Chemistry 2

3
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WHAT’S AHEAD
CHEMICAL
3.1 ▶ Chemical Equations Use chemical
formulas to write equations representing
chemical reactions.
REACTIONS 3.2 ▶ Simple Patterns of Chemical

Reactivity Examine some simple
chemical reactions: combination reactions,
AND REACTION
decomposition reactions, and combustion
reactions.
3.3 ▶ Formula Weights Learn to obtain
STOICHIOMETRY quantitative information from chemical

formulas by using formula weights.
3.4 ▶ Avogadro’s Number and the

Mole Use chemical formulas to relate the
Have you ever mixed vinegar with masses of substances to the numbers of
atoms, molecules, or ions contained in the
baking soda? If so, you know the result is an substances, a relationship that leads to the
crucially important concept of the mole,
immediate and effervescent cascade of bubbles. defined as 6.022 * 1023 objects (atoms,
molecules, ions, and so on).
The bubbles contain carbon dioxide gas that
is produced by the chemical reaction between 3.5 ▶ Empirical Formulas from
Analyses Apply the mole concept to
sodium bicarbonate in the baking soda and acetic determine chemical formulas from the
masses of each element in a given quantity
acid in the vinegar. of a compound.
The bubbles released when baking soda reacts with an acid play an 3.6 ▶ Quantitative Information from
important role in baking, where the release of gaseous CO2 causes the Balanced Equations Use the
dough in your biscuits or the batter in your pancakes to rise. An alterna- quantitative information inherent in
chemical formulas and equations together
tive way to produce CO2 in cooking is to use yeasts that rely on chemical
with the mole concept to predict the
reactions to convert sugar into CO2, ethanol, and other organic com-
amounts of substances consumed or
pounds. These types of chemical reactions have been used for thousands produced in chemical reactions.
of years in the baking of breads as well as in the production of alcoholic
beverages like beer and wine. Chemical reactions that produce CO2 are 3.7 ▶ Limiting Reactants Recognize that
not limited to cooking, though—they occur in places as diverse as the one reactant may be used up before others
cells in your body and the engine of your car. in a chemical reaction. This is the limiting
reactant. Once the limiting reactant is used
In this chapter we begin exploring chemical reactions. Our focus
up, the reaction stops, leaving some excess
will be on the use of chemical formulas to represent reactions and on
of the other starting materials.
the quantitative information we can obtain about the amounts of sub-
stances involved in those reactions. Stoichiometry (pronounced
stoy-key-OM-uh-tree) is the area of study that examines the quantities
of substances consumed and produced in chemical reactions. Stoichi-
ometry (Greek stoicheion, “element,” and metron, “measure”) provides an
essential set of tools widely used in chemistry.
◀ THESE STAINLESS STEEL REACTORS are where the chemistry

happens to make the carbonated alcoholic beverage known as beer.
127
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Stoichiometry is built on an understanding of atomic masses (Section 2.4), chemi-
cal formulas, and the law of conservation of mass. (Section 2.1) The French noble-
man and scientist Antoine Lavoisier (Figure 3.1) discovered this important chemical law
during the late 1700s. Lavoisier stated the law in this eloquent way: “We may lay it down as
an incontestable axiom that, in all the operations of art and n ature, nothing is created; an
equal quantity of matter exists both before and after the experiment. Upon this principle,
the whole art of performing chemical experiments depends.”* With the advent of Dalton’s
atomic theory, chemists came to understand the basis for this law: Atoms are neither created nor
destroyed during a chemical reaction. The changes that occur during any reaction merely rear-
range the atoms. The same collection of atoms is present both before and after the reaction.
3.1 ∣ Chemical Equations

We represent chemical reactions by chemical equations. When the gas hydrogen 1H22
▲ Figure 3.1 Antoine Lavoisier (1734– burns, for example, it reacts with oxygen 1O22 in the air to form water 1H2O2. We write
1794). The science career of Lavoisier,
the chemical equation for this reaction as
who conducted many important studies on
combustion reactions, was cut short by the 2 H2 + O2 ¡ 2 H2O [3.1]
French Revolution. Guillotined in 1794
We read the + sign as “reacts with” and the arrow as “produces.” The chemical for-
during the Reign of Terror, he is generally
considered the father of modern chemistry mulas to the left of the arrow represent the starting substances, called reactants. The
because he conducted carefully controlled chemical formulas to the right of the arrow represent substances produced in the reac-
experiments and used quantitative tion, called products. The numbers in front of the formulas, called coefficients, indicate
measurements. the relative numbers of molecules of each kind involved in the reaction. (As in algebraic
equations, the coefficient 1 is usually not written.)
Because atoms are neither created nor destroyed in any reaction, a balanced chemical
equation must have an equal number of atoms of each element on each side of the arrow.
On the right side of Equation 3.1, for example, there are two molecules of H2O, each com-
posed of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen (Figure 3.2). Thus, 2 H2O (read
“two molecules of water”) contains 2 * 2 = 4 H atoms and 2 * 1 = 2 O atoms. Notice
that the number of atoms is obtained by multiplying each subscript in a chemical formula by
the coefficient for the formula. Because there are four H atoms and two O atoms on each
side of the equation, the equation is balanced.
Give It Some Thought

How many atoms of Na, C, and O are represented by the notation, 2Na2CO3?
Balancing Equations
Chemists write unbalanced equations all the time in order to identify the reactants and
products in a reaction. But to determine the amount of product that can be made, or the
amount of a reactant that is required, the chemical equation needs to be balanced.
To construct a balanced chemical equation we start by writing the formulas for the
Reactants Products reactants on the left-hand side of the arrow and the products on the right-hand side.
2 H2 1 O2 2 H2O Next we balance the equation by determining the coefficients that provide equal num-
bers of each type of atom on both sides of the equation. For most purposes, a balanced
equation should contain the smallest possible whole-number coefficients.
In balancing an equation, you need to understand the difference between
coefficients and subscripts. As Figure 3.3 illustrates, changing a subscript in a f ormula—
1 from H2O to H2O2, for example—changes the identity of the substance. The substance
H2O2, hydrogen peroxide, is quite different from the substance H2O, water. Never change
subscripts when balancing an equation. In contrast, placing a coefficient in front of a for-
mula changes only the amount of the substance and not its identity. Thus, 2 H2O means
▲ Figure 3.2 A balanced chemical equation. two molecules of water, 3 H2O means three molecules of water, and so forth.
*Lavoisier, Antoine. “Elements of Chemistry.” 1790.

128
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SECTION 3.1 Chemical Equations 129
◀ Figure 3.3 The difference

between changing subscripts
Changing coeﬃcient Two molecules of water and changing coefficients in
changes amount. (contain four H atoms chemical equations.
2 H2O
and two O atoms)
H2O
Changing subscript
One molecule of hydrogen
H2O2 peroxide (contains two H
changes identity
and properties.
atoms and two O atoms)
A Step-by-Step Example of Balancing a Chemical Equation

To illustrate the process of balancing an equation, consider the reaction that occurs when
methane 1CH42, the principal component of natural gas, burns in air to produce carbon
dioxide gas 1CO22 and water vapor 1H2O2 (Figure 3.4). Both products contain oxygen at-
oms that come from O2 in the air. Thus, O2 is a reactant, and the unbalanced equation is
CH4 + O2 ¡ CO2 + H2O 1unbalanced2 [3.2]
It is usually best to balance first those elements that occur in the fewest chemical
formulas in the equation. In our example, C appears in only one reactant 1CH42 and one
product 1CO22. The same is true for H 1CH4 and H2O2. Notice, however, that O appears
in one reactant 1O22 and two products 1CO2 and H2O2. So, let’s begin with C. Because
one molecule of CH4 contains the same number of C atoms as one molecule of CO2, the
coefficients for these substances must be the same in the balanced equation. Therefore,
we start by choosing the coefficient 1 (unwritten) for both CH4 and CO2.
Next we focus on H. On the left side of the equation we have CH4, which has four H
atoms, whereas on the right side of the equation we have H2O, containing two H atoms.
To balance the H atoms in the equation we place the coefficient 2 in front of H2O. Now
there are four H atoms on each side of the equation:
CH4 + O2 ¡ CO2 + 2 H2O 1unbalanced2 [3.3]
While the equation is now balanced with respect to hydrogen and carbon, it is not yet
balanced for oxygen. Adding the coefficient 2 in front of O2 balances the equation by
giving four O atoms on each side 12 * 2 left, 2 + 12 * 12 right2:
CH4 + 2 O2 ¡ CO2 + 2 H2O 1balanced2 [3.4]
The molecular view of the balanced equation is shown in Figure 3.5.
Go Figure In the molecular level views shown in the figure, how many C, H, and O atoms are
present as reactants? Are the same number of each type of atom present as products?
Reactants Products
CH4 O2
CO2 and H2O
▲ Figure 3.4 Methane reacts with oxygen in a Bunsen burner.
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130 CHAPTER 3 Chemical Reactions and Reaction Stoichiometry
▶ Figure 3.5 Balanced chemical

equation for the combustion of CH4. 1 1
CH4 1 2 O2 CO2 1 2 H2O
(1 C, 4 H, 4 O) (1 C, 4 H, 4 O)
Sample Exercise 3.1

Interpreting and Balancing Chemical Equations
The following diagram represents a chemical reaction in which the red spheres are oxygen atoms and the blue spheres are
nitrogen atoms. (a) Write the chemical formulas for the reactants and products. (b) Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
(c) Is the diagram consistent with the law of conservation of mass?
SOLUTION There are eight N atoms in the eight NO molecules in the

reactants box. There are also 4 * 2 = 8 O atoms in the O2 mol-
(a) The left box, which represents reactants, contains two kinds
ecules and 8 O atoms in the NO molecules, giving a total of 16 O
of molecules, those composed of two oxygen atoms 1O22 and
atoms. In the products box, we find eight NO2 molecules, which
those composed of one nitrogen atom and one oxygen atom
contain eight N atoms and 8 * 2 = 16 O atoms. Because there
(NO). The right box, which represents products, contains only
are equal numbers of N and O atoms in the two boxes, the
one kind of molecule, which is composed of one nitrogen
drawing is consistent with the law of conservation of mass.
atom and two oxygen atoms 1NO22.
(b) The unbalanced chemical equation is
▶▶ Practice Exercise 1
O2 + NO ¡ NO2 1unbalanced2 In the following diagram, the white spheres represent hydrogen
atoms and the blue spheres represent nitrogen atoms.
An inventory of atoms on each side of the equation shows that
there are one N and three O on the left side of the arrow and one N
and two O on the right. To balance O, we must increase the num-
ber of O atoms on the right while keeping the coefficients for NO
and NO2 equal. Sometimes a trial-and-error approach is required;
we need to go back and forth several times from one side of an ?
equation to the other, changing coefficients first on one side of
the equation and then the other until it is balanced. In our present
case, let’s start by increasing the number of O atoms on the right
side of the equation by placing the coefficient 2 in front of NO2:
O2 + NO ¡ 2 NO2 1unbalanced2 The two reactants combine to form a single product, ammo-
nia, NH3, which is not shown. Write a balanced chemical
Now the equation gives two N atoms and four O atoms on the equation for the reaction. Based on the equation and the
right, so we go back to the left side. Placing the coefficient 2 in contents of the left (reactants) box, how many NH3 mole-
front of NO balances both N and O: cules should be shown in the right (products) box?
(a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 6 (e) 9
O2 + 2 NO ¡ 2 NO2 1balanced2
(2 N, 4 O) (2 N, 4 O) In the following diagram, the white spheres represent hy-
drogen atoms, the black spheres carbon atoms, and the red
(c) The reactants box contains four O2 and eight NO. Thus, the spheres oxygen atoms.
molecular ratio is one O2 for each two NO, as required by the
balanced equation. The products box contains eight NO2, which
means the number of NO2 product molecules equals the num-
ber of NO reactant molecules, as the balanced equation requires.
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SECTION 3.1 Chemical Equations 131
O 2 molecules In this reaction, there are two reactants, ethylene, C2H4,

not shown which is shown, and oxygen, O2, which is not shown, and
two products, CO2 and H2O, both of which are shown.
(a) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
(b) Determine the number of O2 molecules that should be
shown in the left (reactants) box.
Indicating the States of Reactants and Products

Symbols indicating the physical state of each reactant and product are often shown in chemi-
cal equations. We use the symbols ( g ), ( l ), (s), and (aq) for substances that are gases, liquids, sol-
ids, and dissolved in aqueous (water) solution, respectively. Thus, Equation 3.4 can be written
CH41g2 + 2 O21g2 ¡ CO21g2 + 2 H2O1g2 [3.5]
Sometimes symbols that represent the conditions under which the reaction proceeds ap-
pear above or below the reaction arrow. One example that we will encounter later in this
chapter involves the symbol ∆ (Greek uppercase delta); a delta above the reaction arrow
indicates the addition of heat.
Sample Exercise 3.2

Balancing Chemical Equations
Balance the equation

Na1s2 + H2O1l2 ¡ NaOH1aq2 + H21g2
SOLUTION
Begin by counting each kind of atom on the two sides of the arrow.
There are one Na, one O, and two H on the left side, and one Na, one
O, and three H on the right. The Na and O atoms are balanced, but
the number of H atoms is not. To increase the number of H atoms on
the left, let’s try placing the coefficient 2 in front of H2O: Na1s2 + 2 H2O1l2 ¡ NaOH1aq2 + H21g2
Although beginning this way does not balance H, it does increase

the number of reactant H atoms, which we need to do. (Also, add-
ing the coefficient 2 on H2O unbalances O, but we will take care of
that after we balance H.) Now that we have 2 H2O on the left, we
balance H by putting the coefficient 2 in front of NaOH: Na1s2 + 2 H2O1l2 ¡ 2 NaOH1aq2 + H21g2
Balancing H in this way brings O into balance, but now Na is
unbalanced, with one Na on the left and two on the right. To
rebalance Na, we put the coefficient 2 in front of the reactant: 2 Na1s2 + 2 H2O1l2 ¡ 2 NaOH1aq2 + H21g2
We now have two Na atoms, four H atoms, and two O atoms on
each side. The equation is balanced.
Comment Notice that we moved back and forth, placing a __ CH41g2 + __ Br21l2 ¡ __ CBr41s2 + __ HBr1g2
coefficient in front of H2O, then NaOH, and finally Na. In balanc-
ing equations, we often find ourselves following this pattern of Once this equation is balanced, what is the value of the
moving back and forth from one side of the arrow to the other, coefficient in front of bromine Br2?
placing coefficients first in front of a formula on one side and (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 (e) 6
then in front of a formula on the other side until the equation is
balanced. You can always tell if you have balanced your equation ▶▶ Practice Exercise 2
correctly by checking that the number of atoms of each element Balance these equations by providing the missing
is the same on the two sides of the arrow, and that you’ve chosen coefficients:
the smallest set of coefficients that balances the equation. (a) __ Fe1s2 + __O21g2 ¡ __Fe2O31s2
(b) __ Al1s2 + __ HCl1aq2 ¡ __ AlCl31aq2 + __ H21g2
(c) __ CaCO31s2 + __ HCl1aq2 ¡ __ CaCl21aq2 +
The unbalanced equation for the reaction between methane
and bromine is __ CO21g2 + __ H2O1l2
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3.2 ∣ Simple Patterns

of Chemical Reactivity
In this section we examine three types of reactions: combination reactions, decomposi-
tion reactions, and combustion reactions. Our first reason for examining these reactions
is to become better acquainted with chemical reactions and their balanced equations.
Our second reason is to consider how we might predict the products of some of these
reactions knowing only their reactants. The key to predicting the products formed by
a given combination of reactants is recognizing general patterns of chemical reactivity.
Recognizing a pattern of reactivity for a class of substances gives you a broader under-
standing than merely memorizing a large number of unrelated reactions.
Combination and Decomposition Reactions

In combination reactions, two or more substances react to form one product (Table 3.1). For
example, magnesium metal burns brilliantly in air to produce magnesium oxide (Figure 3.6):
2 Mg1s2 + O21g2 ¡ 2 MgO1s2 [3.6]
TABLE 3.1 Combination and Decomposition Reactions

Combination Reactions
A + B ¡ C Two or more reactants combine to form a single
product. Many elements react with one another
C1s2 + O21g2 ¡ CO21g2
in this fashion to form compounds.
N21g2 + 3 H21g2 ¡ 2 NH31g2
CaO1s2 + H2O1l2 ¡ Ca1OH221aq2
Decomposition Reactions
C ¡ A + B A single reactant breaks apart to form two or
2 KClO31s2 ¡ 2 KCl1s2 + 3 O21g2 more substances. Many compounds react this
way when heated.
PbCO31s2 ¡ PbO1s2 + CO21g2
Cu1OH221s2 ¡ CuO1s2 + H2O1g2
Mg
Mg21
O2
O 22
The ribbon of magnesium metal is An intense ﬂame is produced as the The reaction forms MgO, a
surrounded by oxygen gas in the air. Mg atoms react with O2. white, ionic solid.
Reactants Products
2 Mg(s) 1 O2(g) 2 MgO(s)
▲ Figure 3.6 Combustion of magnesium metal in air, a combination reaction.
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SECTION 3.2 Simple Patterns of Chemical Reactivity 133
This reaction is used to produce the bright flame generated by flares and some
fireworks.
A combination reaction between a metal and a nonmetal, as in Equation 3.6,
produces an ionic solid. Recall that the formula of an ionic compound can be d
etermined
from the charges of its ions. (Section 2.7) When magnesium reacts with oxygen, the
magnesium loses electrons and forms the magnesium ion, Mg2 + . The oxygen gains elec-
trons and forms the oxide ion, O2 - . Thus, the reaction product is MgO.
You should be able to recognize when a reaction is a combination reaction and to
predict the products when the reactants are a metal and a nonmetal.

When Zn and I2 undergo a combination reaction, what is the chemical formula of
the product?
In a decomposition reaction one substance undergoes a reaction to produce two

or more other substances (Table 3.1). For example, many metal carbonates decompose to
form metal oxides and carbon dioxide when heated:
∆
CaCO31s2 ¡ CaO1s2 + CO21g2 [3.7]
Decomposition of CaCO3 is an important commercial process. Limestone or seashells,

which are both primarily CaCO3, are heated to prepare CaO, known as lime or quicklime.
Tens of millions of tons of CaO are used in the United States each year in making glass, in
metallurgy where it is used to isolate the metals from their ores, and in steel manufactur-
ing where it is used to remove impurities.
The decomposition of sodium azide 1NaN32 rapidly releases N21g2, so this reaction is
used to inflate safety air bags in automobiles (Figure 3.7):
2 NaN31s2 ¡ 2 Na1s2 + 3 N21g2 [3.8]
The system is designed so that an impact ignites a detonator cap, which in turn causes ▲ Figure 3.7 Decomposition of sodium
NaN3 to decompose explosively. A small quantity of NaN3 (about 100 g) forms a large azide, NaN3(s), produces N2(g) that inflates
quantity of gas (about 50 L). air bags in automobiles.
Sample Exercise 3.3

Writing Balanced Equations for Combination and Decomposition Reactions
Write a balanced equation for (a) the combination reaction between lithium metal and fluorine gas and (b) the decomposition
reaction that occurs when solid barium carbonate is heated (two products form, a solid and a gas).
SOLUTION Barium and calcium are both in group 2A in the periodic

table, which further suggests they react in the same way:
(a) With the exception of mercury, all metals are solids at
room temperature. Fluorine occurs as a diatomic molecule. BaCO3(s) ¡ BaO(s) + CO2(g)
Thus, the reactants are Li(s) and F21g2. The product will be
composed of a metal and a nonmetal, so we expect it to be
an ionic solid. Lithium ions have a 1 + charge, Li+ , whereas ▶▶ Practice Exercise 1
fluoride ions have a 1 - charge, F - . Thus, the chemical Which of the following reactions is the balanced equation
formula for the product is LiF. The balanced chemical that represents the decomposition reaction that occurs when
equation is silver(I) oxide is heated?
(a) AgO1s2 ¡ Ag1s2 + O1g2 (b) 2 AgO1s2 ¡ 2 Ag1s2 + O21g2
2 Li1s2 + F21g2 ¡ 2 LiF1s2 (c) Ag2O1s2 ¡ 2 Ag1s2 + O1g2 (d) 2 Ag2O1s2 ¡ 4 Ag1s2 + O21g2
(e)Ag2O1s2 ¡ 2 Ag1s2 + O21g2
(b) The chemical formula for barium carbonate is BaCO3. As
mentioned, many metal carbonates decompose to metal
oxides and carbon dioxide when heated. In Equation 3.7, ▶▶ Practice Exercise 2
for example, CaCO3 decomposes to form CaO and CO2. Write a balanced equation for (a) solid mercury(II) sulfide
Thus, we expect BaCO3 to decompose to BaO and CO2. decomposing into its component elements when heated and
(b) aluminum metal combining with oxygen in the air.
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Go Figure Combustion Reactions

Combustion reactions are rapid reactions that produce a flame. Most combustion
Does this reaction produce or
reactions we observe involve O2 from air as a reactant. The combustion of hydrocarbons
consume thermal energy (heat)?
(compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen) in air, as illustrated in Equation 3.5,
is a major energy-producing process in our world. (Section 2.9)
Hydrocarbons combusted in air react with O2 to form CO2 and H2O.* The number of
molecules of O2 required and the number of molecules of CO2 and H2O formed depend
on the composition of the hydrocarbon, which acts as the fuel in the reaction. For example,
the combustion of propane (C3H8, Figure 3.8), a gas used for cooking and home heating, is
described by the equation
C3H81g2 + 5 O21g2 ¡ 3 CO21g2 + 4 H2O1g2 [3.9]
The state of the water in this reaction, H2O1g2 or H2O1l2, depends on the reaction condi-
tions. In this case, H2O(g) is formed as the high-temperature flame burns in air.
Combustion of oxygen-containing derivatives of hydrocarbons, such as CH3OH,
also produces CO2 and H2O. The rule that hydrocarbons and their oxygen-containing
derivatives form CO2 and H2O when they burn in air summarizes the reactions of about 3
▲ Figure 3.8 Propane burning in air. million compounds with oxygen. Many substances that our bodies use as energy sources,
Liquid propane in the tank, C3H8, vaporizes such as the sugar glucose 1C6H12O62, react with O2 to form CO2 and H2O. In our bodies,
and mixes with air as it escapes through the
however, the reactions take place in a series of intermediate steps that occur at body
nozzle. The combustion reaction of C3H8
and O2 produces a blue flame. temperature. These reactions that involve intermediate steps are described as oxidation
reactions instead of combustion reactions.
Sample Exercise 3.4

Writing Balanced Equations for Combustion Reactions
Write the balanced equation for the reaction that occurs when methanol, CH3OH(l ), is burned in air.
SOLUTION multiplying through by 2 removes the fraction and keeps the

equation balanced:
When any compound containing C, H, and O is combusted, it re-
acts with the O21g2 in air to produce CO21g2 and H2O1g2. Thus, the 2 CH3OH1l2 + 3 O21g2 ¡ 2 CO21g2 + 4 H2O1g2
unbalanced equation is
CH3OH1l2 + O21g2 ¡ CO2(g) + H2O1g2 ▶▶ Practice Exercise 1

The C atoms are balanced, one on each side of the arrow. Because Write the balanced equation for the reaction that occurs when
CH3OH has four H atoms, we place the coefficient 2 in front of ethylene glycol, C2H41OH22, burns in air.
H2O to balance the H atoms: (a) C2H41OH221l2 + 5 O21g2 ¡ 2 CO21g2 + 3 H2O1g2
CH3OH1l2 + O21g2 ¡ CO21g2 + 2 H2O1g2 (b) 2 C2H41OH221l2 + 5 O21g2 ¡ 4 CO21g2 + 6 H2O1g2
Adding this coefficient balances H but gives four O atoms in the (c) C2H41OH221l2 + 3 O21g2 ¡ 2 CO21g2 + 3 H2O1g2
products. Because there are only three O atoms in the reactants, (d) C2H41OH221l2 + 5 O1g2 ¡ 2 CO21g2 + 3 H2O1g2
we are not finished. We can place the coefficient 32 in front of O2
(e) 4 C2H41OH221l2 + 10 O21g2 ¡ 8 CO21g2 + 12 H2O1g2
to give four O atoms in the reactants 132 * 2 = 3 O atoms in 32 O22:
3
CH3OH1l2 + 2 O21g2 ¡ CO21g2 + 2 H2O1g2 ▶▶ Practice Exercise 2
Although this equation is balanced, it is not in its most conven- Write the balanced equation for the reaction that occurs when
tional form because it contains a fractional coefficient. However, ethanol, C2H5OH1l2, burns in air.
3.3 ∣ Formula Weights

Chemical formulas and chemical equations both have a quantitative significance in that
the subscripts in formulas and the coefficients in equations represent precise quantities.
The formula H2O indicates that a molecule of this substance (water) contains exactly two
*When there is an insufficient quantity of O2 present, carbon monoxide (CO) is produced along
with CO2 ; this is called incomplete combustion. If the quantity of O2 is severely restricted, the fine
particles of carbon we call soot are produced. Complete combustion produces only CO2 and H2O.
Unless stated to the contrary, we will always take combustion to mean complete combustion.
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SECTION 3.3 Formula Weights 135
atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. Similarly, the coefficients in a balanced chem-
ical equation indicate the exact relative quantities of reactants and products. But how do
we relate the numbers of atoms or molecules to the amounts we measure in the laboratory?
If you wanted to react hydrogen and oxygen in exactly the right ratio to make H2O, how
would you make sure the reactants contain a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms?
Although we cannot count individual atoms or molecules, we can indirectly deter-
mine their numbers if we know their masses. So, if we are to calculate amounts of reac-
tants needed to obtain a given amount of product, or otherwise extrapolate quantitative
information from a chemical equation or formula, we need to know more about the
masses of atoms and molecules.
Formula and Molecular Weights

The formula weight (FW) of a substance is the sum of the atomic weights (AW) of the
atoms in the chemical formula of the substance. Using atomic weights from the peri-
odic table, we find, for example, that the formula weight of sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is 98.1 u
(atomic mass units):
FW of H2SO4 = 21AW of H2 + 1AW of S2 + 41AW of O2

= 211.0 u2 + 32.1 u + 4116.0 u2
= 98.1 u
For convenience, we have rounded off the atomic weights to one decimal place, a practice
we will follow in most calculations in this book.
If the chemical formula is the chemical symbol of an element, such as Na, the for-
mula weight equals the atomic weight of the element, in this case 23.0 u. If the chemical
formula is that of a molecule, the formula weight is also called the molecular weight
(MW). The molecular weight of glucose 1C6H12O62, for example, is
MW of C6H12O6 = 6112.0 u2 + 1211.0 u2 + 6116.0 u2 = 180.0 u
Because ionic substances exist as three-dimensional arrays of ions (see Figure 2.20),
it is inappropriate to speak of molecules of these substances. Instead we use the empirical
formula as the formula unit, and the formula weight of an ionic substance is determined
by summing the atomic weights of the atoms in the empirical formula. For example,
the formula unit of CaCl2 consists of one Ca2 + ion and two Cl - ions. Thus, the formula
weight of CaCl2 is
FW of CaCl2 = 40.1 u + 2(35.5 u) = 111.1 u
Sample Exercise 3.5

Calculating Formula Weights
Calculate the formula weight of (a) sucrose, C12H22O11 (table sugar); and (b) calcium nitrate, Ca1NO322.
SOLUTION ▶▶ Practice Exercise 1

(a) By adding the atomic weights of the atoms in sucrose, we find Which of the following is the correct formula weight for
the formula weight to be 342.0 u: calcium phosphate?
12 C atoms = 12112.0 u2 = 144.0 u (a) 310.2 u
22 H atoms = 2211.0 u2 = 22.0 u (b) 135.1 u
(c) 182.2 u
11 O atoms = 11116.0 u2 = 176.0 u (d) 278.2 u
342.0 u (e) 175.1 u
(b) If a chemical formula has parentheses, the subscript outside
the parentheses is a multiplier for all atoms inside. Thus, for ▶▶ Practice Exercise 2
Ca1NO322 we have Calculate the formula weight of (a) Al1OH23, (b) CH3OH,
and (c) TaON.
1 Ca atom = 1140.1 u2 = 40.1 u
2 N atoms = 2114.0 u2 = 28.0 u
6 O atoms = 6116.0 u2 = 96.0 u
164.1 u
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 135 22/07/17 4:11 PM

Percentage Composition from

Chemical Formulas
Chemists must sometimes calculate the percentage composition of a compound—that is,
the percentage by mass contributed by each element in the substance. Forensic chemists,
for example, can measure the percentage composition of an unknown powder and com-
pare it with the percentage compositions of suspected substances (such as, sugar, salt, or
cocaine) to identify the powder.
Calculating the percentage composition of any element in a substance (sometimes
called the elemental composition of a substance) is straightforward if the chemical
formula is known. The calculation depends on the formula weight of the substance, the
atomic weight of the element of interest, and the number of atoms of that element in the
chemical formula:
number of atoms atomic weight

a ba b
% mass composition of element of element
= * 100% [3.10]
of element formula weight of substance
STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESS Problem Solving

Practice is the key to success in solving problems. As you practice, your plan may involve either a single step or a series of steps with
you can improve your skills by following these steps: intermediate answers.
Analyze the problem. Read the problem carefully. What does
1. Solve the problem. Use the known information and suitable
3.
it say? Draw a picture or diagram that will help you to visualize equations or relationships to solve for the unknown. Dimen-
the problem. Write down both the data you are given and the sional analysis (Section 1.7) is a useful tool for solving a
quantity you need to obtain (the unknown). great number of problems. Be careful with significant figures,
2. Develop a plan for solving the problem. Consider a possi- signs, and units.
ble path between the given information and the unknown. What 4. Check the solution. Read the problem again to make sure you
principles or equations relate the known data to the unknown? have found all the solutions asked for in the problem. Does your
Recognize that some data may not be given explicitly in the prob- answer make sense? That is, is the answer outrageously large or
lem; you may be expected to know certain quantities or look small or is it in the ballpark? Finally, are the units and significant
them up in tables (such as atomic weights). Recognize also that figures correct?
Sample Exercise 3.6

Calculating Percentage Composition
Calculate the percentage of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (by mass) in C12H22O11.
SOLUTION Check Our calculated percentages must add up to 100%, which

they do. We could have used more significant figures for our
We’ll use the steps outlined in the Strategies For Success: Problem
atomic weights, giving more significant figures for our percentage
Solving feature to answer the question.
composition, but we have adhered to our suggested guideline
Analyze We are given a chemical formula and asked to calculate of rounding atomic weights to one digit beyond the decimal
the percentage by mass of each element. point.
Plan We use Equation 3.10, obtaining our atomic weights from a

periodic table. We know the denominator in Equation 3.10, the for-
mula weight of C12H22O11, from Sample Exercise 3.5. We must use
that value in three calculations, one for each element. ▶▶ Practice Exercise 1
What is the percentage of nitrogen, by mass, in calcium
Solve nitrate?
1122112.0 u2 (a) 8.54% (b) 17.1% (c) 13.7% (d) 24.4% (e) 82.9%
%C = * 100% = 42.1%
342.0 u
122211.0 u2 ▶▶ Practice Exercise 2
%H = * 100% = 6.4% Calculate the percentage of potassium, by mass,
342.0 u
in K2PtCl6.
1112116.0 u2
%O = * 100% = 51.5%
342.0 u
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 136 07/09/17 3:58 PM

SECTION 3.4 Avogadro’s Number and the Mole 137
3.4 ∣ Avogadro’s Number and the Mole

Even the smallest samples we deal with in the laboratory contain enormous numbers
of atoms, ions, or molecules. For example, a teaspoon of water (about 5 mL) contains
2 * 1023 water molecules, a number so large it almost defies comprehension. Chem-
ists therefore have devised a counting unit for describing large numbers of atoms or
molecules.
In everyday life we use such familiar counting units as dozen (12 objects) and gross
(144 objects). In chemistry the counting unit for numbers of atoms, ions, or molecules
in a laboratory-size sample is the mole, abbreviated mol. One mole is the amount of
matter that contains as many objects (atoms, molecules, or whatever other objects we
are considering) as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of isotopically pure 12C. From
experiments, scientists have determined this number to be 6.0221415 * 1023, which
we usually round to 6.02 * 1023. Scientists call this value Avogadro’s number, NA, in
honor of the Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro (1776–1856), and it is often cited with
units of reciprocal moles, 6.02 * 1023 mol -1.* The unit (read as either “inverse mole”
or “per mole”) reminds us that there are 6.02 * 1023 objects per one mole. A mole of
atoms, a mole of molecules, or a mole of anything else all contain Avogadro’s number
of objects:
1 mol 12C atoms = 6.02 * 1023 12C atoms

1 mol H2O molecules = 6.02 * 1023 H2O molecules
1 mol NO3- ions = 6.02 * 1023 NO3- ions
Avogadro’s number is so large that it is difficult to imagine. Spreading 6.02 * 1023

marbles over Earth’s surface would produce a layer about 3 miles thick. Avogadro’s num-
ber of pennies placed side by side in a straight line would encircle Earth 300 trillion
13 * 10142 times.
Sample Exercise 3.7

Estimating Numbers of Atoms
Without using a calculator, arrange these samples in order of increasing numbers of carbon atoms:
12 g 12C, 1 mol C2H2, 9 * 1023 molecules of CO2.
SOLUTION Hence, the order is 12 g 12C 16 * 1023 C atoms2 6 9 * 1023 CO2

molecules 19 * 1023 C atoms2 6 1 mol C2H2 112 * 1023 C atoms2.
Analyze We are given amounts of three substances expressed in
grams, moles, and number of molecules and asked to arrange the Check We can check our results by comparing numbers of moles
samples in order of increasing numbers of C atoms. of C atoms in the samples because the number of moles is propor-
tional to the number of atoms. Thus, 12 g of 12C is 1 mol C, 1 mol
Plan To determine the number of C atoms in each sample, we
of C2H2 contains 2 mol C, and 9 * 1023 molecules of CO2 contain
must convert 12 g 12C, 1 mol C2H2, and 9 * 1023 molecules CO2 to
1.5 mol C, giving the same order as stated previously.
numbers of C atoms. To make these conversions, we use the defi-
nition of mole and Avogadro’s number.
Solve One mole is defined as the amount of matter that
contains as many units of the matter as there are C atoms ▶▶ Practice Exercise 1
in exactly 12 g of 12C. Thus, 12 g of 12C contains 1 mol of Which of the following samples contains the fewest sodium atoms?
C atoms = 6.02 * 1023 C atoms. (a) 1 mol sodium oxide (b) 45 g sodium fluoride
(c) 50 g sodium chloride (d) 1 mol sodium nitrate
One mol of C2H2 contains 6.02 * 1023 C2H2 molecules. Because
there are two C atoms in each molecule, this sample contains ▶▶ Practice Exercise 2
12.04 * 1023 C atoms. Without using a calculator, arrange these samples in order
Because each CO2 molecule contains one C atom, the CO2 sample of increasing numbers of O atoms: 1 mol H2O, 1 mol CO2,
contains 9 * 1023 C atoms. 3 * 1023 molecules of O3.
*Avogadro’s number is also referred to as the Avogadro constant. The latter term is the name
adopted by agencies such as the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), but
Avogadro’s number remains in widespread usage and is used in most places in this book.
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 137 22/07/17 4:11 PM

Sample Exercise 3.8

Converting Moles to Number of Atoms
Calculate the number of H atoms in 0.350 mol of C6H12O6.
SOLUTION
Analyze We are given the amount of a substance (0.350 mol) and of molecules of C6H12O6, we can use the chemical formula, which
its chemical formula C6H12O6. The unknown is the number of tells us that each molecule of C6H12O6 contains 12 H atoms. Thus,
H atoms in the sample. we convert moles of C6H12O6 to molecules of C6H12O6 and then
determine the number of atoms of H from the number of mole-
Plan Avogadro’s number provides the conversion factor between cules of C6H12O6:
moles of C6H12O6 and molecules of C6H12O6: 1 mol C6H12O6
= 6.02 * 1023 molecules of C6H12O6. Once we know the number Moles C6H12O6 ¡ molecules C6H12O6 ¡ H atoms
Solve
6.02 * 1023 molecules C6H12O6 12 H atoms
H atoms = 10.350 mol C6H12O62a ba b
1 mol C6H12O6 1 molecule C6H12O6
= 2.53 * 1024 H atoms
Check We can do a ballpark calculation, figuring that ▶▶Practice Exercise 1

0.3516 * 10232 is about 2 * 1023 molecules of C6H12O6. We How many sulfur atoms are in (a) 0.45 mol BaSO4 and
know that each one of these molecules contains 12 H atoms. (b) 1.10 mol of aluminum sulfide?
1212 * 10232 gives 24 * 1023 = 2.4 * 1024 H atoms, which is
close to our result. Because we were asked for the number of H ▶▶Practice Exercise 2
atoms, the units of our answer are correct. We check, too, for sig- How many oxygen atoms are in (a) 0.25 mol Ca1NO322 and
nificant figures. The given data had three significant figures, as (b) 1.50 mol of sodium carbonate?
does our answer.
Molar Mass
A dozen is the same number, 12, whether we have a dozen eggs or a dozen elephants.
Clearly, however, a dozen eggs does not have the same mass as a dozen elephants. Simi-
larly, a mole is always the same number 16.02 * 10232, but 1-mol samples of different sub-
stances have different masses. Compare, for example, 1 mol of 12C and 1 mol of 24Mg. A
single 12C atom has a mass of 12 u, whereas a single 24Mg atom is twice as massive, 24 u (to
two significant figures). Because a mole of anything always contains the same number of
particles, a mole of 24Mg must be twice as massive as a mole of 12C. Because a mole of 12C
has a mass of 12 g (by definition), a mole of 24Mg must have a mass of 24 g. This example
illustrates a general rule relating the mass of an atom to the mass of Avogadro’s number
(1 mol) of these atoms: The atomic weight of an element in atomic mass units is numerically equal
to the mass in grams of 1 mol of that element. For example (the symbol 1 means “therefore”),
Cl has an atomic weight of 35.5 u 1 1 mol Cl has a mass of 35.5 g.

Au has an atomic weight of 197 u 1 1 mol Au has a mass of 197 g.
For other kinds of substances, the same numerical relationship exists between
formula weight and mass of 1 mol of a substance:
H2O has a formula weight of 18.0 u 1 1 mol H2O has a mass of 18.0 g (Figure 3.9).
NaCl has a formula weight of 58.5 u 1 1 mol NaCl has a mass of 58.5 g.

(a) Which has more mass, a mole of methanol (CH3OH) or a mole of sucrose
(C12H22O11)?
(b) Which contains more molecules, 64.08 grams of methanol or 342.30
grams of sucrose?
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 138 22/07/17 4:11 PM

The mass in grams of one mole, often abbreviated as 1 mol, of a substance

Go Figure
(that is, the mass in grams per mole) is called the molar mass of the substance.
The molar mass in grams per mole of any substance is numerically equal to its formula What number do you get if you
weight in atomic mass units. For NaCl, for example, the formula weight is 58.5 u divide the mass of 1 mol of water
and the molar mass is 58.5 g/mol. Mole relationships for several other substances by the mass of 1 molecule of water?
are shown in Table 3.2 , and Figure 3.10 shows 1 mol quantities of three common
substances. Single molecule
The entries in Table 3.2 for N and N2 point out the importance of stating the chem-
ical form of a substance when using the mole concept. Suppose you read that 1 mol of
nitrogen is produced in a particular reaction. You might interpret this statement to mean
1 mol of nitrogen atoms (14.0 g). Unless otherwise stated, however, what is probably
meant is 1 mol of nitrogen molecules, N2 (28.0 g), because N2 is the most common chem- 1 molecule H2O
ical form of the element. To avoid ambiguity, it is important to state explicitly the chemi- (18.0 u)
cal form being discussed. Using the chemical formula—N or N2, for instance—avoids any
confusion.
Avogadro’s number of water
molecules in a mole of water
TABLE 3.2 Mole Relationships Laboratory-size

sample
Name of Formula Molar Mass Number and Kind of
Substance Formula Weight (u) (g/mol) Particles in One Mole
Atomic nitrogen N 14.0 14.0 6.02 * 1023 N atoms
Molecular nitrogen 6.02 * 1023 N2 molecules

N2 28.0 28.0 e
or “dinitrogen” 216.02 * 10232 N atoms
Silver Ag 107.9 107.9 6.02 * 1023 Ag atoms

Silver ions Ag+ 107.9a 107.9 6.02 * 1023 Ag+ ions 1 mol H2O
23
(18.0 g)
6.02 * 10 BaCl2 formula units
Barium chloride BaCl2 208.2 208.2 • 6.02 * 1023 Ba2+ ions ▲ Figure 3.9 Comparing the mass of
216.02 * 10232 Cl - ions 1 molecule and 1 mol of H2O. Both masses
aRecall
have the same number but different units
that the mass of an electron is more than 1800 times smaller than the masses of the proton and the
(atomic mass units and grams). Expressing
neutron; thus, ions and atoms have essentially the same mass.
both masses in grams indicates their huge
difference: 1 molecule of H2O has a mass
of 2.99 * 10 -23 g, whereas 1 mol H2O has
a mass of 18.0 g.
1 mol O2(g) has a mass of 32.0 g.
1 mol H2O(l) has a mass of 18.0 g.
1 mol NaCl(s) has a mass of 58.45 g.
▲ Figure 3.10 One mole each of a solid (NaCl), a liquid (H2O), and a gas (O2). In each case, the
mass in grams of 1 mol—that is, the molar mass—is numerically equal to the formula weight in
atomic mass units. Each of these samples contains 6.02 * 1023 formula units.
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 139 22/07/17 4:11 PM

Sample Exercise 3.9

Calculating Molar Mass
What is the molar mass of glucose, C6H12O6?
SOLUTION Because glucose has a formula weight of 180.0 u, 1 mol of this

substance 16.02 * 1023 molecules2 has a mass of 180.0 g. In other
Analyze We are given a chemical formula and asked to determine words, C6H12O6 has a molar mass of 180.0 g>mol.
its molar mass.
Check A molar mass below 250 seems reasonable based on the
Plan Because the molar mass of any substance is numerically equal earlier examples we have encountered, and grams per mole is the
to its formula weight, we first determine the formula weight of appropriate unit for the molar mass.
glucose by adding the atomic weights of its component atoms.
The formula weight will have units of u, whereas the molar mass
has units of grams per mole (g/mol). ▶▶ Practice Exercise 1
A sample of an ionic compound containing iron and chlorine
Solve Our first step is to determine the formula weight of glucose: is analyzed and found to have a molar mass of 126.8 g>mol.
6 C atoms = 6112.0 u2 = 72.0 u What is the charge of the iron in this compound?
(a) 1 + (b) 2 + (c) 3 + (d) 4 +
12 H atoms = 1211.0 u2 = 12.0 u
6 O atoms = 6116.0 u2 = 96.0 u ▶▶ Practice Exercise 2
180.0 u Calculate the molar mass of Ca1NO322.
CHEMISTRY AND LIFE Glucose Monitoring

Our body converts most of the food we eat into glucose. After diges- small electrical current or a measurement of light produced in a
tion, glucose is delivered to cells via the blood. Cells need glucose to chemical r eaction. Depending on the reading on any given day,
live, and the hormone insulin must be present in order for glucose a diabetic person may need to receive an injection of insulin or
to enter the cells. Normally, the body adjusts the concentration of simply limit his or her i ntake of sugar-rich foods for a while.
insulin automatically, in concert with the glucose concentration
after eating, so that normal blood glucose levels are 70–120 mg/dL.
However, in a diabetic person, either little or no insulin is produced
(Type 1 diabetes) or insulin is produced but the cells cannot take it up
properly (Type 2 diabetes). In either case the blood glucose levels are
higher than they are in a normal person. A person who has not eaten
for 8 hours or more is diagnosed as diabetic if his or her glucose level
is 126 mg/dL or higher.
Glucose meters work by the introduction of blood from a
person, usually by a prick of the finger, onto a small strip of pa-
per that contains chemicals that react with glucose. Insertion of
the strip into a small battery-operated reader gives the glucose
concentration ( Figure 3.11). The mechanism of the readout var-
ies from one monitor to another—it may be a measurement of a ▲ Figure 3.11 Glucose meter.
Interconverting Masses and Moles

Conversions of mass to moles and of moles to mass are frequently encountered in cal-
culations using the mole concept. These calculations are simplified using dimensional
analysis (Section 1.7), as shown in Sample Exercises 3.10 and 3.11.
Sample Exercise 3.10

Converting Grams to Moles
Calculate the number of moles of glucose (C6H12O6) in a 5.380 g sample.
SOLUTION Solve Using 1 mol C6H12O6 = 180.0 g C6H12O6 to write the appro-
priate conversion factor, we have
Analyze We are given the number of grams of a substance and its
chemical formula and asked to calculate the number of moles. 1 mol C6H12O6
Moles C6H12O6 = 15.380 g C6H12O62a b
Plan The molar mass of a substance provides the factor for 180.0 g C6H12O6
converting grams to moles. The molar mass of C6H12O6 is = 0.02989 mol C6H12O6
180.0 g>mol (Sample Exercise 3.9).
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 140 22/07/17 4:11 PM

Check Because 5.380 g is less than the molar mass, an answer less
than 1 mol is reasonable. The unit mol is appropriate. The original ▶▶ Practice Exercise 1
data had four significant figures, so our answer has four significant A 508-g sample of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) contains how
figures. many moles of sodium bicarbonate?
How many moles of water are in 1.00 L of water, whose density is
1.00 g/mL?

Converting Moles to Grams
Calculate the mass, in grams, of 0.433 mol of calcium nitrate.
SOLUTION Check The number of moles is less than 1, so the number of grams
must be less than the molar mass, 164.1 g. Using rounded num-
Analyze We are given the number of moles and the name of a sub- bers to estimate, we have 0.5 * 150 = 75 g, which means the
stance and asked to calculate the number of grams in the substance. magnitude of our answer is reasonable. Both the units (g) and the
number of significant figures (3) are correct.
Plan To convert moles to grams, we need the molar mass, which
we can calculate using the chemical formula and atomic weights.
Solve Because the calcium ion is Ca2 + and the nitrate ion is NO3- ,
the chemical formula for calcium nitrate is Ca1NO322. Adding the ▶▶ Practice Exercise 1
atomic weights of the elements in the compound gives a formula What is the mass, in grams, of (a) 6.33 mol of NaHCO3 and
weight of 164.1 u. Using 1 mol Ca1NO322 = 164.1 g Ca1NO322 to (b) 3.0 * 10 -5 mol of sulfuric acid?
write the appropriate conversion factor, we have
164.1 g Ca1NO322
Grams Ca1NO322 = 10.433 mol Ca(NO322) a b What is the mass, in grams, of (a) 0.50 mol of diamond (C) and
1 mol Ca1NO322 (b) 0.155 mol of ammonium chloride?
= 71.1 g Ca1NO322
Interconverting Masses and Numbers of Particles

The mole concept provides the bridge between mass and number of particles (Figure 3.12).
To illustrate how this bridge works, let’s calculate the number of copper atoms in an old
copper penny. Such a penny has a mass of about 3 g, and for this illustration we will as-
sume it is 100% copper:
1 mol Cu 6.02 * 1023 Cu atoms

Cu atoms = 13 g Cu2a ba b
63.5 g Cu 1 mol Cu
= 3 * 1022 Cu atoms
We have rounded our answer to one significant figure because we used only one signif-
icant figure for the mass of the penny. Notice how dimensional analysis provides a straight-
forward route from grams to numbers of atoms. The molar mass and Avogadro’s number are
used as conversion factors to convert grams to moles and then moles to atoms. Notice also
that our answer is a very large number. Any time you calculate the number of atoms, mole-
cules, or ions in an ordinary sample of matter, you can expect the answer to be very large. In
contrast, the number of moles in a sample will usually be small, often less than 1.
Go Figure What units would you put under “molar mass” and “Avogadro’s number”
on this diagram?
Use Use
Grams molar Moles Avogadro’s Formula units
mass number
▲ Figure 3.12 Procedure for interconverting mass and number of formula units. The number of moles
of the substance is central to the calculation. Thus, the mole concept can be thought of as the bridge
between the mass of a sample in grams and the number of formula units contained in the sample.
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 141 22/07/17 4:12 PM


Calculating Numbers of Molecules and Atoms from Mass
(a) How many glucose molecules are in 5.23 g of C6H12O6?

(b) How many oxygen atoms are in this sample?
SOLUTION
Analyze We are given the number of grams and the chemical of C6H12O6. The first conversion uses the molar mass of C6H12O6,
formula of a substance and asked to calculate (a) the number 180.0 g/mol, and the second conversion uses Avogadro’s number.
of molecules and (b) the number of O atoms in the substance. (b) To determine the number of O atoms, we use the fact that there are
six O atoms in each C6H12O6 molecule. Thus, multiplying the number
Plan (a) The strategy for determining the number of molecules in a giv- of molecules we calculated in (a) by the factor (6 atoms O>1 molecule
en quantity of a substance is summarized in Figure 3.12. We must con- C6H12O6) gives the number of O atoms.
vert 5.23 g to moles of C6H12O6 and then convert moles to molecules
Solve
1 mol C6H12O6 6.02 * 1023 molecules C6H12O6
(a) Convert grams C6H12O6 to Molecules C6H12O6 = 15.23 g C6H12O62a ba b
180.0 g C6H12O6 1 mol C6H12O6
molecules C6H12O6.
= 1.75 * 1022 molecules C6H12O6
6 atoms O
(b) Convert molecules C6H12O6 Atoms O = 11.75 * 1022 molecules C6H12O62a b
molecule C6H12O6
to atoms O.
= 1.05 * 1023 atoms O
Check ▶▶ Practice Exercise 1

(a) Because the mass we began with is less than a mole, there How many chlorine atoms are in 12.2 g of CCl4?
should be fewer than 6.02 * 1023 molecules in the sample, (a) 4.77 * 1022
which means the magnitude of our answer is reasonable. (b) 7.34 * 1024
A ballpark estimate of the answer comes reasonably close to the (c) 1.91 * 1023
answer we derived in this exercise: 5>200 = 2.5 * 10 -2 mol; (d) 2.07 * 1023
(2.5 * 10 -2)(6 * 1023) = 15 * 1021 = 1.5 * 1022 molecules.
The units (molecules) and the number of significant figures
(three) are appropriate. (a) How many nitric acid molecules are in 4.20 g of HNO3?
(b) How many O atoms are in this sample?
(b) The answer is six times as large as the answer to part (a),
exactly what it should be. The number of significant
figures (three) and the units (atoms O) are correct.
3.5 ∣ Empirical Formulas from Analyses

The empirical formula for a substance tells us the relative number of atoms of each el-
ement in the substance. (Section 2.6) The empirical formula H2O shows that water
contains two H atoms for each O atom. This ratio also applies on the molar level: 1 mol
of H2O contains 2 mol of H atoms and 1 mol of O atoms. Conversely, the ratio of the num-
bers of moles of all elements in a compound gives the subscripts in the compound’s empirical
formula. Thus, the mole concept provides a way of calculating empirical formulas.
Mercury and chlorine, for example, combine to form a compound that is measured
to be 74.0% mercury and 26.0% chlorine by mass. Thus, if we had a 100.0-g sample of
the compound, it would contain 74.0 g of mercury and 26.0 g of chlorine. (Samples of
any size can be used in problems of this type, but we will generally use 100.0 g to simplify
the calculation of mass from percentage.) Using atomic weights to get molar masses, we
calculate the number of moles of each element in the sample:
1 mol Hg
174.0 g Hg2a b = 0.369 mol Hg
200.6 g Hg
1 mol Cl
126.0 g Cl2a b = 0.732 mol Cl
35.5 g Cl
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SECTION 3.5 Empirical Formulas from Analyses 143
Given: Find:
Assume Use
Mass % Grams of Moles of Calculate Empirical
100-g molar
elements each element each element mole ratio formula
sample mass
1 2 3
▲ Figure 3.13 Procedure for calculating

We then divide the larger number of moles by the smaller number to obtain the Cl:Hg an empirical formula from percentage
mole ratio: composition.
moles of Cl 0.732 mol Cl 1.98 mol Cl
= =
moles of Hg 0.369 mol Hg 1 mol Hg
Because of experimental errors, calculated values for a mole ratio may not be whole
numbers, as in the calculation here. The number 1.98 is very close to 2, however, and so
we can confidently conclude that the empirical formula for the compound is HgCl2. The
empirical formula is correct because its subscripts are the smallest integers that express
the ratio of atoms present in the compound.
The general procedure for determining empirical formulas is outlined in Figure 3.13.

Could the empirical formula determined from chemical analysis be used to tell the
difference between acetylene, C2H2, and benzene, C6H6?

Calculating an Empirical Formula
Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) contains 40.92% C, 4.58% H, and 54.50% O by mass. What is the e mpirical formula of ascorbic acid?
SOLUTION
Analyze We are to determine the empirical formula of a compound Plan The strategy for determining the empirical formula involves
from the mass percentages of its elements. the three steps given in Figure 3.13.
Solve
(1) For simplicity we assume we have exactly 100 g of material, although any other mass could also be used.
Assume Use
100-g molar
sample mass
In 100.00 g of ascorbic acid we have 40.92 g C, 4.58 g H, and 54.50 g O.
(2) Next we calculate the number of moles of each element. We use atomic masses with four significant figures to match the precision
of our experimental masses.
Assume Use
100-g molar
sample mass
1 mol C
Moles C = 140.92 g C2a b = 3.407 mol C
12.01 g C
1 mol C
Moles H = 14.58 g H2a b = 4.54 mol H
1.008 g H
1 mol O
Moles O = 154.50 g O2a b = 3.406 mol O
16.00 g O
Continued
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 143 22/07/17 4:12 PM

(3) We determine the simplest whole-number ratio of moles by dividing each number of moles by the smallest number of moles.
Assume Use
100-g molar
sample mass
3.407 4.54 3.406

C: = 1.000 H : = 1.33 O : = 1.000
3.406 3.406 3.406
The ratio for H is too far from 1 to attribute the difference to experimental error; in fact, it is quite close to 113. This suggests we should
multiply the ratios by 3 to obtain whole numbers:
C : H : O = 13 * 1 : 3 * 1.33 : 3 * 12 = 13 : 4 : 32
Thus, the empirical formula is C3H4O3.
Check It is reassuring that the subscripts are moderate-size whole e mpirical formula of this substance?
numbers. Also, calculating the percentage composition of C3H4O3 (a) CO2Cl6 (b) COCl2 (c) C0.022O0.022Cl0.044 (d) C2OCl2
gives values very close to the original percentages.
▶▶ Practice Exercise 1 A 5.325-g sample of methyl benzoate, a compound used in
A 2.144-g sample of phosgene, a compound used as a chemical the manufacture of perfumes, contains 3.758 g of carbon,
warfare agent during World War I, contains 0.260 g of carbon, 0.316 g of hydrogen, and 1.251 g of oxygen. What is the em-
0.347 g of oxygen, and 1.537 g of chlorine. What is the pirical formula of this substance?
Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas

We can obtain the molecular formula for any compound from its empirical formula if we
know either the molecular weight or the molar mass of the compound. The subscripts in
the molecular formula of a substance are always whole-number multiples of the subscripts in its
empirical formula. (Section 2.6) This multiple can be found by dividing the molecular
weight by the empirical formula weight:
molecular weight
Whole@number multiple = [3.11]
empirical formula weight
In Sample Exercise 3.13, for example, the empirical formula of ascorbic acid was de-
termined to be C3H4O3. This means the empirical formula weight is 3112.0 u2 +
411.0 u2 + 3116.0 u2 = 88.0 u. The experimentally determined molecular weight is 176 u.
Thus, we find the whole-number multiple that converts the empirical formula to the mo-
lecular formula by dividing
molecular weight 176 u
Whole@number multiple = = = 2
empirical formula weight 88.0 u
Consequently, we multiply the subscripts in the empirical formula by this multiple,
giving the molecular formula: C6H8O6.

Determining a Molecular Formula
Mesitylene, a hydrocarbon found in crude oil, has an empirical formula of C3H4 and an experimentally determined molecular
weight of 121 u. What is its molecular formula?
SOLUTION Next, we use this value in Equation 3.11 :
Analyze We are given an empirical formula and a molecular molecular weight

Whole@number multiple =
weight of a compound and asked to determine its molecular empirical formula weight
formula. 121
= = 3.03
Plan The subscripts in a compound’s molecular formula are 40.0
whole-number multiples of the subscripts in its empirical formu-
la. We find the appropriate multiple by using Equation 3.11. Only whole-number ratios make physical sense because molecules
contain whole atoms. The 3.03 in this case could result from a
Solve The formula weight of the empirical formula C3H4 is
small experimental error in the molecular weight. We therefore
multiply each subscript in the empirical formula by 3 to give the
3112.0 u2 + 411.0 u2 = 40.0 u
molecular formula: C9H12.
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SECTION 3.5 Empirical Formulas from Analyses 145
Check We can have confidence in the result because dividing mo-

lecular weight by empirical formula weight yields nearly a whole What is its molecular formula?
number. (a) C6H (b) CH2 (c) C5H24 (d) C6H12 (e) C4H8
Ethylene glycol, used in automobile antifreeze, is 38.7% C,
▶▶ Practice Exercise 1 9.7% H, and 51.6% O by mass. Its molar mass is 62.1 g/mol.
Cyclohexane, a commonly used organic solvent, is 85.6% C (a) What is the empirical formula of ethylene glycol? (b) What
and 14.4% H by mass with a molar mass of 84.2 g>mol. is its molecular formula?
Combustion Analysis
One technique for determining empirical formulas in the laboratory is combustion analy-
sis, commonly used for compounds containing principally carbon and hydrogen.
When a compound containing carbon and hydrogen is completely combusted in
an apparatus such as that shown in Figure 3.14, the carbon is converted to CO2 and the
hydrogen is converted to H2O. (Section 3.2). From the masses of CO2 and H2O we
can calculate the number of moles of C and H in the original sample and thereby the
empirical formula. If a third element is present in the compound, its mass can be deter-
mined by subtracting the measured masses of C and H from the original sample mass.
Sample combusted, H2O and CO2 are trapped ◀ Figure 3.14 Apparatus for combustion
producing CO2 and H2O in separate absorbers analysis.
Sample
O2
H2O absorber CO2 absorber

Furnace
Mass gained by each absorber corresponds to mass of
CO2 or H2O produced.

Determining an Empirical Formula by Combustion Analysis
Isopropyl alcohol, sold as rubbing alcohol, is composed of C, H, and O. Combustion of 0.255 g of isopropyl alcohol produces
0.561 g of CO2 and 0.306 g of H2O. Determine the empirical formula of isopropyl alcohol.
SOLUTION
Analyze We are told that isopropyl alcohol contains C, H, and O at- Plan We can use the mole concept to calculate grams of C in the CO2
oms and are given the quantities of CO2 and H2O produced when and grams of H in the H2O—the masses of C and H in the alcohol
a given quantity of the alcohol is combusted. We must determine before combustion. The mass of O in the compound equals the mass
the empirical formula for isopropyl alcohol, a task that requires us of the original sample minus the sum of the C and H masses. Once we
to calculate the number of moles of C, H, and O in the sample. have the C, H, and O masses, we can proceed as in Sample Exercise 3.13.
Solve Because all of the carbon in the sample is converted to CO2, we can use dimensional analysis and the following steps to calculate the
mass C in the sample.
Molar 1 C atom Molar

Mass CO2 Moles CO2 Moles of C Mass C in
mass CO2 per CO2 mass C
produced produced original sample original sample
44.0 g/mol molecule 12.0 g/mol
Using the values given in this example, the mass of C is

1 mol CO2 1 mol C 12.0 g C
Grams C = 10.561 g CO22a ba ba b
44.0 g CO2 1 mol CO2 1 mol C
= 0.153 g C
Continued
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 145 22/07/17 4:12 PM

Because all of the hydrogen in the sample is converted to H2O, we can use dimensional analysis and the following steps to calculate the mass
H in the sample. We use three significant figures for the atomic mass of H to match the significant figures in the mass of H2O produced.
Molar 2 H atoms Molar

Mass H2O Moles H2O Moles H in Mass H in
mass H2O per H2O mass H
produced produced original sample original sample
18.0 g/mol molecule 1.01 g/mol
Using the values given in this example, we find that the mass of H is
1 mol H2O 2 mol H 1.01 g H
Grams H = 10.306 g H2O2a ba ba b = 0.0343 g H
18.0 g H2O 1 mol H2O 1 mol H
The mass of the sample, 0.255 g, is the sum of the masses of C, H, and O. Thus, the O mass is
Mass of O = mass of sample - 1mass of C + mass of H2 = 0.255 g - 10.153 g + 0.0343 g2 = 0.068 g O
The number of moles of C, H, and O in the sample is therefore
1 mol C
Moles C = 10.153 g C2a b = 0.0128 mol C
12.0 g C
1 mol H
Moles H = 10.0343 g H2a b = 0.0340 mol H
1.01 g H
1 mol O
Moles O = 10.068 g O2a b = 0.0043 mol O
16.0 g O
To find the empirical formula, we must compare the relative number of moles of each element in the sample, as illustrated in Sample
Exercise 3.13.
0.0128 0.0340 0.0043
C: = 3.0 H : = 7.9 O : = 1.0
0.0043 0.0043 0.0043
The first two numbers are very close to the whole numbers 3 and 8, giving the empirical formula C3H8O.
▶▶ Practice Exercise 1 ▶▶ Practice Exercise 2

The compound dioxane, which is used as a solvent in vari- (a) Caproic acid, responsible for the odor of dirty socks, is
ous industrial processes, is composed of C, H, and O atoms. composed of C, H, and O atoms. Combustion of a 0.225-g
Combustion of a 2.203-g sample of this compound produces sample of this compound produces 0.512 g CO2 and
4.401 g CO2 and 1.802 g H2O. A separate experiment shows 0.209 g H2O. What is the empirical formula of caproic acid?
that it has a molar mass of 88.1 g>mol. Which of the follow- (b) Caproic acid has a molar mass of 116 g/mol. What is its
ing is the correct molecular formula for dioxane? molecular formula?
(a) C2H4O (b) C4H4O2 (c) CH2 (d) C4H8O2
3.6 ∣ Quantitative Information

from Balanced Equations
The coefficients in a chemical equation represent the relative numbers of molecules in
a reaction. The mole concept allows us to convert this information to the masses of the
substances in the reaction. For instance, the coefficients in the b
alanced equation
2 H21g2 + O21g2 ¡ 2 H2O1l2 [3.12]
indicate that two molecules of H2 react with one molecule of O2 to form two m olecules of
H2O. It follows that the relative numbers of moles are identical to the relative numbers of
molecules:
2 H21g2 + O21g2 ¡ 2 H2O1l2
2 molecules 1 molecule 2 molecules
216.02 * 1023 molecules2 116.02 * 1023 molecules2 216.02 * 1023 molecules2
2 mol 1 mol 2 mol
We can generalize this observation to all balanced chemical equations: The coefficients in a
balanced chemical equation indicate both the relative numbers of molecules (or formula units) in
the reaction and the relative numbers of moles. Figure 3.15 shows how this result corresponds
to the law of conservation of mass.
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 146 22/07/17 4:12 PM

SECTION 3.6 Quantitative Information from Balanced Equations 147
Chemical ◀ Figure 3.15 Interpreting a balanced

2 H2(g) 1 O2(g) 2 H2O(l) chemical equation quantitatively.
equation:
2 molecules H2 1 molecule O2 2 molecules H2O

Molecular
interpretation:
Mole-level 2 mol H2 1 mol O2 2 mol H2O

interpretation:
Convert to grams (using molar masses)
4.0 g H2 32.0 g O2 36.0 g H2O
Notice the conservation of mass

(4.0 g + 32.0 g = 36.0 g)
The quantities 2 mol H2, 1 mol O2, and 2 mol H2O given by the coefficients in Equa-
tion 3.12 are called stoichiometrically equivalent quantities. The relationship between these
quantities can be represented as
2 mol H2 ] 1 mol O2 ] 2 mol H2O
where the ] symbol means “is stoichiometrically equivalent to.” Stoichiometric relations
such as these can be used to convert between quantities of reactants and products in a chemi-
cal reaction. For example, the number of moles of H2O produced from 1.57 mol of O2 is
2 mol H2O
Moles H2O = 11.57 mol O22a b = 3.14 mol H2O
1 mol O2

When 1.57 mol O2 reacts with H2 to form H2O, how many moles of H2 are
consumed in the process?
As an additional example, consider the combustion of butane 1C4H102, the fuel in

disposable lighters:
2 C4H101l2 + 13 O21g2 ¡ 8 CO21g2 + 10 H2O1g2 [3.13]
Let’s calculate the mass of CO2 produced when 1.00 g of C4H10 is burned. The coefficients
in Equation 3.13 tell us how the amount of C4H10 consumed is related to the amount
of CO2 produced: 2 mol C4H10 ] 8 mol CO2. To use this stoichiometric relationship, we
must convert grams of C4H10 to moles using the molar mass of C4H10, 58.0 g>mol:
1 mol C4H10
Moles C4H10 = 11.00 g C4H102a b
58.0 g C4H10
= 1.72 * 10 -2 mol C4H10
We then use the stoichiometric factor from the balanced equation to calculate moles of CO2:
8 mol CO2
Moles CO2 = 11.72 * 10 -2 mol C4H102a b
2 mol C4H10
= 6.88 * 10 -2 mol CO2
Finally, we use the molar mass of CO2, 44.0 g>mol, to calculate the CO2 mass in grams:
44.0 g CO2
Grams CO2 = 16.88 * 10 -2 mol CO22a b
1 mol CO2
= 3.03 g CO2
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 147 22/07/17 4:12 PM

This conversion sequence involves three steps, as illustrated in Figure 3.16. These three
conversions can be combined in a single equation:
1 mol C4H10 8 mol CO2 44.0 g CO2
Grams CO2 = 11.00 g C4H102a ba ba b
58.0 g C4H10 2 mol C4H10 1 mol CO2
= 3.03 g CO2
To calculate the amount of O2 consumed in the reaction of Equation 3.13, we
again rely on the coefficients in the balanced equation for our stoichiometric factor,
2 mol C4H10 ] 13 mol O2:
1 mol C4H10 13 mol O2 32.0 g O2

Grams O2 = 11.00 g C4H102a ba ba b
58.0 g C4H10 2 mol C4H10 1 mol O2
= 3.59 g O2
Given: Find:
Use Use coefficients Use
Grams of Moles of Moles of Grams of
molar from balanced molar
substance A substance A substance B substance B
mass of A equation mass of B
1 2 3
▲ Figure 3.16 Procedure for calculating

amounts of reactants consumed or products
formed in a reaction. The number of grams
of a reactant consumed or product formed
can be calculated in three steps, starting In the previous example, 1.00 g of C4H10 reacts with 3.59 g of O2 to form 3.03 g of
with the number of grams of any reactant or
CO2. Using only addition and subtraction, calculate the amount of H2O produced.
product.

Calculating Amounts of Reactants and Products
Determine how many grams of water are produced in the oxidation of 1.00 g of glucose, C6H12O6:
C6H12O61s2 + 6 O21g2 ¡ 6 CO21g2 + 6 H2O1l2
SOLUTION (1) Convert grams of C6H12O6 to moles using the molar mass of

C6H12O6.
Analyze We are given the mass of a reactant and must determine
(2) Convert moles of C6H12O6 to moles of H2O using the stoichio-
the mass of a product in the given reaction.
metric relationship 1 mol C6H12O6 ] 6 mol H2O.
Plan We follow the general strategy outlined in Figure 3.16 : (3) Convert moles of H2O to grams using the molar mass of H2O.
Solve
(1) First we convert grams of C6H12O6 to moles using the molar mass of C6H12O6.

1 mol C6H12O6
Moles C6H12O6 = 11.00 g C6H12O62a b
180.0 g C6H12O6
(2) Next we convert moles of C6H12O6 to moles of H2O using the stoichiometric relationship 1 mol C6H12O6 ] 6 mol H2O.

1 mol C6H12O6 6 mol H2O

Moles H2O = 11.00 g C6H12O62a ba b
180.0 g C6H12O6 1 mol C6H12O6
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 148 22/07/17 4:12 PM

SECTION 3.6 Quantitative Information from Balanced Equations 149
(3) Finally, we convert moles of H2O to grams using the molar mass of H2O.

1 mol C6H12O6 6 mol H2O 18.0 g H2O

Grams H2O = 11.00 g C6H12O62a ba ba b
180.0 g C6H12O6 1 mol C6H12O6 1 mol H2O
= 0.600 g H2O
Check We can check how reasonable our result is by doing a ▶▶ Practice Exercise 1
ballpark estimate of the mass of H2O. Because the molar mass of Sodium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide to form sodium
glucose is 180 g>mol, 1 g of glucose equals 1>180 mol. Because carbonate and water:
1 mol of glucose yields 6 mol H2O, we would have 6>180 =
1>30 mol H2O. The molar mass of water is 18 g>mol, so we have 2 NaOH1s2 + CO21g2 ¡ Na2CO31s2 + H2O1l2
1>30 * 18 = 6>10 = 0.6 g of H2O, which agrees with the full
calculation. The units, grams H2O, are correct. The initial data How many grams of Na2CO3 can be prepared from 2.40 g of
had three significant figures, so three significant figures for the NaOH? (a) 3.18 g (b) 6.36 g (c) 1.20 g (d) 0.0300 g
answer is correct.
Decomposition of KClO3 is sometimes used to prepare small
amounts of O2 in the laboratory: 2 KClO31s2 ¡ 2 KCl1s2 +
3 O21g2. How many grams of O2 can be prepared from 4.50 g of
KClO3?

Calculating Amounts of Reactants and Products
Solid lithium hydroxide is used in space vehicles to remove the carbon dioxide gas exhaled by astronauts. The hydroxide reacts
with the carbon dioxide to form solid lithium carbonate and liquid water. How many grams of carbon dioxide can be absorbed
by 1.00 g of lithium hydroxide?
SOLUTION Solve
Analyze We are given a verbal description of a reaction and asked 1 mol LiOH 1 mol CO2 44.01 g CO2
11.00 g LiOH2a ba ba b
to calculate the number of grams of one reactant that reacts with 23.95 g LiOH 2 mol LiOH 1 mol CO2
1.00 g of another. = 0.919 g CO2
Plan The verbal description of the reaction can be used to write a
balanced equation:
Check Notice that 23.95 g LiOH>mol ≈ 24 g LiOH>mol,
24 g LiOH>mol * 2 mol LiOH = 48 g LiOH, and 144 g CO2 >mol2>
2 LiOH1s2 + CO21g2 ¡ Li2CO31s2 + H2O1l2 148 g LiOH2 is slightly less than 1. Thus, the magnitude of our answer,
0.919 g CO2, is reasonable based on the amount of starting LiOH. The
We are given the mass in grams of LiOH and asked to calculate
number of significant figures and units are also appropriate.
the mass in grams of CO2. We can accomplish this with the three
conversion steps in Figure 3.16. The conversion of Step 1 requires
the molar mass of LiOH 16.94 + 16.00 + 1.01 = 23.95 g>mol2. ▶▶ Practice Exercise 1
The conversion of Step 2 is based on a stoichiometric relationship Propane, C3H8 (Figure 3.8), is a common fuel used for cooking
from the balanced chemical equation: 2 mol LiOH ] 1 mol CO2. and home heating. What mass of O2 is consumed in the com-
For the Step 3 conversion, we use the molar mass of bustion of 1.00 g of propane?
CO2 : 12.01 + 2116.002 = 44.01 g>mol. (a) 5.00 g (b) 0.726 g (c) 2.18 g (d) 3.63 g
Methanol, CH3OH, reacts with oxygen from air in a com-
bustion reaction to form water and carbon dioxide. What
mass of water is produced in the combustion of 23.6 g of
methanol?
Many chemical reactions either consume or produce heat (Figure 3.8). This heat is
also a stoichiometric quantity. For instance, if a given reaction of a given number of reac-
tant moles produces 100 J of energy in the form of heat, performing the reaction with
twice the number of moles of reactants will produce 200 J of heat. We will explore these
ideas further in Chapter 5.
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 149 22/07/17 4:12 PM

3.7 ∣ Limiting Reactants

Suppose you wish to make several sandwiches using one slice of cheese and two slices of
bread for each. Using Bd = bread, Ch = cheese, and Bd2Ch = sandwich, we can repre-
sent the recipe for making a sandwich like a chemical equation:
2 Bd + Ch ¡ Bd2Ch
If you have ten slices of bread and seven slices of cheese, you can make only five sand-
wiches and will have two slices of cheese left over. The amount of bread available limits
the number of sandwiches.
An analogous situation occurs in chemical reactions when one reactant is used up
before the others. The reaction stops as soon as any reactant is totally consumed, leaving
the excess reactants as leftovers. Suppose, for example, we have a mixture of 10 mol H2
and 7 mol O2, which react to form water:
2 H21g2 + O21g2 ¡ 2 H2O1g2
Because 2 mol H2 ] 1 mol O2, the number of moles of O2 needed to react with all the H2 is
1 mol O2
Moles O2 = 110 mol H22a b = 5 mol O2
2 mol H2
Because 7 mol O2 is available at the start of the reaction, 7 mol O2 - 5 mol O2 = 2 mol O2
is still present when all the H2 is consumed.
The reactant that is completely consumed in a reaction is called the limiting reactant
because it determines, or limits, the amount of product formed. The other reactants are
sometimes called excess reactants. In our example, shown in Figure 3.17, H2 is the limiting
reactant, which means that once all the H2 has been consumed, the reaction stops. At
that point some of the excess reactant O2 is left over.
There are no restrictions on the starting amounts of reactants in any reaction. Indeed,
many reactions are carried out using an excess of one reactant. The quantities of reactants
consumed and products formed, however, are restricted by the quantity of the limiting reac-
tant. For example, when a combustion reaction takes place in the open air, oxygen is plenti-
ful and is therefore the excess reactant. If you run out of gasoline while driving, the car stops
because the gasoline is the limiting reactant in the combustion reaction that moves the car.
Before we leave the example illustrated in Figure 3.17, let’s summarize the data:
2 H21g2 + O21g2 i 2 H2O1g2

Before reaction: 10 mol 7 mol 0 mol
Change (reaction): - 10 mol - 5 mol + 10 mol
After reaction: 0 mol 2 mol 10 mol
Go Figure If the amount of H2 is doubled, how many moles of H2O would

have formed?
Before reaction After reaction
10 H2 and 7 O2 10 H2O and 2 O2 (no H2 molecules)
▲ Figure 3.17 Limiting reactant. Because H2 is completely consumed, it is the limiting reactant.
Because some O2 is left over after the reaction is complete, it is the excess reactant. The amount
of H2O formed depends on the amount of limiting reactant, H2.
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 150 22/07/17 4:12 PM

SECTION 3.7 Limiting Reactants 151
The second line in the table (Change) summarizes the amounts of reactants con-
sumed (where this consumption is indicated by the minus signs) and the amount of the
product formed (indicated by the plus sign). These quantities are restricted by the quan-
tity of the limiting reactant and depend on the coefficients in the balanced equation.
The mole ratio H2:O2:H2O = 10:5:10 is a multiple of the ratio of the coefficients in the
balanced equation, 2:1:2. The after quantities, which depend on the before quantities
and their changes, are found by adding the before quantity and change quantity for each
column. The amount of the limiting reactant 1H22 must be zero at the end of the reac-
tion. What remains is 2 mol O2 (excess reactant) and 10 mol H2O (product).

Calculating the Amount of Product Formed from a Limiting Reactant
The most important commercial process for converting N2 from the air into nitrogen-containing compounds is based on the
reaction of N2 and H2 to form ammonia 1NH32:
N21g2 + 3 H21g2 ¡ 2 NH31g2
How many moles of NH3 can be formed from 3.0 mol of N2 and 6.0 mol of H2?
SOLUTION Check Examine the change row of the summary table to see that
the mole ratio of reactants consumed and product formed, 2:6:4,
Analyze We are asked to calculate the number of moles of product, is a multiple of the coefficients in the balanced equation, 1:3:2.
NH3, given the quantities of each reactant, N2 and H2, available in We confirm that H2 is the limiting reactant because it is completely
a reaction. This is a limiting reactant problem. consumed in the reaction, leaving 0 mol at the end. Because
6.0 mol H2 has two significant figures, our answer has two
Plan If we assume one reactant is completely consumed, we can cal-
significant figures.
culate how much of the second reactant is needed. By comparing the
calculated quantity of the second reactant with the amount avail- Comment It is useful to summarize the reaction data in a table:
able, we can determine which reactant is limiting. We then proceed
with the calculation, using the quantity of the limiting reactant. N21g2 + 3 H21g2 i 2 NH31g2
Solve Before reaction: 3.0 mol 6.0 mol 0 mol

The number of moles of H2 needed for complete consumption of Change (reaction): - 2.0 mol - 6.0 mol + 4.0 mol
3.0 mol of N2 is After reaction: 1.0 mol 0 mol 4.0 mol
3 mol H2
Moles H2 = 13.0 mol N22a b = 9.0 mol H2
1 mol N2
Because only 6.0 mol H2 is available, we will run out of H2 before the When 24 mol of methanol and 15 mol of oxygen combine
N2 is gone, which tells us that H2 is the limiting reactant. Therefore, in the combustion reaction 2 CH3OH1l2 + 3 O21g2 ¡
we use the quantity of H2 to calculate the quantity of NH3 produced: 2 CO21g2 + 4 H2O1g2, what is the excess reactant and how
many moles of it remains at the end of the reaction?
2 mol NH3 (a) 9 mol CH3OH1l2 (b) 10 mol CO21g2 (c) 10 mol CH3OH1l2
Moles NH3 = 16.0 mol H22 a b = 4.0 mol NH3
3 mol H2 (d) 14 mol CH3OH1l2 (e) 1 mol O21g2
Notice that we can calculate not only the number of moles of
NH3 formed but also the number of moles of each reactant re- ▶▶ Practice Exercise 2
maining after the reaction. Notice also that although the initial (a) When 1.50 mol of Al and 3.00 mol of Cl2 combine in the
(before) number of moles of H2 is greater than the final (after) reaction 2 Al1s2 + 3 Cl21g2 ¡ 2 AlCl31s2, which is the
number of moles of N2, H2 is nevertheless the limiting reactant limiting reactant? (b) How many moles of AlCl3 are formed?
because of its larger coefficient in the balanced equation. (c) How many moles of the excess reactant remain at the end
of the reaction?

Calculating the Amount of Product Formed from a Limiting Reactant
The reaction
2 H21g2 + O21g2 ¡ 2 H2O1g2
is used to produce electricity in a hydrogen fuel cell. Suppose a fuel cell contains 150 g of H21g2 and 1500 g of O21g2 (each
measured to two significant figures). How many grams of water can form?
Continued
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 151 22/07/17 4:12 PM

SOLUTION Check The magnitude of the answer seems reasonable based on

the amounts of the reactants. The units are correct, and the
Analyze We are asked to calculate the amount of a product, given number of significant figures (two) corresponds to those in the
the amounts of two reactants, so this is a limiting reactant problem. values given in the problem statement.
Plan To identify the limiting reactant, we can calculate the number Comment The quantity of the limiting reactant, H2, can also be
of moles of each reactant and compare their ratio with the ratio of used to determine the quantity of O2 used:
coefficients in the balanced equation. We then use the quantity
of the limiting reactant to calculate the mass of water that forms. 1 mol O2 32.0 g O2
Grams O2 = 174 mol H22a ba b
Solve From the balanced equation, we have the stoichiometric 2 mol H2 1 mol O2
relations
= 1.2 * 103 g O2
2 mol H2 ] 1 mol O2 ] 2 mol H2O
The mass of O2 remaining at the end of the reaction equals the
Using the molar mass of each substance, we calculate the number starting amount minus the amount consumed:
of moles of each reactant:
1500 g - 1200 g = 300 g.
1 mol H2
Moles H2 = 1150 g H22a b = 74 mol H2
2.02 g H2
1 mol O2 Molten gallium reacts with arsenic to form the semiconductor,
Moles O2 = 11500 g O22a b = 47 mol O2
32.0 g O2 gallium arsenide, GaAs, used in light–emitting diodes and
solar cells:
The coefficients in the balanced equation indicate that the reaction
requires 2 mol of H2 for every 1 mol of O2. Therefore, for all the Ga1l2 + As1s2 ¡ GaAs1s2
O2 to completely react, we would need 2 * 47 = 94 mol of H2. If 4.00 g of gallium is reacted with 5.50 g of arsenic, how many
Since there are only 74 mol of H2, all of the O2 cannot react, so it is grams of the excess reactant are left at the end of the reaction?
the excess reactant, and H2 must be the limiting reactant. (Notice (a) 1.20 g As (b) 1.50 g As (c) 4.30 g As (d) 8.30 g Ga
that the limiting reactant is not necessarily the one present in the
lowest amount.) ▶▶ Practice Exercise 2
We use the given quantity of H2 (the limiting reactant) to calcu- When a 2.00-g strip of zinc metal is placed in an aqueous
late the quantity of water formed. We could begin this calculation solution containing 2.50 g of silver nitrate, the reaction is
with the given H2 mass, 150 g, but we can save a step by starting
with the moles of H2, 74 mol, we just calculated: Zn1s2 + 2 AgNO31aq2 ¡ 2 Ag1s2 + Zn1NO3221aq2
(a) Which reactant is limiting? (b) How many grams of

2 mol H2O 18.0 g H2O
Grams H2O = 174 mol H22a ba b Ag form? (c) How many grams of Zn1NO322 form? (d) How
2 mol H2 1 mol H2O many grams of the excess reactant are left at the end of the
= 1.3 * 102 g H2O reaction?
Theoretical and Percent Yields

The quantity of product calculated to form when all of a limiting reactant is consumed
is called the theoretical yield. The amount of product actually obtained, called the
actual yield, is almost always less than (and can never be greater than) the theoretical
yield. There are many reasons for this difference. Some of the reactants may not react, for
example, or they may react in a way different from that desired (side reactions). In addi-
tion, it is not always possible to recover all of the product from the reaction mixture. The
percent yield of a reaction relates actual and theoretical yields:
actual yield
Percent yield = * 100% [3.14]
theoretical yield

Calculating Theoretical Yield and Percent Yield
Adipic acid, H2C6H8O4, used to produce nylon, is made commercially by a reaction between cyclohexane 1C6H122 and O2:
2 C6H121l2 + 5 O21g2 ¡ 2 H2C6H8O41l2 + 2 H2O1g2
(a) Assume that you carry out this reaction with 25.0 g of cyclohexane and that cyclohexane is the limiting reactant. What is the
theoretical yield of adipic acid? (b) If you obtain 33.5 g of adipic acid, what is the percent yield for the reaction?
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SECTION 3.7 Limiting Reactants 153
SOLUTION
Analyze We are given a chemical equation and the quantity of the Plan
limiting reactant (25.0 g of C6H12). We are asked to calculate the (a) The theoretical yield, which is the calculated quantity of
theoretical yield of a product H2C6H8O4 and the percent yield if adipic acid formed, can be calculated using the sequence of
only 33.5 g of product is obtained. conversions shown in Figure 3.16.
(b) The percent yield is calculated by using Equation 3.14 to com-
pare the given actual yield (33.5 g) with the theoretical yield.
Solve
1 mol C6H12 2 mol H2C6H8O4 146.0 g H2C6H8O4
(a) The theoretical yield is: Grams H2C6H8O4 = 125.0 g C6H122a ba ba b
84.0 g C6H12 2 mol C6H12 1 mol H2C6H8O4
= 43.5 g H2C6H8O4
actual yield 33.5 g

(b) The percent yield is: Percent yield = * 100% = * 100% = 77.0%
theoretical yield 43.5 g
Check We can check our answer in (a) by doing a ballpark calcula- combination reaction, what is the percent yield of the
tion. From the balanced equation we know that each mole of cy- product?
clohexane gives 1 mol adipic acid. We have 25>84 ≈ 25>75 = 0.3 (a) 65% (b) 96% (c) 48% (d) 86%
mol hexane, so we expect 0.3 mol adipic acid, which equals about
0.3 * 150 = 45 g, about the same magnitude as the 43.5 g
obtained in the more detailed calculation given previously. In ▶▶ Practice Exercise 2
addition, our answer has the appropriate units and number of sig- Imagine you are working on ways to improve the process by
nificant figures. In (b) the answer is less than 100%, as it must be which iron ore containing Fe2O3 is converted into iron:
from the definition of percent yield.
Fe2O31s2 + 3 CO1g2 ¡ 2 Fe1s2 + 3 CO21g2
▶▶ Practice Exercise 1 (a) If you start with 150 g of Fe2O3 as the limiting reactant,
If 3.00 g of titanium metal is reacted with 6.00 g of chlo- what is the theoretical yield of Fe?
rine gas, Cl2, to form 7.7 g of titanium(IV) chloride in a (b) If your actual yield is 87.9 g, what is the percent yield?
STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESS Design an Experiment

One of the most important skills you can learn in school is how to you might have used in a biology lab, spin your sample, and observe
think like a scientist. Questions such as: “What experiment might if any solids collect at the bottom of the centrifuge tube; large mole-
test this hypothesis?”, “How do I interpret these data?”, and “Do cules can be separated in this way from a mixture. Measurement of
these data support the hypothesis?” are asked every day by chemists the mass of the solid at the bottom of the tube is a way to obtain a
and other scientists as they go about their work. value for the % solids in milk and also tells you that milk is indeed a
We want you to become a good critical thinker as well as an mixture.
active, logical, and curious learner. For this purpose, starting in this Keep an open mind: Lacking a centrifuge, how else might you
chapter, we include at the end of each chapter a special exercise separate solids in the milk? You could consider using a filter with re-
called “Design an Experiment.” Here is an example: ally tiny holes in it or perhaps even a fine strainer. You could propose
Is milk a pure liquid or a mixture of chemical components in water? that if milk were poured through this filter, some (large) solid com-
Design an experiment to distinguish between these two possibilities. ponents should stay on the top of the filter, while water (and really
You might already know the answer—milk is indeed a mixture small molecules or ions) would pass through the filter. That result
of components in water—but the goal is to think of how to demon- would be evidence that milk is a mixture. Does such a filter exist? Yes!
strate this in practice. Upon thinking about it, you will likely realize But for our purposes, the existence of such a filter is not the point:
that the key idea for this experiment is separation: You can prove The point is, can you use your imagination and your knowledge of
that milk is a mixture of chemical components if you can figure out chemistry to design a reasonable experiment? Don’t worry too much
how to separate these components. about the exact apparatus you need for the Design an Experiment ex-
Testing a hypothesis is a creative endeavor. While some exper- ercises. The goal is to imagine what you would need to do, or what
iments may be more efficient than others, there is often more than kind of data you would need to collect, in order to answer the ques-
one good way to test a hypothesis. Our question about milk, for tion. If your instructor allows it, you can collaborate with others in
example, might be explored by an experiment in which you boil a your class to develop ideas. Scientists discuss their ideas with other
known quantity of milk until it is dry. Does a solid residue form in scientists all the time. We find that discussing ideas, and refining
the bottom of the pan? If so, you could weigh it and calculate the per- them, makes us better scientists and helps us collectively answer im-
centage of solids in milk, which would offer good evidence that milk portant questions.
is a mixture. If there is no residue after boiling, then you still cannot The design and interpretation of scientific experiments is at the
distinguish between the two possibilities. heart of the scientific method. Think of the Design an Experiment
What other experiments might you do to demonstrate that milk exercises as puzzles that can be solved in various ways, and enjoy
is a mixture? You could put a sample of milk in a centrifuge, which your explorations!
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 153 22/07/17 4:12 PM

Chapter Summary and Key Terms

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS (INTRODUCTION AND SECTION 3.1) units of that substance. The mass of a mole of atoms, molecules, or ions
The study of the quantitative relationships between chemical (the molar mass) equals the formula weight of that material expressed
formulas and chemical equations is known as stoichiometry. One of in grams. The mass of 1 molecule of H2O, for example, is 18.0 u,
the i mportant concepts of stoichiometry is the law of conservation so the mass of 1 mol of H2O is 18.0 g. That is, the molar mass of
of mass, which states that the total mass of the products of a chem- H2O is 18.0 g>mol.
ical reaction is the same as the total mass of the reactants. The same
numbers of atoms of each type are present before and after a chem- EMPIRICAL FORMULAS FROM ANALYSIS (SECTION 3.5) The em-
pirical formula of any substance can be determined from its percent
ical reaction. A balanced chemical equation shows equal numbers of
composition by calculating the relative number of moles of each
atoms of each element on each side of the equation. Equations are
atom in 100 g of the substance. If the substance is molecular in na-
balanced by placing coefficients in front of the chemical formu-
ture, its molecular formula can be determined from the empirical
las for the reactants and products of a reaction, not by changing the
formula if the molecular weight is also known. Combustion analysis
subscripts in chemical formulas.
is a special technique for determining the empirical formulas of com-
SIMPLE PATTERNS OF CHEMICAL REACTIVITY (SECTION 3.2) pounds containing only carbon, hydrogen, and/or oxygen.
Among the reaction types described in this chapter are (1) combination
reactions , in which two reactants combine to form one product;
QUANTITATIVE INFORMATION FROM BALANCED EQUATIONS
(2) decomposition reactions , in which a single reactant forms two or AND LIMITING REACTANTS (SECTIONS 3.6 AND 3.7) The mole
more products; and (3) combustion reactions in oxygen, in which a concept can be used to calculate the relative quantities of reactants
substance, typically a hydrocarbon, reacts rapidly with O2 to form and products in chemical reactions. The coefficients in a balanced
CO2 and H2O. equation give the relative numbers of moles of the reactants and
products. To calculate the number of grams of a product from the
FORMULA WEIGHTS (SECTION 3.3) Much quantitative infor- number of grams of a reactant, first convert grams of reactant to
mation can be determined from chemical formulas and balanced moles of reactant. Then use the coefficients in the balanced equation
chemical equations by using atomic weights. The formula weight of a to convert the number of moles of reactant to moles of product. Fi-
compound equals the sum of the atomic weights of the atoms in its nally, convert moles of product to grams of product.
formula. If the formula is a molecular formula, the formula weight is A limiting reactant is completely consumed in a reaction. When
also called the molecular weight. Atomic weights and formula weights it is used up, the reaction stops, thus limiting the quantities of prod-
can be used to determine the elemental composition of a compound. ucts formed. The theoretical yield of a reaction is the quantity of prod-
uct calculated to form when all of the limiting reactant reacts. The
AVOGADRO’S NUMBER AND THE MOLE (SECTION 3.4) A mole of actual yield of a reaction is always less than the theoretical yield. The
any substance contains Avogadro’s number 16.02 * 10232 of formula percent yield compares the actual and theoretical yields.
Learning Outcomes After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Balance chemical equations. (Section 3.1) • Calculate the empirical and molecular formulas of a com-
Related Exercises: 3.11, 3.12 pound from percentage composition and molecular weight.
• Predict the products of simple combination, decomposition, and (Section 3.5) Related Exercises: 3.53, 3.54
combustion reactions. (Section 3.2) Related Exercises: 3.19, 3.20 • Identify limiting reactants and calculate amounts, in grams or
• Calculate formula weights. (Section 3.3) Related Exercises: 3.23, 3.24 moles, of reactants consumed and products formed for a reac-
tion. (Section 3.6) Related Exercises: 3.65, 3.66
• Convert grams to moles and vice versa using molar masses.
(Section 3.4) Related Exercises: 3.35, 3.36 • Calculate the percent yield of a reaction. (Section 3.7)
Related Exercises: 3.83, 3.84
• Convert number of molecules to moles and vice versa using
Avogadro’s number. (Section 3.4) Related Exercises: 3.39, 3.40
Key Equations
number of atoms atomic weight
a ba b
% mass composition of element of element
•
of element = * 100%[3.10] This is the formula to calculate the mass percentage
formula weight of compound of each element in a compound. The sum of all the
percentages of all the elements in a c ompound should
add up to 100%.
actual yield
• Percent yield = * 100% [3.14] This is the formula to calculate the percent yield of a
theoretical yield
reaction. The percent yield can never be more than
100%.
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Exercises 155
Exercises
Visualizing Concepts
3.1 The reaction between reactant A (blue spheres) and reactant
B (red spheres) is shown in the following diagram:
3.5 Glycine, an amino acid used by organisms to make proteins,

is represented by the following molecular model.
Based on this diagram, which equation best describes the (a) Write its molecular formula.
reaction? [Section 3.1 ] (b) Determine its molar mass.
(a) A2 + B ¡ A2B (c) Calculate how many moles of glycine are in a 100.0-g
(b) A2 + 4 B ¡ 2 AB2 sample of glycine.
(c) 2 A + B4 ¡ 2 AB2 (d) Calculate the percent nitrogen by mass in glycine.
(d) A + B2 ¡ AB2 [Sections 3.3 and 3.5]
3.2 The following diagram shows the combination reaction

b etween hydrogen, H2, and carbon monoxide, CO, to
produce methanol, CH3OH (white spheres are H, black spheres
are C, red spheres are O). The correct number of CO molecules
involved in this reaction is not shown. [Section 3.1]
(a) Determine the number of CO molecules that should be
shown in the left (reactants) box.
(b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
3.6 The following diagram represents a high-temperature

CO molecules reaction between CH4 and H2O. Based on this reaction, find
not shown how many moles of each product can be obtained starting
with 4.0 mol CH4. [Section 3.6]
3.3 The following diagram represents the collection of elements

formed by a decomposition reaction. (a) If the blue spheres
3.7 Nitrogen 1N22 and hydrogen 1H22 react to form ammonia
represent N atoms and the red ones represent O atoms,
1NH32. Consider the mixture of N2 and H2 shown in the
what was the empirical formula of the original compound?
accompanying diagram. The blue spheres represent N, and
(b) Could you draw a diagram representing the molecules
the white ones represent H. (a) Write the balanced chemical
of the compound that had been decomposed? Why or why
equation for the reaction. (b) What is the limiting reactant?
not? [Section 3.2 ]
(c) How many molecules of ammonia can be made, assum-
ing the reaction goes to completion, based on the diagram?
(d) Are any reactant molecules left over, based on the diagram?
If so, how many of which type are left over? [Section 3.7]
3.4 The following diagram represents the collection of CO2 and

H2O molecules formed by complete combustion of a hydro-
carbon. What is the empirical formula of the hydrocarbon?
[Section 3.2]
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 155 22/07/17 4:12 PM

3.8 Nitrogen monoxide and oxygen react to form nitrogen dioxide. ammonia gas, water and metal nitrate is formed. (c) When hy-
Consider the mixture of NO and O2 shown in the accompany- drogen gas is passed over solid hot iron(III) oxide, the resulting
ing diagram. The blue spheres represent N, and the red ones reaction produces iron and gaseous water. (d) When liquid eth-
represent O. (a) How many molecules of NO2 can be formed, anoic acid (CH3COOH) is combusted, carbon dioxide and water
assuming the reaction goes to completion? (b) What is the lim- are formed.
iting reactant? (c) If the actual yield of the reaction was 75% 3.16 Write balanced chemical equations to correspond to each
instead of 100%, how many molecules of each kind would be of the following descriptions: (a) When sulfur trioxide
present after the reaction was over? gas reacts with water, a solution of sulfuric acid forms.
(b) Boron sulfide, B2S31s2, reacts violently with water to
form dissolved boric acid, H3BO3, and hydrogen sulfide
gas. (c) Phosphine, PH31g2, combusts in oxygen gas to
form water vapor and solid tetraphosphorus decaoxide.
(d) When solid mercury(II) nitrate is heated, it decom-
poses to form solid mercury(II) oxide, gaseous nitrogen
dioxide, and oxygen. (e) Copper metal reacts with hot
concentrated sulfuric acid solution to form aqueous
copper(II) sulfate, sulfur dioxide gas, and water.
Chemical Equations and Simple Patterns Patterns of Chemical Reactivity (Section 3.2)
of Chemical Reactivity (Sections 3.1 and 3.2)
3.17 (a) When the metallic element lithium combines with the
3.9 Write “true” or “false” for each statement. (a) We balance nonmetallic element chlorine, Cl2(g), what is the chemical
chemical equations as we do because energy must be con- formula of the product? (b) Is the product a solid, liquid, or
served. (b) If the reaction 2 O3(g) S 3 O2(g) goes to comple- gas at room temperature? (c) In the balanced chemical equa-
tion and all O3 is converted to O2, then the mass of O3 at tion for this reaction, what is the coefficient in front of the
the beginning of the reaction must be the same as the mass product if the coefficient in front of Cl2(g) is 1?
of O2 at the end of the reaction. (c) You can balance the 3.18 (a) When a compound containing C, H, and O is completely
“water-splitting” reaction H2O(l) S H2(g) + O2(g) by writing combusted in air, what reactant besides the hydrocarbon
it this way: H2O2(l) S H2(g) + O2(g). is involved in the reaction? (b) What products form in this
3.10 A key step in balancing chemical equations is correctly iden- reaction? (c) What is the sum of the coefficients in the bal-
tifying the formulas of the reactants and products. For exam- anced chemical equation for the combustion of one mole of
ple, consider the reaction between calcium oxide, CaO(s), acetone, C3H6O1l2, in air?
and H2O1l2 to form aqueous calcium hydroxide. (a) Write a 3.19 Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction that
balanced chemical equation for this combination reaction, occurs when (a) Mg(s) reacts with Cl21g2; (b) barium car-
having correctly identified the product as Ca1OH221aq2. bonate decomposes into barium oxide and carbon dioxide gas
(b) Is it possible to balance the equation if you incorrectly when heated; (c) the hydrocarbon styrene, C8H81l2, is com-
identify the product as CaOH1aq2, and if so, what is the busted in air; (d) dimethylether, CH3OCH31g2, is combusted
equation? in air.
3.11 Balance the following equations: 3.20 Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction that oc-
(a) SiCl41l2 + H2O1l2 ¡ Si1OH24(s) + HCl(aq) curs when (a) titanium metal reacts with O21g2; (b) silver(I)
(b) CO21g2 + H2O ¡ C6H12O6(s) + O2(g) oxide decomposes into silver metal and oxygen gas when
heated; (c) propanol, C3H7OH1l2 burns in air; (d) methyl
(c) Al(OH)31s2 + H2SO41l2 ¡ Al2(SO4)3(s) + H2O(l)
tert-butyl ether, C5H12O1l2, burns in air.
(d) H3PO41aq2 ¡ H4P2O7(aq) + H2O(l)
3.21 Balance the following equations and indicate whether
3.12 Balance the following equations: they are combination, decomposition, or combustion
(a) HClO41aq2 + P4O101s2 ¡ HPO31aq2 + Cl2O7(l) reactions:
(b) Au2S31s2 + H21g2 ¡ Au1s2 + H2S1g2 (a) C7H161s2 + O21g2 ¡ CO21g2 + H2O1l2
(c) Ba3N21s2 + H2O1aq2 ¡ Ba(OH)21aq2 + NH31g2 (b) Li3N1s2 + BN1s2 ¡ Li3BN21s2
(d) Na2CO31aq2 + HCl1aq2 ¡ NaCl1aq2 + H2O1l2 + CO2(g) (c) Zn(OH)21s2 ¡ ZnO1s2 + H2O(l)
3.13 Balance the following equations: (d) Ag2O1s2 ¡ Ag1s2 + O2(g)
(a) CaS1s2 + H2O1l2 ¡ Ca1HS221aq2 + Ca(OH)21aq2 3.22 Balance the following equations and indicate whether
they are combination, decomposition, or combustion
(b) NH31g2 + O21g2 ¡ NO1g2 + H2O1g2
reactions:
(c) FeCl31s2 + Na2CO31aq2 ¡ Fe2(CO3)31s2 + NaCl1aq2
(a) NaClO31s2 ¡ NaCl1s2 + O2(g)
(d) FeS21s2 + O21g2 ¡ Fe2O31s2 + SO21g2
(b) NH4OH1aq2 ¡ H2O1l2 + NH3(g)
3.14 Balance the following equations:
(c) K1s2 + Cl2(g) ¡ KCl(s)
(a) CF41l2 + Br21g2 ¡ CBr41l2 + F21g2
(d) C2H5OH1l2 + O2(g) ¡ CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(b) Cu1s2 + HNO31aq2 ¡ Cu(NO3)21aq2 + NO21g) + H2O(l)
(c) MnO21s2 + HCl1aq2 ¡ MnCl21s2 + H2O1l2 + Cl2(g)
Formula Weights (Section 3.3)
(d) KOH1aq2 + H3PO41aq2 ¡ K3PO41aq2 + H2O1l2
3.15 Write balanced chemical equations corresponding to each of 3.23 Determine the formula weights of each of the following
the following descriptions: (a) Potassium cyanide reacts with an compounds: (a) lead (IV) chloride; (b) copper(II) oxide;
aqueous solution of sulfuric acid to form hydrogen cyanide gas. (c) iodic acid, HIO 3 ; (d) sodium perchlorate, NaClO 4 ;
(b) When an aqueous solution of ammonium nitrite (NH4NO2) (e) indium nitride, (f) phosphorus pentoxide, P 4O 10; (g)
reacts with an aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide, boron trichloride.
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 156 22/07/17 4:12 PM

Exercises 157
3.24 Determine the formula weights of each of the following Avogadro’s Number and the Mole (Section 3.4)
compounds: (a) Butyric acid, CH3CH2CH2COOH, which is
responsible for the rotten smell of spoiled food; (b) sodium 3.29 (a) Write “true” or “false” for each statement. (a) A mole of
perborate, NaBO3, a substance used as bleach; (c) calcium car- ducks contain a mole of feathers. (b) A mole of ammonia gas
bonate, CaCO3, a substance found in marble. (c) CF2Cl2, a has a mass of 17.0 g. (c) The mass of 1 ammonia molecule is
refrigerant known as Freon; (d) NaHCO3, known as baking 17.0 g. (d) A mole of MgSO4(s) contains 4 moles of oxygen
soda and used in bread and pastry baking; (e) iron pyrite, FeS2, atoms.
which has a golden appearance and is known as “Fool’s Gold.”
3.30 (a) What is the mass, in grams, of one mole of 79Br? (b) How
3.25 Calculate the percentage by mass of oxygen in the following many bromine atoms are present in one mole of 79Br?
compounds: (a) vanillin, C8H8O3; (b) isopropyl alcohol, C3H8O;
3.31 Without doing any detailed calculations (but using a periodic
(c) acetaminophen, C8H9NO2; (d) cyclopropanone, C3H4O;
table to give atomic weights), rank the following samples in
(e) dioxin, C12H4Cl4O2; (f) penicillin, C16H18N2O4S.
order of increasing numbers of atoms: 0.5 mol BCl3 mole-
3.26 Calculate the percentage by mass of the indicated element in the cules, 197 g gold, 6.0 3 1023 CCl4 molecules.
following compounds: (a) hydrogen in methane, CH4, the major
3.32 Without doing any detailed calculations (but using a periodic
hydrocarbon in natural gas; (b) oxygen in vitamin E, C29H50O2;
table to give atomic weights), rank the following samples in
(c) sulphur in magnesium sulphate, MgSO4, a substance used
order of increasing numbers of atoms: 0.2 mol PCl 5 mole-
as a drying agent; (d) nitrogen in epinephrine, C9H13NO3 , also
cules, 80 g Fe2O3, 3.0 3 1023 CO molecules.
known as adrenalin, a hormone that is important for the fight-
or-flight response; (e) oxygen in the insect pheromone sulcatol, 3.33 What is the mass, in kilograms, of an Avogadro’s number of
C8H16O; (f) carbon in sucrose, C12H22O11, the compound that is people, if the average mass of a person is 160 lb? How does
responsible for the sweet taste of table sugar. this compare with the mass of Earth, 5.98 * 1024 kg?
3.27 Based on the following structural formulas, calculate the 3.34 If Avogadro’s number of pennies is divided equally among
percentage of carbon by mass present in each compound: the 321 million men, women, and children in the United
States, how many dollars would each receive? How does
this compare with the gross domestic product (GDP) of the
H H United States, which was $17.419 trillion in 2015? (The GDP
C C O is the total market value of the nation’s goods and services.)
Benzaldehyde 3.35 Calculate the following quantities:
(a) H C C C H (almond fragrance) (a) mass, in grams, of 0.105 mol sucrose 1C12H22O112
C C (b) moles of Zn1NO322 in 143.50 g of this substance
H H (c) number of molecules in 1.0 * 10 -6 mol CH3CH2OH
(d) number of N atoms in 0.410 mol NH3
H3CO H 3.36 Calculate the following quantities:
C C O (a) mass, in grams, of 1.50 * 10 -2 mol CdS
Vanillin (b) number of moles of NH4Cl in 86.6 g of this substance
(b) HO C C C H (vanilla flavor)
(c) number of molecules in 8.447 * 10 -2 mol C6H6
C C
(d) number of O atoms in 6.25 * 10 -3 mol Al1NO323
H H 3.37 (a) W hat is the mass, in grams, of 2.50 * 10 -3 mol of
ammonium phosphate?
H H H O (b) H ow many moles of chloride ions are in 0.2550 g of
aluminum chloride?
(c) H3C C C C O C CH3
(c) What is the mass, in grams, of 7.70 * 1020 molecules of
H3C H H caffeine, C8H10N4O2?
Isopentyl acetate (d) What is the molar mass of cholesterol if 0.00105 mol has
(banana flavor) a mass of 0.406 g?
3.38 (a) What is the mass, in grams, of 1.223 mol of iron(III)
3.28 Calculate the percentage of carbon by mass in each of the sulfate?
compounds represented by the following models: (b) How many moles of ammonium ions are in 6.955 g of
ammonium carbonate?
(c) What is the mass, in grams, of 1.50 * 1021 molecules of
aspirin, C9H8O4?
(d) What is the molar mass of diazepam (Valium®) if 0.05570
mol has a mass of 15.86 g?
(a) (b) 3.39 The molecular formula of saccharin, an artificial sweetener, is
C7H5NO3S. (a) What is the molar mass of saccharin? (b) How
many moles of sachharin are in 2.00 mg of this substance?
(c) How many molecules are in 2.00 mg of this substance?
N (d) How many C atoms are present in 2.00 mg of saccharin?
S 3.40 The molecular formula of salicylic acid, a compound com-
monly found in facial cleanser, is C7H6O3. (a) What is the molar
mass of salicylic acid? (b) How many moles of salicylic acid are
present in 0.5 mg of this substance? (c) How many molecules
of salicylic acid are in 0.5 mg of this substance? (d) How many
(c) (d) oxygen atoms are present in 0.5 mg of salicylic acid?
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 157 22/07/17 4:12 PM

3.41 A sample of glucose, C6H12O6, contains 1.250 * 1021 carbon (c) Monosodium glutamate (MSG), a flavor enhancer in
atoms. (a) How many atoms of hydrogen does it contain? certain foods, contains 35.51% C, 4.77% H, 37.85% O,
(b) How many molecules of glucose does it contain? (c) How 8.29% N, and 13.60% Na, and has a molar mass of
many moles of glucose does it contain? (d) What is the mass 169 g>mol.
of this sample in grams? 3.54 Determine the empirical and molecular formulas of each
3.42 A sample of the male sex hormone testosterone, C19H28O2, of the following substances:
contains 3.88 * 1021 hydrogen atoms. (a) How many (a) Ibuprofen, a headache remedy, contains 75.69% C,
atoms of carbon does it contain? (b) How many molecules of 8.80% H, and 15.51% O by mass and has a molar mass
testosterone does it contain? (c) How many moles of testosterone of 206 g>mol.
does it contain? (d) What is the mass of this sample in grams?
(b) Cadaverine, a foul-smelling substance produced by
3.43 The allowable concentration level of vinyl chloride, C2H3Cl, the action of bacteria on meat, contains 58.55% C,
in the atmosphere in a chemical plant is 2.0 * 10 -6 g>L. 13.81% H, and 27.40% N by mass; its molar mass is
How many moles of vinyl chloride in each liter does this rep- 102.2 g>mol.
resent? How many molecules per liter?
(c) Epinephrine (adrenaline), a hormone secreted into the
3.44 At least 25 mg of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the active bloodstream in times of danger or stress, contains 59.0%
i ngredient in marijuana, is required to produce intoxi- C, 7.1% H, 26.2% O, and 7.7% N by mass; its molar mass
cation. The molecular formula of THC is C21H30O2. How is about 180 u.
many moles of THC does this 25 mg represent? How many
3.55 (a) Combustion analysis of toluene, a common organic
molecules?
solvent, gives 5.86 mg of CO2 and 1.37 mg of H2O. If the
compound contains only carbon and hydrogen, what is its
Empirical Formulas from Analyses (Section 3.5) empirical formula? (b) Menthol, the substance we can smell
in mentholated cough drops, is composed of C, H, and O.
3.45 Give the empirical formula of each of the following com- A 0.1005-g sample of menthol is combusted, producing
pounds if a sample contains (a) 0.052 mol C, 0.103 mol 0.2829 g of CO2 and 0.1159 g of H2O. What is the empiri-
H, and 0.017 mol O; (b) 2.10 g nickel and 0.58 g oxygen; cal formula for menthol? If menthol has a molar mass of
(c) 26.56% K, 35.41% Cr, and 38.03% O by mass. 156 g>mol, what is its molecular formula?
3.46 Determine the empirical formula of each of the following 3.56 (a) The characteristic odor of pineapple is due to ethyl butyr-
compounds if a sample contains (a) 3.92 mol C, 5.99 mol H, ate, a compound containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
and 2.94 mol O; (b) 12.0 g calcium and 2.8 g nitrogen; (c) Combustion of 2.78 mg of ethyl butyrate produces 6.32 mg
89.14% Au and 10.86% O by mass. of CO2 and 2.58 mg of H2O. What is the empirical formula
3.47 Determine the empirical formulas of the compounds with of the compound? (b) Nicotine, a component of tobacco, is
the following compositions by mass: composed of C, H, and N. A 5.250-mg sample of nicotine was
combusted, producing 14.242 mg of CO2 and 4.083 mg of
(a) 74.0% C, 8.7% H, and 17.3% N
H2O. What is the empirical formula for nicotine? If nicotine
(b) 57.5% Na, 40.0% O, and 2.5% H has a molar mass of 160 { 5 g>mol, what is its molecular
(c) 41.1% N, 11.8% H, and the remainder S formula?
3.48 Determine the empirical formulas of the compounds with 3.57 Valproic acid, used to treat seizures and bipolar disorder, is
the following compositions by mass: composed of C, H, and O. A 0.165-g sample is combusted
to produce 0.166 g of water and 0.403 g of carbon dioxide.
(a) 42.1% Na, 18.9% P, and 39.0% O
What is the empirical formula for valproic acid? If the molar
(b) 18.7% Li, 16.3% C, and 65.0% O mass is 144 g>mol, what is the molecular formula?
(c) 60.0% C, 4.4% H, and the remainder O 3.58 Propenoic acid, C 3 H 4 O 2 , is a reactive organic liquid that is
used in the manufacturing of plastics, coatings, and ad-
3.49 A compound whose empirical formula is XF3 consists of 65%
hesives. An unlabeled container is thought to contain
F by mass. What is the atomic mass of X?
this liquid. A 0.275-g sample of the liquid is combusted to
3.50 The compound XCl4 contains 75.0% Cl by mass. What is the produce 0.102 g of water and 0.374 g carbon dioxide. Is the
element X? unknown liquid propenoic acid? Support your reasoning
3.51 What is the molecular formula of each of the following with calculations.
compounds? 3.59 Washing soda, a compound used to prepare hard water for
(a) empirical formula CH, molar mass 5 78.0 g/mol washing laundry, is a hydrate, which means that a certain
number of water molecules are included in the solid struc-
ture. Its formula can be written as Na2CO3 # xH2O, where x is
(b) empirical formula OH, molar mass 5 34.0 g/mol
3.52 What is the molecular formula of each of the following the number of moles of H2O per mole of Na2CO3. When a
compounds? 2.558-g sample of washing soda is heated at 125 °C, all the
(a) empirical formula CH3O, molar mass 5 62.0 g/mol water of hydration is lost, leaving 0.948 g of Na2CO3. What is
(b) empirical formula NH2, molar mass 5 32.0 g/mol the value of x?
3.53 Determine the empirical and molecular formulas of each of 3.60 Epsom salts, a strong laxative used in veterinary medicine,
the following substances: is a hydrate, which means that a certain number of water
molecules are included in the solid structure. The formula
(a) Styrene, a compound used to make Styrofoam® cups and for Epsom salts can be written as MgSO4 # xH2O, where x
insulation, contains 92.3% C and 7.7% H by mass and indicates the number of moles of H2O per mole of MgSO4.
has a molar mass of 104 g>mol. When 5.061 g of this hydrate is heated to 250 °C, all the wa-
(b) Caffeine, a stimulant found in coffee, contains 49.5% C, ter of hydration is lost, leaving 2.472 g of MgSO4. What is
5.15% H, 28.9% N, and 16.5% O by mass and has a molar the value of x?
mass of 195 g>mol.
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 158 22/07/17 4:12 PM

Exercises 159
Quantitative Information from Balanced 3.66 Calcium hydride reacts with water to form calcium hy-
Equations (Section 3.6) droxide and hydrogen gas. (a) Write a balanced chemical
equation for the reaction. (b) How many grams of calcium
3.61 Hydrofluoric acid, HF(aq), cannot be stored in glass bottles hydride are needed to form 4.500 g of hydrogen?
because compounds called silicates in the glass are attacked
3.67 Automotive air bags inflate when sodium azide, NaN3,
by the HF(aq). Sodium silicate 1Na2SiO32, for example, reacts
rapidly decomposes to its component elements:
as follows:
Na2SiO31s2 + 8 HF1aq2 ¡ H2SiF61aq2 + 2 NaF1aq2 + 3 H2O1l2 2 NaN31s2 ¡ 2 Na1s2 + 3 N21g2
(a) How many moles of HF are needed to react with 0.300 (a) How many moles of N2 are produced by the decomposi-
mol of Na2SiO3? tion of 1.50 mol of NaN3?
(b) How many grams of NaF form when 0.500 mol of HF (b) How many grams of NaN3 are required to form 10.0 g of
reacts with excess Na2SiO3? nitrogen gas?
(c) How many grams of Na2SiO3 can react with 0.800 g of HF? (c) How many grams of NaN3 are required to produce
3.62 The reaction between potassium superoxide, KO2, and CO2, 10.0 ft3 of nitrogen gas, about the size of an automotive
air bag, if the gas has a density of 1.25 g/L?
4 KO2 + 2 CO2 ¡ 2K2CO3 + 3 O2
3.68 The complete combustion of octane, C8H18, a component of
is used as a source of O2 and absorber of CO2 in self- gasoline, proceeds as follows:
contained breathing equipment used by rescue workers. 2 C8H181l2 + 25 O21g2 ¡ 16 CO21g2 + 18 H2O1g2
(a) How many moles of O2 are produced when 0.400 mol of
KO2 reacts in this fashion? (a) How many moles of O2 are needed to burn 1.50 mol of
C8H18?
(b) How many grams of KO2 are needed to form 7.50 g of O2?
(b) How many grams of O2 are needed to burn 10.0 g of C8H18?
(c) Octane has a density of 0.692 g>mL at 20 °C. How many
grams of O2 are required to burn 15.0 gal of C8H18 (the
capacity of an average fuel tank)?
(d) How many grams of CO2 are produced when 15.0 gal of
C8H18 are combusted?
3.69 A piece of aluminum foil 1.00 cm2 and 0.550-mm thick is

allowed to react with bromine to form aluminum bromide.
(c) How many grams of CO2 are used when 7.50 g of O2 are
produced?
3.63 Several brands of antacids use Al1OH23 to react with stomach

acid, which contains primarily HCl:
Al1OH231s2 + HCl1aq2 ¡ AlCl31aq2 + H2O1l2
(a) Balance this equation.

(b) Calculate the number of grams of HCl that can react
with 0.500 g of Al1OH23.
(c) Calculate the number of grams of AlCl3 and the number
of grams of H2O formed when 0.500 g of Al1OH23 reacts.
(a) How many moles of aluminum were used? (The density of
(d) Show that your calculations in parts (b) and (c) are con- aluminum is 2.699 g>cm3.) (b) How many grams of a
luminum
sistent with the law of conservation of mass. bromide form, assuming the aluminum reacts completely?
3.64 An iron ore sample contains Fe2O3 together with other sub- 3.70 Detonation of nitroglycerin proceeds as follows:
stances. Reaction of the ore with CO produces iron metal:

4 C3H5N3O91l2 ¡
Fe2O31s2 + CO1g2 ¡ Fe1s2 + CO21g2
12 CO21g2 + 6 N21g2 + O21g2 + 10 H2O1g2
(a) Balance this equation.
(a) If a sample containing 2.00 mL of nitroglycerin 1density =
(b) Calculate the number of grams of CO that can react 1.592 g>mL2 is detonated, how many moles of gas are pro-
with 0.350 kg of Fe2O3. duced? (b) If each mole of gas occupies 55 L under the condi-
(c) Calculate the number of grams of Fe and the number of tions of the explosion, how many liters of gas are produced?
grams of CO2 formed when 0.350 kg of Fe2O3 reacts. (c) How many grams of N2 are produced in the detonation?
(d) Show that your calculations in parts (b) and (c) are con- 3.71 The complete combustion of octane, C8H18, produces 5470 kJ
sistent with the law of conservation of mass. of heat. Calculate how many grams of octane is required to
3.65 Aluminum sulfide reacts with water to form aluminum produce 20,000 kJ of heat.
hydroxide and hydrogen sulfide. (a) Write the balanced 3.72 The combustion of one mole of liquid octane, CH3(CH2)6CH3,
chemical equation for this reaction. (b) How many grams of produces 5470 kJ of heat. Calculate how much heat is pro-
aluminum hydroxide are obtained from 14.2 g of aluminum duced if 1.000 gallon of octane is combusted. See Exercise 3.68
sulfide? for necessary information about octane.
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 159 22/07/17 4:12 PM

Limiting Reactants (Section 3.7) In a certain experiment 1.00 g of sodium bicarbonate and
1.00 g of citric acid are allowed to react. (a) Which is the lim-
3.73 (a) Define the terms limiting reactant and excess reactant. iting reactant? (b) How many grams of carbon dioxide form?
(b) Why are the amounts of products formed in a reaction (c) How many grams of the excess reactant remain after the
determined only by the amount of the limiting reactant? limiting reactant is completely consumed?
(c) Why should you base your choice of which compound is
the limiting reactant on its number of initial moles, not on
its initial mass in grams?
3.74 Define the terms theoretical yield, actual yield, and percent
yield. (b) Why is the actual yield in a reaction almost always
less than the theoretical yield? (c) Can a reaction ever have
110% actual yield?
3.75 Consider the mixture of ethanol, C2H5OH, and O2 shown in
the accompanying diagram. (a) Write a balanced equation
for the combustion reaction that occurs between ethanol
and oxygen. (b) Which reactant is the limiting reactant?
(c) How many molecules of CO2, H2O, C2H5OH, and O2 will
be present if the reaction goes to completion?
3.80 One of the steps in the commercial process for converting

ammonia to nitric acid is the conversion of NH3 to NO:
4 NH31g2 + 5 O21g2 ¡ 4 NO1g2 + 6 H2O1g2
In a certain experiment, 2.00 g of NH3 reacts with 2.50 g of
O2. (a) Which is the limiting reactant? (b) How many grams
of NO and H2O form? (c) How many grams of the excess re-
actant remain after the limiting reactant is completely con-
sumed? (d) Show that your calculations in parts (b) and (c)
are consistent with the law of conservation of mass.
3.81 Solutions of sodium carbonate and silver nitrate react to
form solid silver carbonate and a solution of sodium nitrate.
3.76 Consider the mixture of propane, C3H8, and O2 shown here. A solution containing 3.50 g of sodium carbonate is mixed
(a) Write a balanced equation for the combustion reaction that with one containing 5.00 g of silver nitrate. How many grams
occurs between propane and oxygen. (b) Which reactant is the of sodium carbonate, silver nitrate, silver carbonate, and so-
limiting reactant? (c) How many molecules of CO2, H2O, C3H8, dium nitrate are present after the reaction is complete?
and O2 will be present if the reaction goes to completion? 3.82 Solutions of sulfuric acid and lead(II) acetate react to form solid
lead(II) sulfate and a solution of acetic acid. If 5.00 g of sulfuric
acid and 5.00 g of lead(II) acetate are mixed, calculate the num-
ber of grams of sulfuric acid, lead(II) acetate, lead(II) sulfate, and
acetic acid present in the mixture after the reaction is complete.
3.83 When benzene 1C6H62 reacts with bromine 1Br22, bromo-
benzene 1C6H5Br2 is obtained:
C6H6 + Br2 ¡ C6H5Br + HBr
(a) When 30.0 g of benzene reacts with 65.0 g of bromine, what
is the theoretical yield of bromobenzene? (b) If the a
ctual yield
of bromobenzene is 42.3 g, what is the percentage yield?
3.84 When ethane 1C2H62 reacts with chlorine 1Cl22, the main
product is C2H5Cl, but other products containing Cl, such
3.77 Sodium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide as follows: as C2H4Cl2, are also obtained in small quantities. The for-
mation of these other products reduces the yield of C2H5Cl.
2 NaOH1s2 + CO21g2 ¡ Na2CO31s2 + H2O1l2
(a) Calculate the theoretical yield of C2H5Cl when 125 g of
Which is the limiting reactant when 1.85 mol NaOH and C2H6 reacts with 255 g of Cl2, assuming that C2H6 and Cl2
1.00 mol CO2 are allowed to react? How many moles of react only to form C2H2Cl and HCl. (b) Calculate the percent
Na2CO3 can be produced? How many moles of the excess re- yield of C2H5Cl if the reaction produces 206 g of C2H5Cl.
actant remain after the completion of the reaction? 3.85 Hydrogen sulfide is an impurity in natural gas that must be
3.78 Aluminum hydroxide reacts with sulfuric acid as follows: removed. One common removal method is called the Claus
process, which relies on the reaction:

2 Al1OH231s2 + 3 H2SO41aq2 ¡ Al21SO4231aq2 + 6 H2O1l2
8 H2S1g2 + 4 O21g2 ¡ S81l2 + 8 H2O1g2
Which is the limiting reactant when 0.500 mol Al1OH23 and
0.500 mol H2SO4 are allowed to react? How many moles of Under optimal conditions the Claus process gives 98% yield of S8
Al21SO423 can form under these conditions? How many moles of from H2S. If you started with 30.0 g of H2S and 50.0 g of O2, how
the excess reactant remain after the completion of the reaction? many grams of S8 would be produced, assuming 98% yield?
3.79 The fizz produced when an Alka-Seltzer tablet is dissolved 3.86 When hydrogen sulfide gas is bubbled into a solution of so-
in water is due to the reaction between sodium bicarbonate dium hydroxide, the reaction forms sodium sulfide and wa-
1NaHCO32 and citric acid 1H3C6H5O72: ter. How many grams of sodium sulfide are formed if 1.25 g
of hydrogen sulfide is bubbled into a solution containing

3 NaHCO31aq2 + H3C6H5O71aq2 ¡
2.00 g of sodium hydroxide, assuming that the sodium sul-
3 CO21g2 + 3H2O1l2 + Na3C6H5O71aq2 fide is made in 92.0% yield?
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 160 22/07/17 4:12 PM

Additional Exercises 161
Additional Exercises
3.87 Write balanced chemical equations for (a) the complete 3.96 An organic compound was found to contain only C, H, and Cl.
combustion of acetone (CH 3 COCH 3 ), a common or- When a 1.50-g sample of the compound was completely com-
ganic solvent; (b) the decomposition of solid mercury (I) busted in air, 3.52 g of CO2 was formed. In a separate experi-
carbonate into carbon dioxide gas, mercury, and solid ment, the chlorine in a 1.00-g sample of the compound was
mercury oxide; (c) the combination reaction between converted to 1.27 g of AgCl. Determine the empirical formula
sulphur dioxide gas and liquid water to produce sulfurous of the compound.
acid. 3.97 A compound, Na2Cr2Ox, where x is unknown, is analyzed
3.88 If 2.0 mol CH3CH2CH2COOH, 2.0 mol C4H10, and 2.0 mol and found to contain 39.70% Cr. What is the value of x?
C 6 H 6 are completely combusted in oxygen, which one 3.98 An element X forms an iodide 1XI32 and a chloride 1XCl32.
produces the largest number of moles of H2O? Which one The iodide is quantitatively converted to the chloride when
produces the least? Explain. it is heated in a stream of chlorine:
3.89 Calcium is an essential nutrient in our body. It is important for 2 XI3 + 3 Cl2 ¡ 2 XCl3 + 3 I2
bone health. Four common calcium-containing supplements If 0.5000 g of XI3 is treated with chlorine, 0.2360 g of XCl3 is
are calcium carbonate (CaCO3), calcium citrate (Ca3C12H10O14), obtained. (a) Calculate the atomic weight of the element X.
calcium gluconate (CaC 12 H 22 O 14 ), and calcium lactate (b) Identify the element X.
(CaC6H10O6). Rank these calcium supplements in terms of the
mass percentage of calcium they contain. 3.99 A method used by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) for determining the concentration of ozone in air is to pass
3.90 (a) Ibuprofen is a common over-the-counter analgesic with the air sample through a “bubbler” containing sodium iodide,
the formula C13H18O2. How many moles of C13H18O2 are in a which removes the ozone according to the following equation:
500-mg tablet of ibuprofen? Assume the tablet is composed
entirely of ibuprofen. (b) How many molecules of C13H18O2
O31g2 + 2 NaI1aq2 + H2O1l2 ¡
are in this tablet? (c) How many oxygen atoms are in the O21g2 + I21s2 + 2 NaOH1aq2
tablet? (a) How many moles of sodium iodide are needed to remove
3.91 Very small semiconductor crystals, composed of approx- 5.95 * 10 -6 mol of O3? (b) How many grams of sodium io-
imately 1000 to 10,000 atoms, are called quantum dots. dide are needed to remove 1.3 mg of O3?
Quantum dots made of the semiconductor CdSe are now 3.100 A chemical plant uses electrical energy to decompose aque-
being used in electronic reader and tablet displays because ous solutions of NaCl to give Cl2, H2, and NaOH:
they emit light efficiently and in multiple colors, depending

2 NaCl1aq2 + 2 H2O1l2 ¡ 2 NaOH1aq2 + H21g2 + Cl21g2
on dot size. The density of CdSe is 5.82 g/cm3.
(a) What is the mass of one 2.5-nm CdSe quantum dot? If the plant produces 1.5 * 106 kg (1500 metric tons) of Cl2
daily, estimate the quantities of H2 and NaOH produced.
(b) CdSe quantum dots that are 2.5 nm in diameter emit
blue light upon stimulation. Assuming that the dot is a 3.101 The fat stored in a camel’s hump is a source of both energy and
perfect sphere and that the empty space in the dot can water. Calculate the mass of H2O produced by the metabolism
be neglected, calculate how many Cd atoms are in one of 1.0 kg of fat, assuming the fat consists entirely of tristearin
quantum dot of this size. 1C57H110O62, a typical animal fat, and assuming that during me-
tabolism, tristearin reacts with O2 to form only CO2 and H2O.
(c) What is the mass of one 6.5-nm CdSe quantum dot?
3.102 When hydrocarbons are burned in a limited amount of air, both
(d) CdSe quantum dots that are 6.5 nm in diameter emit CO and CO2 form. When 0.450 g of a particular hydrocarbon was
red light upon stimulation. Assuming that the dot is a burned in air, 0.467 g of CO, 0.733 g of CO2, and 0.450 g of H2O
perfect sphere, calculate how many Cd atoms are in one were formed. (a) What is the empirical formula of the compound?
quantum dot of this size. (b) How many grams of O2 were used in the reaction? (c) How
(e) If you wanted to make one 6.5-nm dot from multiple many grams would have been required for complete combustion?
2.5-nm dots, how many 2.5-nm dots would you need, 3.103 A mixture of N21g2 and H21g2 reacts in a closed container
and how many CdSe formula units would be left over, to form ammonia, NH31g2. The reaction ceases before
if any? e ither reactant has been totally consumed. At this stage
3.92 (a) One molecule of the antibiotic penicillin G has a mass 3.0 mol N2, 3.0 mol H2, and 3.0 mol NH3 are present. How
of 5.342 * 10 -21 g. What is the molar mass of penicillin G? many moles of N2 and H2 were present originally?
(b) Hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells, 3.104 A mixture containing KClO3, K2CO3, KHCO3, and KCl was
has four iron atoms per molecule and contains 0.340% iron by heated, producing CO2, O2, and H2O gases according to the
mass. Calculate the molar mass of hemoglobin. following equations:
3.93 Cinnamaldehyde is a compound that is responsible for the 2 KClO31s2 ¡ 2 KCl1s2 + 3 O21g2
characteristic aroma of cinnamon. It contains 81.79% C,
2 KHCO31s2 ¡ K2O1s2 + H2O1g2 + 2 CO21g2
6.10% H, and the remaining is oxygen. Its molar mass is
132 g/mol. Determine its molecular formula. K2CO31s2 ¡ K2O1s2 + CO21g2
3.94 Fructose, commonly called fruit sugar, is a monosaccha- The KCl does not react under the conditions of the reaction. If
ride found in many plants. It contains 40% C, 6.71% H, 100.0 g of the mixture produces 1.80 g of H2O, 13.20 g of CO2,
and the remainder O. (a) What is the empirical formula and 4.00 g of O2, what was the composition of the original
for fructose? (b) A mass spectrum of fructose shows a mixture? (Assume complete decomposition of the mixture.)
peak at about 180 u. What is the molecular formula of the 3.105 When a mixture of 10.0 g of acetylene 1C2H22 and 10.0 g of
substance? oxygen 1O22 is ignited, the resulting combustion reaction
3.95 Vanillin, the dominant flavoring in vanilla, contains C, H, produces CO2 and H2O. (a) Write the balanced chemical
and O. When 1.05 g of this substance is completely com- equation for this reaction. (b) Which is the limiting reac-
busted, 2.43 g of CO2 and 0.50 g of H2O are produced. What tant? (c) How many grams of C2H2, O2, CO2, and H2O are
is the empirical formula of vanillin? present after the reaction is complete?
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 161 22/07/17 4:13 PM

Integrative Exercises
These exercises require skills from earlier chapters as well as skills 3.5 * 4.5 m and contains 850 g of Acrilan® f ibers per square
from the present chapter. yard of carpet. If the rug burns, will a lethal dose of HCN be
3.106 Boron nitride, BN, is an electrical insulator with remarkable generated in the room? Assume that the yield of HCN from
thermal and chemical stability. Its density is 2.1 g/cm3. It can the fibers is 20% and that the carpet is 50% consumed.
be made by reacting boric acid, H3BO3, with ammonia. The 3.114 The source of oxygen that drives the internal combustion
other product of the reaction is water. (a) Write a balanced engine in an automobile is air. Air is a mixture of gases, prin-
chemical equation for the synthesis of BN. (b) If you made cipally N21∼79%2 and O21∼20%2. In the cylinder of an au-
225 g of boric acid react with 150 g ammonia, what mass of tomobile engine, nitrogen can react with oxygen to produce
BN could you make? (c) Which reactant, if any, would be nitric oxide gas, NO. As NO is emitted from the tailpipe of
left over, and how many moles of leftover reactant would re- the car, it can react with more oxygen to produce nitrogen
main? (d) One application of BN is as thin film for electrical dioxide gas. (a) Write balanced chemical equations for both
insulation. If you take the mass of BN from part (a) and make a reactions. (b) Both nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are
0.4 mm thin film from it, what area, in cm2, would it cover? pollutants that can lead to acid rain and global warming;
3.107 Viridicatumtoxin B, C30H31NO10, is a natural antibiotic com- collectively, they are called “NOx” gases. In 2009, the United
pound. It requires a synthesis of 12 steps in the laboratory. States emitted an estimated 19 million tons of nitrogen di-
Assuming all steps have equivalent yields of 85%, which is oxide into the atmosphere. How many grams of nitrogen
the final percent yield of the total synthesis? dioxide is this? (c) The production of NOx gases is an un-
wanted side reaction of the main engine combustion pro-
3.108 Consider a sample of calcium carbonate in the form of a cube cess that turns octane, C8H18, into CO2 and water. If 85% of
measuring 2.005 in. on each edge. If the sample has a density the oxygen in an engine is used to combust octane and the
of 2.71 g>cm3, how many oxygen atoms does it contain? remainder used to produce nitrogen dioxide, calculate how
3.109 (a) You are given a cube of silver metal that measures 1.000 many grams of nitrogen dioxide would be produced during
cm on each edge. The density of silver is 10.5 g>cm3. How the combustion of 500 g of octane.
many atoms are in this cube? (b) Because atoms are spher- 3.115 The thermite reaction,
ical, they cannot occupy all of the space of the cube. The
silver atoms pack in the solid in such a way that 74% of the Fe2O3 + Al S Al2O3 + Fe
volume of the solid is actually filled with the silver atoms. produces so much heat that the Fe product melts. This re-
Calculate the volume of a single silver atom. (c) Using the action is used industrially to weld metal parts under water,
volume of a silver atom and the formula for the volume of a where a torch cannot be employed. It is also a favorite chem-
sphere, calculate the radius in angstroms of a silver atom. ical demonstration in the lecture hall (on a small scale).
3.110 (a) If an automobile travels 350 km with a gas mileage of 9.0 (a) Balance the chemical equation for the thermite reaction,
km/L, how many kilograms of CO2 are produced? Assume and include the proper states of matter.
that the gasoline is composed of octane, C8H181l2, whose (b) Calculate how many grams of aluminum are needed to
density is 0.692 g>mL. (b) Repeat the calculation for a truck completely react with 500.0 g of Fe2O3 in this reaction.
that has a gas mileage of 2 km/L.
(c) This reaction produces 852 kJ of heat per mole of Fe2O3
3.111 Section 2.9 introduced the idea of structural isomerism, reacted. How many grams of Fe2O3 are needed to pro-
with 1-propanol and 2-propanol as examples. Determine duce 1.00 * 104 kJ of heat?
which of these properties would distinguish these two sub- (d) If you performed the reverse reaction— aluminum oxide
stances: (a) boiling point, (b) combustion analysis results, plus iron makes iron oxide plus aluminum—would that
(c) molecular weight, (d) density at a given temperature and reaction have heat as a reactant or a product?
pressure. You can check on the properties of these two com-
3.116 One of the most bizarre reactions in chemistry is called the
pounds in Wolfram Alpha (http://www.wolframalpha.com/)
Ugi reaction:
or the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics.
R1C( = O)R2 + R3 - NH2 + R4COOH + R5NC S
3.112 NOx is a generic term for the nitrogen oxides, NO and NO2. R4C( = O)N(R3)C(R1R2)C = ONHR5 + H2O
NOx gases are air pollutants that react to form smog and acid
rain. In order to reduce NOx emission from vehicle, catalytic
converters are installed in car exhausts to decompose NO O O C
and NO2 respectively into N2 and O2 (a) Write the balanced 1 NH2 1 1 N
chemical equations for the decomposition of NO and NO2 R3 R5
C C
respectively. (b) If the car produces 100 g NOx a day, with
equal mole ratio of NO and NO2, how many grams of NO R1 R2 R4 OH
and NO2 are produced respectively?
R3 O
3.113 Hydrogen cyanide, HCN, is a poisonous gas. The lethal dose is
approximately 300 mg HCN per kilogram of air when inhaled.
R4 N C R5 1 H2O
(a) Calculate the amount of HCN that gives the lethal dose N
C C
in a small laboratory room measuring 3.5 * 4.5 * 2.5 m.
The density of air at 26 °C is 0.00118 g>cm3. (b) If the HCN R1 R2 H
is formed by reaction of NaCN with an acid such as H2SO4, O
what mass of NaCN gives the lethal dose in the room?
2 NaCN1s2 + H2SO41aq2 ¡ Na2SO41aq2 + 2 HCN1g2 (a) Write out the balanced chemical equation for the Ugi re-
action, for the case where R = CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 —
(c) HCN forms when synthetic fibers containing Orlon® or Ac- (this is called the hexyl group) for all compounds. (b) What
rilan® burn. Acrilan® has an empirical formula of CH2CHCN, mass of the “hexyl Ugi product” would you form if 435.0 mg of
so HCN is 50.9% of the formula by mass. A rug measures CH3 CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2NH2 was the limiting reactant?
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 162 22/07/17 4:13 PM

Design an Experiment 163
Design an Experiment
You will learn later in this book that sulfur is capable of forming two that you can determine the masses of the reactants and/or products,
common oxides, SO2 and SO3. One question that we might ask is and a furnace that can be used to heat the reaction vessel to 200 °C
whether the direct reaction between sulfur and oxygen leads to the where the two elements react. (a) If you start with 0.10 mol of sulfur
formation of SO2, SO3, or a mixture of the two. This question has prac- in the reaction vessel how many moles of oxygen would need to be
tical significance because SO3 can go on to react with water to form added to form SO2, assuming SO2 forms e xclusively? (b) How many
sulfuric acid, H2SO4, which is produced industrially on a very large moles of oxygen would be needed to form SO3, assuming SO3 forms
scale. Consider also that the answer to this question may depend on exclusively? (c) Given the available equipment, how would you de-
the relative amount of each element that is present and the tempera- termine you had added the correct number of moles of each reac-
ture at which the reaction is carried out. For example, on the one tant to the reaction vessel? (d) What observation or experimental
hand, carbon and oxygen normally react to form CO2, but when technique would you use to determine the identity of the reaction
not enough oxygen is present, CO can form. On the other hand, un- product(s)? Could differences in the physical properties of SO2 and
der normal reaction conditions H2 and O2 react to form water, H2O SO3 be used to help identify the product(s)? Have any instruments
(rather than hydrogen peroxide H2O2), regardless of the starting ra- been described in Chapters 1–3 that would allow you to identify
tio of hydrogen to oxygen. the product(s)? (e) What experiments would you conduct to deter-
Suppose you are given a bottle of sulfur, which is a yellow solid, mine if the product(s) of this reaction (either SO2 or SO3 or a mix-
a cylinder of O2, a transparent reaction vessel that can be evacu- ture of the two) can be controlled by varying the ratio of sulfur and
ated and sealed so that only sulfur, oxygen, and the product(s) of oxygen that are added to the reaction vessel? What ratio(s) of S to O2
the reaction between the two are present, an analytical balance so would you test to answer this question?
M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 163 22/07/17 4:13 PM

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3

M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 126 22/07/17 4:11 PM

REACTIONS 3.2 ▶ Simple Patterns of Chemical

3.3 ▶ Formula Weights Learn to obtain

STOICHIOMETRY quantitative information from chemical

3.4 ▶ Avogadro’s Number and the

◀ THESE STAINLESS STEEL REACTORS are where the chemistry

M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 127 22/07/17 4:11 PM

3.1 ∣ Chemical Equations

Give It Some Thought

*Lavoisier, Antoine. “Elements of Chemistry.” 1790.

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◀ Figure 3.3 The difference

A Step-by-Step Example of Balancing a Chemical Equation

▲ Figure 3.4 Methane reacts with oxygen in a Bunsen burner.

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▶ Figure 3.5 Balanced chemical

CH4 1 2 O2 CO2 1 2 H2O

Sample Exercise 3.1

SOLUTION There are eight N atoms in the eight NO molecules in the

M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 130 22/07/17 4:11 PM

O 2 molecules In this reaction, there are two reactants, ethylene, C2H4,

Indicating the States of Reactants and Products

CH41g2 + 2 O21g2 ¡ CO21g2 + 2 H2O1g2 [3.5]

Sample Exercise 3.2

Balance the equation

Although beginning this way does not balance H, it does increase

M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 131 22/07/17 4:11 PM

3.2 ∣ Simple Patterns

Combination and Decomposition Reactions

TABLE 3.1 Combination and Decomposition Reactions

M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 132 22/07/17 4:11 PM

Give It Some Thought

In a decomposition reaction one substance undergoes a reaction to produce two

Decomposition of CaCO3 is an important commercial process. Limestone or seashells,

2 NaN31s2 ¡ 2 Na1s2 + 3 N21g2 [3.8]

Sample Exercise 3.3

SOLUTION Barium and calcium are both in group 2A in the periodic

M03_BROW1229_14_GE_C03.indd 133 22/07/17 4:11 PM

Go Figure Combustion Reactions

C3H81g2 + 5 O21g2 ¡ 3 CO21g2 + 4 H2O1g2 [3.9]

Sample Exercise 3.4

SOLUTION multiplying through by 2 removes the fraction and keeps the

CH3OH1l2 + O21g2 ¡ CO2(g) + H2O1g2 ▶▶ Practice Exercise 1

3.3 ∣ Formula Weights

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Formula and Molecular Weights

FW of H2SO4 = 21AW of H2 + 1AW of S2 + 41AW of O2

MW of C6H12O6 = 6112.0 u2 + 1211.0 u2 + 6116.0 u2 = 180.0 u

FW of CaCl2 = 40.1 u + 2(35.5 u) = 111.1 u

Sample Exercise 3.5

SOLUTION ▶▶ Practice Exercise 1

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Percentage Composition from

number of atoms atomic weight

STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESS Problem Solving

Sample Exercise 3.6

SOLUTION Check Our calculated percentages must add up to 100%, which

Plan We use Equation 3.10, obtaining our atomic weights from a

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3.2 ∣ Simple Patterns

3.6 ∣ Quantitative Information