 The universe is defined as all existing matter and space considered as a whole.

 It has 93 billion light years in diameter and constantly expanding since the big bang 13.8 million
years ago.
 Big Bang Model of the Universe (1929) – it is described that the universe originated in an
infinitely tiny, infinitely dense point or singularity between 13-14 billion years ago.
 This theory is from Belgian Roman Catholic Priest Georges Henri Joseph Edouard Lemaitre
(1927)
 A. Inflationary Epoch (10^35 to 10^-33 s) – Universe expanded from the size of an atom to 1035

meters in width.
 B. Formation of the Universe (10^-6 s) – The Universe continues to expand. It became distinct:
gravitational, strong nuclear force held the nuclei together, weak nuclear and electromagnetic
force. It made fundamental particles: quarks, electrons, photons, and neutrinos.
 C. Formation of Basic Elements (3s) – Protons, and neutrons combine to from hydrogen nucleic.
This began to combine in pairs and produces helium nuclei. The process is called
nucleosynthesis.
 D. Radiation Era (10,000 years) – Most of energy in the universe was in the form of radiation.
These include different wavelengths of light, x-rays, radio waves and UV rays. It formed cosmic
wave background radiation.
 E. Matter Domination (300,000 years) – matter began to dominate and the end of radiation era.
At this stage, lithium atom began to form. Electrons joined with hydrogen and helium nuclei to
make scales neutral atoms.
 F. Birth of the Stars and Galaxies (300 million years) – The slightly irregular area of gas cloud,
gravitational attract nearby matter and become denser. The huge glass of cloud can be
birthplace of dozens of stars then it became galaxies.

2 Popular models about the solar system

 Claudius Ptolemy – Geocentric Model (Earth is the center of the solar system)
 Nicholas Copernicus – Heliocentric Model (Sun is the center of the Solar System)
 In the eighteenth century the understanding of how the Solar System originated become more
than just descriptive models.
 Angular Momentum – is the quantity of rotation of a body, which is the product of its moment
of inertia and its angular velocity.
 Nebular Hypothesis – This was proposed by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and Pierre-Simon
Laplace (1749-1827). The Kant-Laplace nebular hypothesis presumes that the solar system
began as cloud of dispersed interstellar gas called nebula. The resulting nebular aggregates
become larger than others, grew more rapidly, and ultimately became the planets.
 8 Planets which is classified to Terrestrial Planets and Jovian Planets.
 Terrestrial Planets – also knows as rocket planets. These planets are the first four planets in our
solar system inside the asteroid belt. (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars)
 Jovian Planets – also knows as gaseous planets were the planets outside the asteroid belt,
mainly composed of gases and has metallic core. (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune)
 Criteria of International Astronomical Union:
o It has to orbit around the sun
o It has sufficient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium
o It has “cleared the neighborhood” around its orbit

Earth System
 Earth is characterized by its blue waters, rocky brown and green land masses with white grounds
set against the black background. Made up of erratic, complex and interactive systems that
make it constantly changing planet.
 Earth – Compositional Layer (Crust, Mantle, Core) Mechanical Layer (Lithosphere,
Asthenosphere, Mesosphere, Inner/Outer Core)
 Crust – It is made up of large rocks divided into two forms: oceanic crust and continental crust.
The former is composed of FeOMgAl while the latter granite, sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks. (50-70km in depth)
 Mantle – is mostly solid rocks and minerals and marked by malleable semi-solid magma. It has
85% of the total weight of the planet, it is believed that the 1 st 50 miles are composed of a very
hard rock. The next 150 miles is a superheated solid rock.
 Core – The earth’s core is entirely made up of Fe and Ni. The elements found here are
siderophiles wherein these elements that dissolve in iron and is known as precious metals. It is
divided into two inner and outer cores.
 Outer Core – Is the second largest and second to the last layer of our planet. It is 2,200 km thick
and composed of entirely superheated liquid molten lava of liquid iron and nickel. 4500-5500
degrees Celsius. The liquid metal of the outer core has very low viscosity which makes it easily
deformed and malleable.
 Inner Core – The final layer of the Earth it is exceedingly hot, dense huge of mostly iron 2500km
wide. 5000-6000 degrees Celsius. It has strong pressure around it making the metal stay solid. It
could be plasma behaving as solid.
 Seismic Waves – is caused by breaking down of rocks or explosions.
 Lithosphere (Geosphere) – It is subsystem that composed of minerals and rocks. It extends from
crust to core. Forms the continents and landforms, produces soil due to uplifting of rocks
beneath the earth.
 Hydrosphere – The Earth’s hydrosphere can be in form of liquid, vapor, and ice such as glaciers,
ice caps and ice bergs. This frozen part is called cryosphere.
 97% of water is in form of ocean (saltwater) and the rest is freshwater. 2 percent of fresh water
is solid and exists in ice sheets.
 Ocean Zones – may be divided into layers known as zones. The zones may be horizontal or
vertical. Horizontal zones divide the ocean from land to sea which were coastal and pelagic
zone.
o Coastal Zone – Is the region in which sea bottom is exposed during low tide and is
covered during high tide.
o Pelagic Zone – is located seaward of the coastal zone’s low tide mark. Always covered
with water. Divided to 2, neritic zone and oceanic zone.
 Neritic Zone – lies above the continental shelf. It extends from the low tide mark
outwards from the seashore and extends to a depth of 200m. Sunlight
penetrates the water. Many sea animals are found in this zone.
o Vertical Zone – begin at sea level and end at the deepest point in the ocean and it is
composed of 5 zones with different sunlight.
 Epipelagic Zone (The Sunlight Zone) – 0-200m Is the zone that gets a lot of
sunlight resulting to an abundance of aquatic plants. Common animals found in
the zone include seals, sea turtles, sea lions, ray, and sharks.
 Mesopelagic Zone (Twilight Zone) – 200-1000m is characterized by dim light due
to the limited amount of sunlight it receives. Lilly fish, octopush, and squid
 Bathypelagic Zone (Midnight Zone) – 1000-4000m this does not receive any
sunlight. Animals that live here lack eyes. Animals can be found in this are like
viperfish, anglerfish, stripe eel, and tripod fish.
 Abyssopelagic Zone (Abyss) – 4000-6000m is described as deep sea. Most
animals living in the area are invertebrate like blind shrimps, small squids, and
hagfish.
 Hadalpelagic Zone (Trenches) – 6000-bottom is the deepest part of the ocean.
This zone is mostly found in deep water trenches and canyons. Sea cucumber
and tube worms
o Atmosphere – thin layer of gas envelops our planet is necessary to sustain life because it
contains gases essential for humans and animals to breathe
  Troposphere – lowest layer and it contains 80% of the total mass of the
atmosphere. Most of the water vapor present in the atmosphere is found here.
All cloud types are found in this layer.
 Stratosphere – extends up to 50 km high, region where we can find the ozone
layer which absorbs and scatters the solar ultraviolet radiation.
 Mesosphere – This region is above the stratosphere and extends to 85 km.
Meteors usually burn up in this region and it is the coldest region in the
atmosphere.
 Thermosphere – extends up to 500 km, this is where the aurora borealis and
satellites occur its temperature extends to 1500 degrees Celsius, hottest layer.
 Exosphere - is the outermost layer of our atmosphere. Exo means outside and is
the same prefix used to describe insects like grasshoppers that have a hard shell
or “exoskeleton” on the outside of their body. The exosphere is the very edge of
our atmosphere. This layer separates the rest of the atmosphere from outer
space.
o Biosphere – contains all the Earth’s living things. It is referred to as the zone of life.
Biosphere was coined by geologist Edward Suess 1875.
 Biomes – are the world’s major communities. They are classified according to the predominant
vegetation characterized by the adaptations of organisms to that particular climate.
o Aquatic – this biome houses numerous species of plants and animals.
o Forests – includes tropical, temperate, and boreal as well as taiga. Each type of forest
has distinctive features dominated by grasses rather than large shrubs or tree.
 Tropical Forest – forests that grow in tropical and subtropical regions. (Amazon
Basin and Congo Basin)
 Temperate Forest – grow in temperate regions such as those found in eastern
North America, western and central Europe. Moderate climate and a growing
season that last between 140 and 200 days of the year. Precipitation is
distributed throughout the year.
 Boreal Forests – are a bad of coniferous forests that encircle the globe. Largest
terrestrial biome and account for more than ¼ of all the forested land on Earth.
o Desert – I characterized by low rainfall less that 50cm/year. Have specialized vegetation.
o Tundra – is the coldest of all the biomes, it has low biotic diversity and simple vegetation
structure.

Minerals and Rocks

 Mineral – it is inorganic represented by a chemical formula, is solid found in nature.

 Rock – is an aggregate of one or more minerals.
 Transparency – a mineral is transparent if it allows the light to pass through and you can see
object through it.
 Luster – indicate how light is reflected off a surface of a mineral. Metallic, vitreous, pearly, dull,
greasy, and silky.
 Hardness – refers to the minerals resistance to be scratched. It is dependent on the chemical
composition and the crystalize
structure of a mineral.
o Moh’s scale of Hardness
 Color and Streak – Minerals come
in different colors especially
mineral gems. Streak of a mineral
refers to the color of the mineral
in powdered form you can use
streak test plate.
 Crystal Structure and Crystal
Habit – this describes the orderly
geometric spatial arrangement of
atoms in the internal structure of
a mineral.
 Cleavage – It describes how a
mineral break along weakness
plain.
  Specific Gravity – It describes the minerals density in comparison to the density of a standard
like water.
 Hydrochloric Acid Reaction, Magnetism, and Conductor of Electricity.
 Rock Cycle – It shows the origin of the igneous rock, sedimentary and metamorphic rock and
their interrelationship.
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS – cools and solidifies (crystallization) – IGNEOUS ROCKS – weathering

- SEDIMENTS – lithification (conversion into rock) – compacted and cemented – SEDIMENTARY ROCK

- heat and pressure – METAMORPHIC ROCKS – higher temperature – MAGMA – solidification – IGNEOUS
ROCKS.

 Igneous Rocks – crystallization and solidification of molten rock. Made up of 80% of the mass of
the Earth’s crust. Ex: Obsidian
o Volcanic Rocks – formed from magma erupted from a volcano. Ex: Basalt, rhyolite,
andesite, komatiite, and pumice.
o Plutonic Rocks – are crystallized slowly cooling magma below the surface of the Earth.
Ex: Gabbro, granite, diorite, and peridotite.
 Sedimentary Rocks – 70% rocks are sedimentary, these are formed from consolidation of
materials from pre-existing rocks, from precipitation or from life processes. Ex: Sandstone
o Detrital Sedimentary Rocks – weathered rocks such as igneous rocks
o Chemical Sedimentary Rocks – are formed by inorganic and organic processes, i.e.
precipitation from solution or derived from life processes. Inorganic processes such as
evaporation and chemical activity while organic processes form from shells and
skeletons of dead marine organisms.
 Metamorphic Rocks – are derived from any pre-existing rocks by mineralogical, chemical and
structural changes from temperature, pressure or any chemically active fluids without melting
the rocks. Ex: Shale, Slate, Schist, Gneiss, Migmatite, Blue Gneiss.
o Foliated Textures – brought by pressure and it causes mineral grains to realign. Ex: Mica
and Chlorite
o Non-foliated textures – are metamorphic rocks without layering, banding or alignment.
Example: Marble, Hornfels, and Quartzite.

Energy Resources

 Energy – is all around us. It moves in and out of our systems, and during any energy transfer
between them, some is lost in the surroundings, as heat, light, sound, vibration, or movement.
o Renewable and Non-Renewable Sources
 Renewable Energy Sources
o Biomass – includes plant materials or animal waste to produce biofuels such as ethanol
and biodiesel.
o Photovoltaic Cell Panels – used to collect and convert solar energy into electricity. The
intensity of this inexhaustible energy source is relatively low due to distance between
the sun
o Wind energy – harnessed by windmills or turbines wherein the kinetic energy of the
wind is converted into mechanical or electrical energy.
o Hydroelectric Energy – Is one of the top three sources for electricity along with fossil
fuels and nuclear fuels. Dams are commonly used in the country for electricity
generation.
o Geothermal Energy – Harnessed natural heat from deep within the Earth. This internal
heat is also responsible in melting rocks to form magma. Geothermal reservoirs to have
a heat source, permeable rock or fault that will allow fluid to rise close to the surface,
adequate water recharge, and an impermeable cap rock to prevent heat escape.
 Hot water – Steam – Turbine -Generator – Cooling Tower – Injection Well
o Fossil Fuel – World’s Main Energy Source. This includes Coal, Oil, and Natural Gas.
 Coal – is the end product of burial of plant material. Most abundant fossil fuel,
originates mainly from dead tree and plant matter.
o Peat – Lignite – Sub-bituminous – Bituminous – Anthracite
 Lignite – Soft brownish black coal that forms the lowest level of the coal family.
 Sub-bituminous – is sometimes called as black lignite is a category where it appears grey-black
or black brown.
 Bituminous – soft coal, there is more energy in bituminous coal.
 Anthracites – hardest coal and gives off a great amount of heat when it burns.
o Oil and Natural Gas – are hydrocarbons in liquid and gaseous form – oil and natural gas.
Technically termed petroleum or crude oil.
o These are formed from dead marine organisms that subside to earth due to heat and
pressure it turns them to oil. And the oils were trapped by a rock fold turning the area
into oil and gas reservoir.

Water Resources

 Water – water covers 71% of the earths surface. 97% of water is mostly salt while majority is
fresh water.
 Groundwater – is the water below Earth’s surface. It occupies cracks and pore spaces into
bedrock and between sediment particles.
 Aquifers – geologic spaces that can hold and transmit large quantities of water.
 Unconfined Aquifers – geologic units in which the water is exposed to atmospheric pressure.
 Confined Aquifers – are under pressure and separated from the ground surface and atmospheric
pressure by confining layer or, aquitard.
 Surface Waters – are water in the river, lake, or freshwater wetland. It is replenished naturally
by precipitation and loss through discharge to the oceans, evaporation, transpiration.
 Water Pollution – is any contamination of water with chemicals or other foreign substances that
are detrimental to human, plant, or animal health.
 Streamflow – is determined by climate, water use within the catchment as well as the pathways
and rate of water movement to streams.
 Over-abstraction – Amount of water taken is greater than the amount of water falling as rain, it
is called over-abstraction.