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Lesson 2

HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS OF SCIENCE

TECHNOLOGY

One of the key interests of STS as an academic field is the history of

science and technology. As a strand of STS, the history of science and
technology focuses on how science and technology have changed across
time. Also, it explores the impacts of scientific and technological
innovations on the prevailing social, cultural, political, and economic
context throughout history. Conversely, it also pays attention to the
conditions that shaped science and technology. Quite often, interests lie in
historical antecedents of scientific and technological innovations.

An antecedent is defined as a precursor to the unfolding or existence

of something. Thus, historical antecedents in science and technology are
factors that paved the way for the presence of advanced and sophisticated
scientific and technological innovations today. Knowledge of the history of
science and technology is useful in appraising these innovations today. By
understanding how previous generations influenced and were influenced by
developments in science and technology, today's generation can come up
with informed decisions on the proper applications of science and
technology to daily life.

ANCIENT PERIOD

The rise of ancient civilizations paved the way for advances in

science and technology. These advances during the Ancient period allowed
civilizations to flourish by finding better ways of communication,
transportation, self-organization, and living in general.

Sumerian Wheel Potter's Wheel

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Ancient Wheel

People from ancient civilizations used animals for transportation long

before the invention of the wheel. No one knows exactly who invented the wheel
and when. There is, however, a general agreement that the ancient wheel grew
out of a mechanical device called the potter's wheel - a heavy flat disk made of
hardened clay which was spun horizontally on axis. It is believed that the
Sumerians invented the potter's wheel shortly after 3,500 BC. The invention of
the ancient wheel is often credited to the Sumerian since no other ancient
civilization used a similar device at the time. It could be that a potter thought of
shifting the potter's wheel to a 90-degree angle for the purpose of transportation
or the wheel was reinvented for this purpose. Nonetheless, it would not be until
1000 to 1500 years later that the wheel was first used on carts.

Paper

Roughly around 3000 BC, the ancient Egyptians began writing on papyrus,

a material similar to thick paper. Papyrus

is made from the pith of the papyrus
plant Cyperus papyrus. It is lightweight,

importantly, portable. Before the Egyptians invented the papyrus, the writing
was done on stone. Because of the difficulty of writing on stone, the writing was
reserved only for very important occasions. With the advent of the papyrus,
documentation and record-keeping became efficient, widespread, and vast.
Through its use, information dissemination became exponentially faster. Records
were kept and stood the test of time.

Shadoof

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The shadoof was an early tool invented and

used by ancient Egyptians to irrigate the land.
Among Egyptians who lived near the Nile River,
irrigation was necessary to water their crops. The
shadoof, also spelled as shaduf, is a hand-
operated device used for lifting water. Its
invention introduced the idea of lifting things
using counterweights. Because of this
invention, irrigation and farming became much
more efficient. The shadoof is also believed to be
an ancient precursor of more sophisticated
irrigation tools.

Antikythera mechanism
Even before the invention of the antecedents of the modern computer,
the Greeks had already invented the ancient world's analog computer orrery.
Discovered in 1902 and retrieved from the waters of Antikythera, Greece, the
Antikythera mechanism is similar to a mantel clock. Upon its discovery, the bits
of wood seen on its fragments suggest that it must have been housed in a
wooden case. It is akin to a clock in the way that the case has a circular face and
rotating hands. A knob on the side makes it possible for it to be wound forward
or backward. As this knob moves forward or backward, its mechanism allows it
to display celestial time. Thus, it is widely believed that the Antikythera
mechanism was used to predict astronomical positions and eclipses for calendar
and astrological purposes. It is also believed that the Antikythera mechanism,
which is one of the oldest known antecedents of modern clockwork, was
invented by Greek scientists between 150-100BC.

Aeolipile
Also known as the Hero's engine, the aeolipile is widely believed to be the
ancient precursor of the steam engine. Hero of Alexandria is credited for the
demonstration of the use of the aeolipile during the 1 st century AD. The aeolipile
is a steam-powered turbine which spun when the water container at its center
was heated, thus making it practically the first rudimentary steam engine. It is
not clear whether the aeolipile served any practical purpose, but it is believed to
be one of many "temple wonders" at the time. Nonetheless, Vitruvius, a
Roman author, architect, and civil engineer described the aeolipile as a scientific
invention through which "the mighty and wonderful
laws of the heavens and the nature of winds" may be
understood and judged.
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MIDDLE AGES

Between the collapse of the Roman Empire in the 5 th century AD and the
colonial expansion of Western Europe in late 15 th century AD, major advances in
scientific and technological development took place. These include a steady
increase of new inventions, the introduction of innovations in traditional
production, and the emergence of scientific thinking and method. The Middle
Ages was not a stagnant as alternate terms such as the 'Medieval Period' or
'Dark Ages' suggest. In fact, many medieval universities at the time stirred
scientific thinking and built infrastructures for scientific communities to flourish.
As such, some of humanity's most important present-day technologies could be
traced back to their historical antecedents in the Middle Ages.

Heavy Plough

Perhaps one of the most important technological innovations during the

middle ages is the invention of the heavy plow. Clay soil, despite being more
fertile than lighter types of soil, was not cultivated because of its heavy weight.
However, through the invention of the heavy plow, it became possible to
harness clay soil. Professor Thomas Bernebeck Andersen of the University of
Southern Denmark succinctly describes the impact of the invention of the heavy
plow. "The heavy plow turned European agriculture and economy on its head.
Suddenly, the fields with the heavy, fatty, and moist clay soils became those that
gave the greatest yields." Because of this, Europe, particularly its northern
territories, saw rapid economic prosperity. The heavy plow stirred an
agricultural revolution in Northern Europe marked by higher and healthier
agricultural yields and more efficient agricultural practices.

Gunpowder

Around 850 AD, Chinese alchemists accidentally invented black powder

or gunpowder. Multiple accounts suggest that the gunpowder might have been
an unintended byproduct of attempts made by the Chinese to invent the elixir
of life, which is why the Chinese called it huoyao, roughly translated as "fire
potion." Prior to the invention of the gunpowder, swords and spears were used
in battles and wars. Towards the end of the 13th century, the explosive
invention crept into most parts of Europe and Asia.

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Since its invention, the gunpowder

has allowed for more advanced
warfare. From fiery arrows to cannons
and grenades, the gunpowder has
prompted foundation for the
functionality of almost every new
weapon used in war since its
invention. It ushered in an
unprecedented advancement in
warfare and combat throughout the
Middle Ages.

Paper Money
Although it was not until the 17th century that bank notes began to be used
in Europe, the first known
versions of paper money
could be traced back to
the Chinese in 17th
century AD as an offshoot
of the invention of block
printing, which is similar
to stamping. Before
the introduction
of paper
money, precious
metals, such as gold
and silver were used as
currency. However, the
idea of assigning value to a marked piece of paper did not immediately become
popular. In fact, when the Mongols attempted to introduce paper money into the
Middle East market in the 13 th century, it did not gain immediate success.
Nonetheless, traders and merchants eventually realized the huge advantage of
using paper money because it was easier to transport around compared to the
previous forms of currencies.

Mechanical Clock
Although devices for timekeeping and recording sprung the ancient times,
such as the Antikythera mechanism, it was not until the Middle Ages that
clockwork technology was developed. The development of mechanical clocks
paved the way for accurately keeping track of time. The sophistication of
clockwork technology of the mechanical clock drastically changed the way days
were spent and work patterns were established, particularly in the more
advanced Middle Age cities.

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A medieval mechanical clock found in Prague, Czech Republic

Spinning Wheel

Another important invention of the Middle Ages is the

spinning wheel, a machine used for transforming fiber
into thread or yarn and eventually woven into cloth on a
loom. Although no consensus could be made regarding
the origin of the spinning wheel, it is theorized that the
Indians invented the spinning wheel between 6 th and 11
th
century AD. Prior to the invention of the spinning
wheel, weaving was done predominantly through the
more time-consuming and tedious process of hand
spinning. According to White (1974), the invention of the
spinning wheel speed up the rate at which fiber could be
spun by a factor of 10 to 100 times. Thus, White argued that this invention
ushered in a breakthrough in linen production when it was introduced in Europe
in the 13th century AD.

MODERN AGES

As the world population steadily increased, people of the Modern Ages

realized the utmost importance of increasing the efficiency of transportation,
communication, and production. Industrialization took place with greater risks in
human health, food safety, and environment which had to be addressed as
scientific and technological progress unfolded at an unimaginable speed.

Compound Microscope

A Dutch spectacle maker named Zacharias Janssen id credited for the

invention of the first compound microscope in 1590. Together with his father
Hans, Zacharias began experimenting with lenses by outing together several
lenses on a tube. This led to an amazing discovery that an object, when placed
near the end of the tube, can be magnified far larger than

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what a simple magnifying lens can do.

Janssen's compound microscope was an
important progression from the single lens
microscope. It was capable of magnifying
objects three times their size when fully
closed and up to ten times when extended
to the maximum. Today, the compound
microscope is an important
instrument in many scientific studies, such
as in the areas of medicine, forensic
studies, tissue analysis, atomic studies, and
genetics.

Telescope
Perhaps the single, most important technological invention in the study of
astronomy during the Modern Ages was the practical telescope invented by
Galileo Galilei. This invention could magnify objects 20 times larger than the
Dutch perspective glasses. It was Galileo who first used the telescope skyward
and made important astronomical
discoveries, and identified the presence
of craters and mountains on
the moon. Galileo's remarkable
technological contribution drastically changed the study of astronomy. For the first
time, it became clear that the universe is
far larger than previously imagined and
the Earth for smaller compared to the entire universe.

Jacquard Loom
As the Industrial Revolution reached full
speed, the Jacquard loom was considered as
one of the most critical drivers of the
revolution. Built by French weaver Joseph
Marie Jacquard, the Jacquard loom
simplifies textile manufacturing.
Prior to the invention of the Jacquard loom, a
drawloom was used which required two
individuals to operate the weaver and a
"drawboy" if figured designs on textiles were
needed. As such, intensified manual labor and
greater effort had to be exerted to produce
complex designs. In 1801, Jacquard
demonstrated the ingenuity of his version of a
loom in

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which a series of cards with punched holes automatically created

complex textile designs and made mass production easier. The Jacquard
loom is also an important antecedent of modern computer technology as
it demonstrated the use of punched cards to instruct a machine to carry
out complex tasks, i.e., making different textile patterns.

Engine-Powered Airplane

Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright are credited for designing and
successfully operating the first engine-powered aircraft. The Wright
brothers approached the design of powered aircraft and flight
scientifically.
Orville and
Wilbur proved
that aircraft
could fly without
airfoilshaped
wings. They
demonstrated
this in
their original
Flying
Machine patent
(US patent
#821393), showing that slightly-tilted wings, which they referred to as
airplanes, were the key features of a powered aircraft. Their pioneering
success marked an age of powered flights. Sans modern knowledge on
aerodynamics and a comprehensive understanding of the working of
aircraft wings, the Wright brothers were brilliant scientists who paved the
way for modern aircraft technology.

Television

The Scottish engineer John Logie Baird is largely credited for the
invention of the modern television. Baird successfully televised objects in
outline in 1924,
recognizable human faces
in 1925, and moving objects
in 1926, and projected
colored images in 1928.
Baird's television
technology caught on really
swiftly. In fact, the British
Broadcasting Corporation
(BBC) used this for its
earliest television
programming in 1929. Despite being the first television invented, Baird's
television was later on criticized for its fuzzy
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and flickering images, primarily because it was mechanical compared to

electronic versions that were developed much later.

INVENTIONS BY FILIPINO SCIENTISTS

The Philippines boasts of its own history and tradition of scientific

and technological innovations. Filipinos have long been known for their
ingenuity. As with all other inventions, necessity has always been the
mother of Philippine inventions. Most of the inventions appealed to the
unique social and cultural context of the archipelagic nation. Throughout
Philippine history, Filipinos are responsible for developing many scientific
and technological innovations focused on navigation, traditional
shipbuilding, textiles, food processing, indigenous arts and techniques,
and even cultural inventions. The following are some of the most
important inventions by Filipino scientists.

Electronic Jeepney (e-jeepney)

The jeepney is perhaps one of the most recognizable national
symbols of the Philippines and the most popular mode of public
transportation in the country. It is also perhaps one of the most enduring
symbols of Filipino ingenuity. Jeepneys were designed and improvised
from scratch out of military jeeps
that the Americans left in the
country after World War ll. As
demand for more responsive
transportation technology arose, the
e-jeepney was introduced in Metro
Manila and Bacolod City. The e-
jeepney is the inventive response to
criticisms to the traditional jeepney
that belched smoke, directly causing
air pollution which made it
unsustainable and uneconomical. Ejeepneys are designed to be
environment-friendly, eliminating noise and air pollution as they run on
electricity. They are also more economical for electricity is far cheaper
than ordinary diesel, allowing jeepney drivers to earn more profit.

Erythromycin

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its name. As with the case of several other local scientists, however,
Aguilar was not credited for this discovery by Eli Lilli Co, Aguilar's US
employer, to whom he sent the strain for separation. The US company
eventually owned the merits for this delivery.

Medical Incubator

World-renowned Filipino
pediatrician and national scientist, Fe del Mundo, is credited for the
invention of the incubator and jaundice relieving device. Del Mundo was
the first woman pediatrician to be
admitted to the prestigious Harvard
University's School of Medicine. She is
also the founder of the first pediatric
hospital in the country. Her pioneering
work in pediatrics that spanned a total
of eight decades won her the 1977
Ramon Magsaysay Award, Asia's
premier prize granted to outstanding
individuals whose selfless service
remarkably contributed to the
betterment of society. Her original
improvised incubator consisted of two
native laundry baskets of different sizes
that are placed one inside the other.
Warmth is generated by bottles with hot water placed around the baskets.
A makeshift hood over the baskets allows oxygen to circulate inside the
incubator. Del Mundo's incubator was particularly outstanding as it
addressed the state of Philippine rural communities that had no electricity
to aid the regulation of body temperature of newborn babies. For this
purpose, del Mundo's
invention was truly ingenious.

Mole Remover

In 2000, a local
invention that had the ability
to easily remove moles and
warts on the skin without the
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need for any surgical procedure shot to fame. Rolando dela Cruz is
credited for the invention of a local mole remover that made use of
extracts of cashew nuts (Ånnacardium occidentale), which are very
common in the
Philippines. The indigenous

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formula easily caught on for its accessibility, affordability, and painless and
scarless procedure. Dela Cruz won a gold medal for this invention in the
International Invention, Innovation, Industrial Design, and Technology
Exhibition in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia in 2000.

Banana Ketchup

Filipino food
technologist, Maria Orosa, is
credited for the
invention of banana
ketchup, a variety of ketchup
different from the commonly
known tomato ketchup. Her
invention appeals particularly
to Filipinos who love using
condiments to go along with
their food. Historical accounts
posit that Orosa invented the
banana ketchup at the
backdrop of World War Il when
there was a huge shortage of
tomatoes. As a result, Orosa developed a variety of ketchup that made use of
mashed banana, sugar, vinegar, and spices, which were all readily available.
Orosa's banana ketchup is brownish-yellow in natural color but is dyed red
to resemble the color of the most loved tomato ketchup.

Salamander Amphibious Tricycle

It has
become ordinary for
Filipinos to convert
transport vehicles into
something more useful.
An example is the
conversion of American
military jeeps used in
World War Il into
jeepneys. Another Filipino
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innovation is the addition of a sidecar to a motorcycle, transforming it

into a tricycle to accommodate more passengers.

During the rainy season, flooding is a common occurrence in many

areas in the country. Tricycles find it very difficult to traverse the streets.
To remedy the issue, H20 Technologies headed by Dominic N. Chung and
Lamberto Armada, together with Chief Designer Victor "Atoy" Llave, was
able to invent the Salamander, an amphibious tricycle that can cross not

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only flooded streets but also rivers and lakes. It may also be utilized to
travel from island to island. Since the Philippines is an archipelago, the
salamander is a useful invention that has a lot of potentials.

Salt Lamp

One of the major needs in the Philippines, as a developing nation,

is electrification. Electricity powers various types of machines, including
light sources. In many rural areas in the country, activities would cease
when it gets dark. It also becomes more dangerous to travel. Filipinos
have resorted to using candles and kerosene lamps but they carry certain
risks as they are fire hazards. Solar
power is also a welcome development
but like rechargeable batteries, solar
panels are too expensive for ordinary
Filipinos. Fortunately, a young Filipina
inventor named Aisa Mijeno was able
to invent a lighting system that utilizes a
material abundant in the Philippines -
saltwater. She invented the
Sustainable Alternative Lighting (SALt)
lamp, an environment-friendly light
source that runs on saltwater. The SALt lamp is safer as it poses no risk of
fire and emits no toxic gases. Aside from people who live in coastal areas,
it may their own saltwater by mixing two tablespoons of salt and a glass
of tap water.

Mosquito Ovicidal/Larvicidal Trap System

Dengue, a
mosquitoborne viral
illness, is
endemic in tropical and
subtropical areas,
including the
Philippines. This virus is
usually transmitted
by Aedes aegypti
mosquito, rampant
during the rainy

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season. Insecticides were previously used to kill the species. However,

recent studies show that insecticide resistance has evolved in some
mosquito populations. Likewise, using insecticides is harmful not only to
humans but also to the environment. In 2010, the Department of Science
and Technology - Industrial Technology
Development Institute (DOST-ITDI) was able to introduce the Mosquito

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Ovicidal/Larvicidal Trap System, also known as the OL Trap. This trap system is made of
natural ingredients that are lethal to mosquitos but safe for humans and the
environment.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Guide Questions

1. Give three other major scientific and technological developments in the world
(or in the Philippines) that created a large impact on your daily life.
2. What historical antecedents gave rise to the inventions you mentioned in the
first question?
3. How did developments in science and technology shape human history?

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