing satisfactorily for many
years. The design usually results in relatively large sections of structural members (compared to ULM and
LSM), thereby resulting in better serviceability performance (less deflections, crack-widths, etc.) under
the usual working loads. The method is also notable for its essential simplicity — in concept, as well as
application.

1.8.2. ULTIMATE LOAD METHOD (ULM)

With the growing realization of the shortcomings of WSM in reinforced concrete design, and with
increased understanding of the behavior of reinforced concrete at ultimate loads, the ultimate load method
of design (ULM) evolved in the 1950s and became an alternative to WSM. This method is sometimes also
referred to as the load factor method or the ultimate strength method.

In this method, the stress condition at the state of impending collapse of the structure is analyzed, and the
non-linear stress−strain curves of concrete and steel are made use of. The concept of ‘modular ratio’ and
its associated problems are avoided entirely in this method. The safety measure in the design is introduced
by an appropriate choice of the load factor, defined as the ratio of the ultimate load (design load) to the
working load. The ultimate load method makes it possible for different types of loads to be assigned
different load factors under combined loading conditions, thereby overcoming the related shortcoming of
WSM.

This method generally results in more slender sections, and often more economical designs of beams and
columns (compared to WSM), particularly when high strength reinforcing steel and concrete are used.

However, the satisfactory ‘strength’ performance at ultimate loads does not guarantee satisfactory
‘serviceability’ performance at the normal service loads. The designs sometimes

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result in excessive deflections and crack-widths under service loads, owing to the slender sections
resulting from the use of high strength reinforcing steel and concrete.

1.8.3. LIMIT STATES METHOD (LSM)

The philosophy of the limit states method of design (LSM) represents a definite advancement over the
traditional design philosophies. Unlike WSM, which based calculations on service load conditions alone,
and unlike ULM, which based calculations on ultimate load conditions alone, LSM aims for a
comprehensive and rational solution to the design problem, by considering safety at ultimate loads and
serviceability at working loads.

The LSM philosophy uses a multiple safety factor format which attempts to provide adequate safety at
ultimate loads as well as adequate serviceability at service loads, by considering all possible ‘limit states’
(defined in the next section). The selection of the various multiple safety factors is supposed to have a
sound probabilistic basis, involving the separate consideration of different kinds of failure, types of
materials and types of loads. In this sense, LSM is more than a mere extension of WSM and ULM. It
represents a new ‘paradigm’ — a modern philosophy.

1) Limit States

When a structure or structural element becomes unfit for its intended use, it is said to have reached a limit
state. The limit states for reinforced concrete structures can be divided into three basic groups:

I. Ultimate limit states. These involve a structural collapse of part or all of the structure. Such a
limit state should have a very low probability of occurrence, because it may lead to loss of life
and major financial losses. The major ultimate limit states are as follows:

a) Loss of equilibrium of a part or all of the structure as a rigid body. Such a failure would
generally involve tipping or sliding of the entire structure and would occur if the reactions
necessary for equilibrium could not be developed.

b) Rupture of critical parts of the structure, leading to partial or complete collapse. The majority
of this document deals with this limit state. Chapters 3 consider flexural failures; Chapter 4
shear failures; and so on.

c) Progressive collapse. In some structures, an overload on one member may cause that member
to fail. The load acting on it is transferred to adjacent members which, in turn, may be

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overloaded and fail, causing them to shed their load to adjacent members, causing them to fail
one after another, until a major part of the structure has collapsed. This is called a progressive
collapse.

Progressive collapse is prevented, or at least is limited, by one or more of the following:

i. Controlling accidental events by taking measures such as protection against vehicle collisions or
explosions.
ii. Providing local resistance by designing key members to resist accidental events.
iii. Providing minimum horizontal and vertical ties to transfer forces.
iv. Providing alternative lines of support to anchor the tie forces.
v. Limiting the spread of damage by subdividing the building with planes of weakness sometimes
referred to as structural fuses.
A structure is said to have general structural integrity if it is resistant to progressive collapse. For example,
an explosion or a vehicle collision may accidentally remove a column that supports an interior support of
a two-span continuous beam. If properly detailed, the structural system may change from two spans to one
long span. This would entail large deflections and a change in the load path from beam action to catenary
or tension membrane action. Most building Codes require continuous ties of tensile reinforcement around
the perimeter of the building at each floor to reduce the risk of progressive collapse. The ties provide
reactions to anchor the catenary forces and limit the spread of damage. Because such failures are most apt
to occur during construction, the designer should be aware of the applicable construction loads and
procedures.

d) Formation of a plastic mechanism. A mechanism is formed when the reinforcement yields to

form plastic hinges at enough sections to make the structure unstable.

e) Instability due to deformations of the structure. This type of failure involves buckling

f) Fatigue. Fracture of members due to repeated stress cycles of service loads may cause
collapse.

II. Serviceability limit states. These involve disruption of the functional use of the structure, but not
collapse. Because there is less danger of loss of life, a higher probability of occurrence can
generally be tolerated than in the case of an ultimate limit state. Design for serviceability is
discussed in Chapter 4. The major serviceability limit states include the following:

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a) Excessive deflections for normal service. Excessive deflections may cause machinery to
malfunction, may be visually unacceptable, and may lead to damage to nonstructural elements
or to changes in the distribution of forces. In the case of very flexible roofs, deflections due to
the weight of water on the roof may lead to increased depth of water, increased deflections,
and so on, until the strength of the roof is exceeded. This is a ponding failure and in essence is
a collapse brought about by failure to satisfy a serviceability limit state.

b) Excessive crack widths. Although reinforced concrete must crack before the reinforcement
can function effectively, it is possible to detail the reinforcement to minimize the crack widths.
Excessive crack widths may be unsightly and may allow leakage through the cracks, corrosion
of the reinforcement, and gradual deterioration of the concrete.

a. Undesirable vibrations. Vertical vibrations of floors or bridges and lateral and

torsional vibrations of tall buildings may disturb the users. Vibration effects have rarely
been a problem in reinforced concrete buildings.

III. Special limit states. This class of limit states involves damage or failure due to abnormal
conditions or abnormal loadings and includes:
 Damage or collapse in extreme earthquakes,
 Structural effects of fire, explosions, or vehicular collisions,
 Structural effects of corrosion or deterioration, and
 Long-term physical or chemical instability (normally not a problem with concrete structures).
2) Limit state design process

Limit-states design is a process that involves

1 The identification of all potential modes of failure (i.e., identification of the significant limit
states),
2 The determination of acceptable levels of safety against occurrence of each limit state,
3 Structural design for the significant limit states.
For normal structures, step 2 is carried out by the building-code authorities, who specify the load
combinations and the load factors to be used. For unusual structures, the engineer may need to check
whether the normal levels of safety are adequate. For buildings, a limit-states design starts by selecting the
concrete strength, cement content, cement type, supplementary cementitious materials, water–

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cementitious materials ratio, air content, and cover to the reinforcement to satisfy the durability
requirements of Euro code. Next, the minimum member sizes and minimum covers are chosen to satisfy
the fire-protection requirements of the local building code. Design is then carried out, starting by
proportioning for the ultimate limit states followed by a check of whether the structure will exceed any of
the serviceability limit states. This sequence is followed because the major function of structural members
in buildings is to resist loads without endangering the occupants. For a water tank, however, the limit state
of excessive crack width is of equal importance to any of the ultimate limit states if the structure is to
remain watertight. In such a structure, the design for the limit state of crack width might be considered
before the ultimate limit states are checked. In the design of support beams for an elevated monorail, the
smoothness of the ride is extremely important, and the limit state of deflection may govern the design.

1.9 EURO CODE’S RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LIMIT STATES DESIGN

The salient features of LSM, as prescribed by the Code, are covered here. Details of the design procedure
for various limit states of collapse and serviceability are covered in subsequent sections.
1.9.1. ACTIONS

The term action is used in the Euro codes in order to group together generically all external influences on
a structure’s performance. It encompasses loading by gravity and wind, but includes also vibration,
thermal effects, fire and seismic loading.
Separate combinations of actions are used to check the structure for the design situation being considered.
For each of the particular design situations an appropriate representative value for each action is used.
Representative values of actions
The main actions to be used in load cases used for design are:
Permanent actions G: e.g. self-weight of structures and fixed equipment;
Variable actions Q: e.g. imposed loads on building floors and beams; snow loads on roofs; wind loading
on walls and roofs
Accidental actions A: e.g. fire, explosions and impact.
Permanent actions

The characteristic value of a permanent action Gk  may be a single value if variability is known to be
low (e.g. the self-weight of quality-controlled factory-produced members). If the variability of G cannot
be considered as small, and its magnitude may vary from place to place in the structure, then an upper
value Gk,sup and a lower value Gk,inf

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may occasionally be used.

Variable actions
Up to four types of representative value may be needed for the variable and accidental actions. The types
most commonly used for variable actions are:
The characteristic value Qk
and combinations of the characteristic value with other variable actions, multiplied by different
combination factors:
The combination value  0Qk

The frequent value 1Qk

The quasi-permanent value  2Qk

Explanations of the representative values and the design situations in which they arise are given below.
The ‘ x ’ factors generally reduce the value of a variable action present in an accidental situation
compared with the characteristic value.
Combination value of  0Qk
The combination value is used for checking:
Ultimate limit states;
Irreversible serviceability limit states (e.g. deflections which fracture brittle fittings or finishes). It is
associated with combinations of actions. The combination factor  0 reduces Qk because of
the low probability of the most unfavorable values of several independent actions occurring
simultaneously.
Frequent value 1Qk
The frequent value is used for checking:
Ultimate limit states involving accidental actions;
Reversible serviceability limit states, primarily associated with frequent combinations.
In both cases the reduction factor  1 multiplies the leading variable action. The frequent value

1Qk of a variable action Q is determined so that the total proportion of a chosen period of time during
which Q exceeds 1Qk is less than a specified small part of the period.

Quasi-permanent value  2Qk

The quasi-permanent value is used for checking:

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Ultimate limit states involving accidental actions;

Reversible serviceability limit states.
Quasi-permanent values are also used for the calculation of long-term effects (e.g. cosmetic cracking of a
slab) and to represent combinations of variable seismic actions. The quasi- permanent value  2Qk is

defined so that the total proportion of a chosen period of time during which Q exceeds  2Qk is a
considerable part (more than half) of the chosen period.
Load combinations for design
The values of actions to be used in design are governed by a number of factors. These include:
The nature of the load. Whether the action is permanent, variable or accidental, as the confidence in the
description of each will vary.
The limit state being considered. Clearly, the value of an action governing design must be higher for the
ultimate limit state than for serviceability for persistent and transient design situations. Further, under
serviceability conditions, loads vary with time, and the design load to be considered could vary
substantially. Realistic serviceability loads should be modeled appropriate to the aspect of the behavior
being checked (e.g. deflection, cracking or settlement). For example, creep and settlement are functions of
permanent loads only.
The number of variable loads acting simultaneously. Statistically, it is improbable that all loads will act at
their full characteristic value at the same time. To allow for this, the characteristic values of actions will
need modification.

Consider the case of permanent action Gk  and one variable action Qk  only. For the ultimate limit
state the characteristic values should be magnified, and the load may be represented as
GGk  QQk , where the  factors are the partial safety factors. The values of G and Q will be
different, and will be a reflection of the variabilities of the two loads being different. The gamma factors
account for:
The possibility of unfavourable deviation of the loads from the characteristic values
Inaccuracies in the analyses
Unforeseen redistribution of stress
Variations in the geometry of the structure and its elements, as this affects the determination of the action
effects.
Now consider the case of a structure subject to variable actions Q1 and Q2 simultaneously. If Q1

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and Q2 are independent, i.e. the occurrence and magnitude of Q1 does not depend on the
occurrence and magnitude of Q2
is said to produce a combination value of the load. It should be noted that
is said to produce a combination value of the load. It should be noted that
the values of  and  0
and vice versa, then it would be unrealistic to use
Q,1Qk,1  Q,2Qk,2

as the two loads are unlikely to act at their maximum at the same time. Joint
probabilities will need to be considered to ensure that the probability of occurrence of the two loads is the
same as that of a single load. It will be more reasonable to consider one load at its maximum in
conjunction with a reduced value for the other load. Thus, we have two possibilities:

 Q,1Qk,1   0,2  Q,2Qk,2  (2)

Or

 0,1  Q,1Qk,1    Q,2Qk,2 (3)

Multiplication by  0
vary with each load.
The above discussion illustrates the thinking behind the method of combining loads for an ultimate limit
state check. Similar logic is applied to the estimation of loads for the different serviceability checks.

Ultimate limit state

The following ultimate limit states shall be verified as relevant:
EQU: Loss of static equilibrium of the structure or any part of it considered as a rigid body, where:
Minor variations in the value or the spatial distribution of actions from a single source are significant, and
The strengths of construction materials or ground are generally not governing;
STR: Internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure or structural members, including footings,
piles, basement walls, etc., where the strength of construction materials of the structure governs;
GEO: Failure or excessive deformation of the ground where the strengths of soil or rock are significant in
providing resistance;
FAT: Fatigue failure of the structure or structural members. Combinations of actions
Persistent and transient situations – fundamental combinations.
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In the following paragraphs, various generalized combinations of loads are expressed symbolically. It
should be noted that the ‘+’ symbol in the expressions does not have the normal mathematical meaning, as
the directions of loads could be different. It is best to read it as meaning ‘combined with’.
EN 1990 gives three separate sets of load combinations, namely EQU (to check against loss of
equilibrium), STR (internal failure of the structure governed by the strength of the construction materials)
and GEO (failure of the ground, where the strength of soil provides the significant resistance).
Equilibrium: Equilibrium is verified using the load combination Set A in the code, which is as follows:

G,JGk, j  Q,1Qk,1  Q,i0,iQk,i (4)

G, j ,supGk, j ,sup is used when the permanent loads are unfavorable, andG, j ,infGk, j ,inf

is used when the permanent actions are favourable. Numerically, when unfavourable and 0 when
favourable.
G, j,sup  1.1 ,

G, j,inf  0.9 , and Q  1.5

The above format applies to the verification of the structure as a rigid body (e.g. overturning of retaining
walls). A separate verification of the limit state of rupture of structural elements should normally be
undertaken using the format given below for strength. In cases where the verification of equilibrium also
involves the resistance of the structural member (e.g. overhanging cantilevers), the strength verification
given below without the above equilibrium check may be adopted. In such verifications, G, j,inf  1.15
should be used.
Strength: when a design does not involve geotechnical actions, the strength of elements should be verified
using load combination Set B. two options are given. Either combination (6.10) from EN 1990 or the less
favourable of equations (6.10a) and (6.10b) may be used:

G, jGk, j  Q,1Qk,1  Q,i0,iQk,i (5)

G, j ,supGk, j ,sup is used when the permanent loads are unfavourable , and G, j ,infGk, j ,inf is used when the

permanent actions are favourable. Numerically, when unfavourable and 0 when favourable (EN1990)G,

j,sup
 1.35 , G, j,inf 1.0 , and  1.5
Q

G, jGk, j  Q,i0,iQk,i (6)

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G, jGk, j  Q,1Qk,1  Q,i0,iQk,i (7)

Numerically,   0.925,G, j ,sup  1.35,G, j ,inf  1.0 and Q  1.5 when unfavourable and 0 when favourable
(EN 1990)
The above combinations assume that a number of variable actions are present at the same time.
Qk,1 is the dominant load if it is obvious, otherwise each load is in turn treated as a dominant

load and the other as secondary. The dominant load is then combined with the combination value of the
secondary loads. Both are multiplied by their respective  values.
The magnitude of the load resulting from equations (6.10a) and (6.10b) will always be less than that from
equation (6.10).

Now turning to the factorsG,inf

And G,sup , it will be noted that the numerical values are

different in the verification of equilibrium and that of strength. For instance, in an overhanging

cantilever beam, the multiplier for self-weight in the cantilever section will be 1.1 G,sup  and that in the

anchor span will be 0.9  G,cnf  . The possible explanation for  G,sup1.35 as in the strength check is that

The variability in self-weight of the element is unlikely to be large being 1.1 and not
The factor 1.35 has built into it an allowance for structural performance (which is necessary only for
strength checks)
The loading in the cantilever will also generally include variable actions, partial safety factors for which
will ensure a reasonable overall safety factor.
When a design involves geotechnical action, a number of approaches are given in EN 1990, and the
choice of the method is a Nationally Determined Parameter.
Accidental design situation The load combination recommended is

Gk, j  Ad 1,iQk,1  2,iQk,i (8)

where Ad is the design value of accidental action, Qk,1 is the main variable action accompanying
the accidental action and Qk,i are other variable actions.
Accidents are unintended events such as explosions, fire or vehicular impact, which are of short duration
and which have a low probability of occurrence. Also, a degree of damage is generally
acceptable in the event of an accident. The loading model should attempt to describe the magnitude of

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other variable loads which are likely to occur in conjunction with the accidental load. Accidents generally
occur in structures in use. Therefore, the values of variable actions will be less than those used for the
fundamental combination of loads in (1) above. To provide a realistic variable load combining with the
accidental load, the variable actions are multiplied by
different (and generally lower)  factors. Multiplier  1 is applied to the dominant action, and

 2 to the others. Where the dominant action is not obvious, each variable action present is in turn treated
as dominant. Q for accidental situations is unity.

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