February 2018

A 5-Point Intervention
Approach for Enhancing
Equity in School Discipline
Kent McIntosh, Erik J. Girvan, Robert H. Horner, Keith Smolkowski, & George Sugai

Discipline disproportionality is one of the most significant problems in education today

(Gregory, Skiba, & Noguera, 2010; U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2013). The
results of decades of research consistently show that students of color, particularly African
American students (and even more so for African American boys and those with disabilities),
are at significantly increased risk for receiving exclusionary discipline practices, including
office discipline referrals and suspensions (e.g., Fabelo et al., 2011; Girvan et al., in press;
Losen & Gillespie, 2012). These differences have been found consistently across geographic
regions and cannot be adequately explained by the correlation between race and poverty
(Noltemeyer & Mcloughlin, 2010; Morris & Perry, 2016). Given the negative effects of
exclusionary discipline on a range of student outcomes (American Academy of Pediatrics
Council on School Health, 2013), educators must address this issue by identifying rates
of discipline disproportionality, taking steps to reduce it, and monitoring the effects of
intervention on disproportionality. Disproportionality in exclusionary discipline blocks us
from the overall objective of promoting positive outcomes for every student.

Components of Effective 1. Collect, Use, and Report

Intervention to Prevent and Disaggregated Discipline Data
Reduce Discipline Disproportionality Any school or district committed to reducing discipline
No single strategy will be sufficient to produce substantive disproportionality should adopt data systems that can
and sustainable change. Multiple components may be needed, disaggregate student data by race, ethnicity, and disability
but not all components may be necessary in all schools. We and provide instantaneous access to these data for both
describe here a 5-point multicomponent approach to reduce school and district teams. Some discipline data systems
discipline disproportionality in schools. for entering and analyzing office discipline referrals

Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (PBIS) 1

and suspensions, such as the School-wide Information SWPBIS is particularly relevant to the challenge of
System (SWIS; www.swis.org), can automatically discipline disproportionality for three reasons. First,
produce disproportionality data for identifying and because of its focus on establishing a clear, consistent,
monitoring the extent of disproportionality in office and positive social culture, identifying and teaching clear
discipline referrals and suspensions. Risk ratios and rates expectations for behavior can reduce ambiguity for both
of discipline by racial/ethnic group are two recommended students (e.g., it is not assumed that all students know
metrics for assessing and monitoring disproportionality. what being respectful at school “looks like”) and adults
These data can easily be added to monthly school team (e.g., expectations and violations are clearer, reducing
meeting agendas, as well as built into district and state ambiguity). These expectations can be developed
accountability systems. The OSEP Center on PBIS (www. collaboratively with students, families, and community
pbis.org) has produced a free guide for school teams members, as well as assessed for their congruence with the
in using discipline data to address equity across race, range of student and family cultural values in the school
ethnicity and disability (http://bit.ly/DisproGuide). (Fallon, O’Keeffe, & Sugai, 2012). Second, the SWPBIS
focus on clear discipline definitions and procedures can
2. Implement a Behavior Framework reduce ambiguity in discipline decisions, decreasing the
that is Preventive, Multi-Tiered, effects of implicit racial and ability bias (Kelly & Barnes-
and Culturally Responsive Holmes, 2013; Lai, Hoffman, Nosek, & Greenwald, 2013).
Whether they do it with intention or implicitly, school Third, the focus of SWPBIS on instructional approaches to
staff are responsible for establishing a school culture. That discipline and integration with academic systems can keep
culture can engage students or make them more likely students in the classroom and learning instead of removed
to drop out. School staff can use a common framework from instruction (Sugai, O’Keeffe, & Fallon, 2012).
to develop a school culture that supports every student.
Research to date on the effects of SWPBIS on discipline
Effective frameworks are evidence-based, have a teaching
disproportionality is promising. Recent case studies have
focus, and are flexible enough to be adapted to meet
shown decreased discipline disparities over time for
the needs of students, families, and the community.
schools implementing PBIS (Betters-Bubon, Brunner,
One example of such a framework is school-wide positive & Kansteiner, 2016; McIntosh, Ellwood, McCall, &
behavioral interventions and supports (SWPBIS). SWPBIS Girvan, 2018). Evaluation studies have shown statistically
focuses on improving behavior by teaching students significantly reduced discipline disproportionality
prosocial skills and redesigning school environments to in schools implementing SWPBIS than those not
discourage problem behavior (Sugai & Horner, 2009). Core implementing SWPBIS (Vincent, Swain-Bradway,
features of SWPBIS include (a) defining and teaching a Tobin, & May, 2011). In addition, a recent national
small set of positive, school-wide behavior expectations to study showed decreased racial disparities in suspension
all students, (b) establishing a regular pattern in which all for schools implementing SWPBIS when compared to
adults acknowledge and reward appropriate student behavior, national averages (McIntosh, Gion, & Bastable, 2018).
(c) minimizing the likelihood that problem behaviors
Although implementing SWPBIS without specific
will be inadvertently rewarded, and (d) collecting and
attention to student culture may reduce rates of
using discipline and implementation data to guide efforts.
exclusionary discipline, it is unlikely to reduce
SWPBIS also incorporates a multi-tiered system of support
discipline disparities. Instead, school teams can
so that students needing more intensive support gain
consider the cultural responsiveness of their SWPBIS
access to increasingly individualized support options.

Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (PBIS) 2

systems. The Center has developed a PBIS Cultural outcomes into administrator and teacher evaluation
Responsiveness Field Guide (Leverson et al., processes (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006). The Center has
2016; http://bit.ly/CulturalResponsivenessGuide) released a guide for enhancing discipline policies to achieve
for coaches and district teams to aid in improving equity (Green et al., 2015; http://bit.ly/DisproPolicyGuide).
contextual fit of their SWPBIS systems.
5. Teach Strategies for Neutralizing
3. Use Engaging Instruction to Reduce Implicit Bias in Discipline Decisions
the Opportunity (Achievement) Gap New research is showing that there are specific situations
in which implicit (unconscious) bias is more likely to
Because of the well-documented relation between
influence decision making, also known as vulnerable
academic achievement and problem behavior (McIntosh,
decision points (McIntosh et al., 2014). In school settings,
Sadler, & Brown, 2012) and the opportunity gap between
the following situations may be more likely to be prone
students of color and White students (Gregory et al.,
to biased decision-making: subjective student behavior
2010), ensuring that each student has access to effective
(e.g., defiance, disrespect, disruption) in classrooms
academic instruction may reduce disproportionality.1 An
at the start of the school day (Smoklowski, Girvan,
evidence-based definition of engaging instruction includes
McIntosh, Nese, & Horner, 2016). However, these
the following strategies: (a) using explicit instruction,
situations may vary from school to school or individual
(b) building and priming background knowledge, (c)
to individual, and teams can use the aforementioned
increasing opportunities to respond, and (d) providing
data guide (http://bit.ly/DisproGuide) to identify these
performance feedback (Chaparro, Nese, & McIntosh, 2015;
patterns (McIntosh, Ellwood, McCall, & Girvan, 2018).
Hattie, 2009). Using these strategies has been shown to
decrease the opportunity gap (Chaparro, Helton, & Sadler, In these situations, using a self-review routine just
2015). The Center on PBIS has released a brief on using prior to a making a discipline decision may neutralize
engaging instruction (http://bit.ly/EngagingInstruction). the effects of implicit bias, especially in situations
that are chaotic, ambiguous, or seem to demand snap
4. Develop Policies with Accountability
judgments (Lai et al., 2013). Research in other fields
for Disciplinary Equity
(Mendoza, Gollwitzer, & Amodio, 2010) suggests that
Many policies include an explicit commitment to equity short “if-then” statements are most effective (e.g., “If a
in general and special education, but it is more important student is disrespectful, then handle it after class”).
for policies to have clear steps to achieve equity and
accountability for taking these steps (Devine, Forscher,
Austin, & Cox, 2012; Petersen & Togstad, 2006). Effective
policies include clear, actionable procedures for enhancing
equity (e.g., remove harmful practices, data collection,
hiring preferences, professional development). Hiring
procedures should include a preference for individuals
with a commitment to educational equity. In addition,
the procedures should have true accountability, such
as inclusion of racial and disability disciplinary equity

1. We use the term opportunity gap in place of achievement gap because it focuses on the support we can provide (i.e., what educators can do) rather than
within-student deficits.

Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (PBIS) 3

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Suggested Citation for this Publication

McIntosh, K., Girvan, E. J., Horner, R. H., Smolkowski, K., & Sugai, G. (2018). A 5-point intervention approach
for enhancing equity in school discipline. OSEP Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions
and Supports.

This project is supported by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP). Opinions ex-
pressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the position of the U.S. Department of Education

Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports (PBIS) 5