COMPOUND SENTENCES

Book 5 of the MASTERING ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Series
David Moeller

Copyright © David Moeller, 2021

All rights reserved.

CONTENTS
General Introduction: Mastering English Grammar
Introduction to Book 5: Compound Sentences
Lesson 1: Using Coordinating Conjunctions to Create Compound
Sentences
Lesson 2: The Five Lesser-Used Coordinating Conjunctions
Lesson 3: Subjects and Verbs in Compound Sentences
Using Conjunctive Adverbs to Create Compound Sentences
Lesson 4: Conjunctive Adverbs of Time
Lesson 5: Conjunctive Adverbs of Similarity and Difference
Lesson 6: Conjunctive Adverbs of Examples and Cause-and-Effect
Lesson 7: Using Semicolons (;) to Create Compound Sentences
Lesson 8: Subjects and Verbs in Compound Sentences Created from
Conjunctive Adverbs and Semicolons
Lesson 9: Semicolons Between Two Mirror-Image Sentences
Lesson 10: Using Colons (:) to Create Compound Sentences
Lesson 11: Error Correction
Lesson 12: Composing with Coordinating Conjunctions
Lesson 13: Composing with Conjunctive Adverbs
Lesson 14: Composing with Semicolons and Colons
Lesson 15: Beginning a Sentence with a Conjunction
Lesson 16: So Vs. So That
Lesson 17: Compound Sentences Versus Less-Than-Compound
Sentences
Lesson 18: The Short Conjunctive Adverb Exception
Lesson 19: Moving Conjunctive Adverbs to the Right
Lesson 20: Two Exceptions to Using a Comma
Lesson 21: Moving Between Types of Compound Sentences
Compound Sentences Glossary of Terms
Test Questions
Test Part 1: Composition
Test Part 2: Clause Recognition
Test Part 3: Semicolon and Colon Use
Test Part 4: Error Recognition I
Test Part 5: Error Recognition II
Test Part 6: Exceptions-to-the-Rule Recognition I
Test Part 7: Exceptions-to-the-Rule Recognition II
Titles in the Mastering English Grammar Series
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION:
MASTERING ENGLISH
GRAMMAR
The nine titles in the Mastering English Grammar series can be subdivided
into three books on the parts of speech, three on sentence structure, and three
on punctuation:
Parts of Speech
Book 1: Nouns and Adjectives
Book 2: Verbs and Adverbs
Book 3: Pronouns, Prepositions, and Conjunctions
Sentence Structure
Book 4: Subjects and Verbs
Book 5: Compound Sentences
Book 6: Complex Sentences
Punctuation
Book 7: Commas
Book 8: Semicolons and Colons
Book 9: Parentheses, Brackets, Dashes, Ellipses, Italics, and Hyphens
What sets this series apart from other grammar books is that instead of trying
to include all that can be said on the topic of grammar (the data-dump
approach), it focuses on those concepts that promise a higher return on
investment (ROI). In other words, as much as possible, the books in this
series aim to translate the study of grammar into more competent reading and
writing.
The term generative refers to a study of grammar or rhetoric that helps us
achieve in writing what we wouldn’t have been able to achieve otherwise.
Generative grammar is grammar at its most practical—it’s grammar we can
use. Such generative material has been sprinkled throughout the pages of the
books in this series.
The nine books in this series constitute a writer’s grammar. The Mastering
that appears in the series title is not a reference to earning high scores on
grammar quizzes; instead, it refers to increasing our ability to understand the
texts of others and to formulate words, phrases, and clauses while writing.
Ultimately, we will want to use the knowledge we gain to generate more
complex structures as we write.
All nine books in this series contain exercises (called Your Turn), a book-
ending Test Questions section, and answers to all exercise and test questions.
Ultimately, the aim of each title is to equip you with some knowledge and
some practical skills to add to your arsenal of writing strategies.
E-Book Vs. Print
Because the nine titles in the series contain exercises and test questions, a
discussion of the difference between an e-book and a print book is really a
discussion of writing out answers vs. working out answers in our heads. The
e-books in this series are designed to accommodate the limitations of e-
readers. For example, to reduce scrolling, answers follow immediately upon
the heels of questions. When access to reference material—like word lists, for
example—is necessary, that material will reappear in those places where it is
needed.
Print versions, on the other hand, leave room for writing out answers or
marking up text. And in the print versions, the answers are in the back of the
book.
 INTRODUCTION TO BOOK 5:
COMPOUND SENTENCES
Welcome to Book 5: Compound Sentences, a book that teaches four simple
ways to join two sentences together.
Here is one common way to categorize sentences:
1. simple
2. compound
3. complex
4. compound-complex
This e-book is a study of the second of the four sentence types—the
compound sentence.
In Book 4 of this series, we learned that sentences are built upon the backs of
subjects and verbs. Here in Book 5 we take that understanding of what makes
simple sentences and build upon it. We move from the simple sentence to the
compound sentence:
compound sentence = sentence + sentence
Let’s look at some key terminology that will assist us as we wend our way
through this study of compound sentences.
Coordination
To coordinate two sentences and to create a compound sentence are two
ways of saying the same thing. The difference is that coordination describes
the process and compound sentence describes the product. Here in this e-
book the term compound sentence will appear frequently, much more so than
the term coordination. Yet the two terms are inextricable. We create
compound sentences through coordination; we coordinate to create
compound sentences.
Independent Clause
A clause is a word group containing a subject and a verb. There are two types
of clauses: those that can stand alone (independent) and those that cannot
stand alone (subordinate), which we study in Book 6.
As we prepare for our study of compound sentences, we’ll need to get
comfortable with the term independent clause as a stand-in for the term
sentence. Here’s why:
sentence: Two roads diverged in a yellow wood.
sentence: I took the one less traveled by.
sentence: [Two roads diverged in a yellow wood], and [I took the one less
traveled by].
At times we’ll be referring to a single sentence, as in the first two examples
above; at times we’ll be referring to two sentences combined, as in the third
example above. And at times we’ll be referring to the individual sentences
found within a joined pair—such as the left-hand side and the right-hand side
of the third example above.
This is where the term independent clause steps in to provide some clarity.
independent clause: Two roads diverged in a yellow wood.
independent clause: I took the one less traveled by.
compound sentence: [Two roads diverged in a yellow wood], and [I took
the one less traveled by].
compound sentence: [left-hand clause], and [right-hand clause].
By throwing in the modifiers left-hand and right-hand, we gain some clarity
about what it is we are referring to as we discuss the sentences we will
encounter.
However, as we progress through this ebook, never forget—not even for a
second—that an independent clause is a sentence.
Now that we’ve established some terminology, one last item before we
plunge ahead:
independent clause + independent clause = compound sentence
The formula above is our formula for compound sentences. But what about
the plus sign? What can be placed between two independent clauses to join
the two clauses into a single compound sentence?
There are four possibilities:
1. a comma and a coordinating conjunction
2. a semicolon, a conjunctive adverb, and a comma
3. a semicolon
4. a colon
In the lessons that follow, we will be studying these four methods of creating
compound sentences.

Apply Your Learning

There will be much to learn in the pages ahead. But this book will not be
truly beneficial unless it translates into more skillful reading and writing. So
in addition to studying the lessons in this book, try to notice when the
teachings found in this book match the sentence structures you encounter in
the reading you do elsewhere. And most importantly, start applying the
sentence structures described in the book. Each time you sit down to write,
push yourself by adorning your own writing with some of the patterns and
devices you will learn about in the following chapters.
 Lesson 1: Using Coordinating
Conjunctions to Create Compound
Sentences
Let’s begin with method 1—the comma and the coordinating conjunction.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions, and the mnemonic device for
memorizing them is FANBOYS:
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So
Each of these coordinating conjunctions will get its moment in the sun. In the
Your Turn that follows, we’ll begin with the two most commonly used
coordinating conjunctions: and and but.
YOUR TURN 1
For each of the following, determine whether and or but should be placed in
the blank to join the two independent clauses. (Also, note the comma to the
left of the blank.)
1. The dog found a bone, ___ the cat found a catnip mouse.
2. The dog found a bone, ___ he would not share it with the other dogs.
3. Marigold waved her stalk of grass, ___ all that she asked for came to pass.
4. Marigold waved her stalk of grass, ___ the wind blew the stalk from her
hand.
5. The Jabberwock has jaws that bite, ___ you needn’t be afraid.
6. The Jabberwock has jaws that bite, ___ he has claws that catch.
ANSWERS 1
1. The dog found a bone, and the cat found a catnip mouse.
2. The dog found a bone, but he would not share it with the other dogs.
3. Marigold waved her stalk of grass, and all that she asked for came to pass.
4. Marigold waved her stalk of grass, but the wind blew the stalk from her
hand.
5. The Jabberwock has jaws that bite, but you needn’t be afraid.
6. The Jabberwock has jaws that bite, and he has claws that catch.
 Lesson 2: The Five Lesser-Used
Coordinating Conjunctions
In Lesson 1, we were introduced to the seven coordinating conjunctions (the
FANBOYS words), and we practiced using and and but. Here in lesson 2 we
will look at the other five coordinating conjunctions.

YET
In most cases, yet and but can be substituted for one another. Yet provides a
more elevated, elegant sound, but it gets used less frequently than but. As we
write, we might try to notice those moments when we automatically reach for
but. In some of these instances, inserting yet in the place of but will serve
nicely.

YOUR TURN 2
Here is a chance to practice using yet instead of but. As you read the
following sentences, replace but with yet. As you do, savor the results.
1. We like to believe that our time here is limitless, but the people of my time
are passing away.
2. Much is forgotten, but they will recall the words they’ve spoken to one
another.
3. Santa thinks he is unseen, but the cats are watching.
ANSWERS 2
1. We like to believe that our time here is limitless, yet the people of my time
are passing away.
2. Much is forgotten, yet they will recall the words they’ve spoken to one
another.
3. Santa thinks he is unseen, yet the cats are watching.
 FOR
For means because. Do not confuse the conjunction for with the preposition
for.
The beans are for the canned foods drive. [Here, “for” is a preposition
—"because the canned food drive” makes no sense.]
I brought a can of beans, for we were holding a canned foods drive. [Here,
“for” is a conjunction.]

YOUR TURN (continued)

As you read the following sentences, replace because with a comma and for.
As you do, savor the results.
4. Mimsy and Mary believed you because you seemed to speak the truth.
5. We were safe on the fifth floor because the flood reached only to the
second.
6. Matt Talbot was considered a saint because he refrained from drink.
ANSWERS
4. Mimsy and Mary believed you, for you seemed to speak the truth.
5. We were safe on the fifth floor, for the flood only reached to the second.
6. Matt Talbot was considered a saint, for he refrained from drink.
 SO
So is used when what is described in the first sentence causes what is
described in the second sentence. So is a synonym for therefore.

YOUR TURN (continued)

As you read the following sentences, replace therefore with so. As you do,
continue your savoring. (How to punctuate with therefore will be discussed
in Lesson 4. For now, we’ll cheat a bit.)
7. She took one of the six roses, therefore now there are five.
8. Clutch had no tolerance for mathematics, therefore he became a rodeo
clown.
9. Karl appreciated masks, therefore he said he wanted to be Zorro.
ANSWERS
7. She took one of the six roses, so now there are five.
8. Clutch had no tolerance for mathematics, so he became a rodeo clown.
9. Karl appreciated masks, so he said he wanted to be Zorro.
 NOR
Nor requires two conditions:
A negation (a negative word like not) must appear to the left of the
conjunction nor.
A helping verb must follow nor.
Example: Catherine did not eat meat, nor did she eat Cheez Whiz.
In this example, the negative word not meets the first requirement, and the
helping verb did meets the second requirement.

YOUR TURN (continued)

Revise the following three sentences so that they meet the two requirements
of nor. To do this, you must supply a negative word to the left of nor; to the
right of nor you will need to find the helping verb and move it to the position
immediately to the right of nor.
10. I do want to be your shoebox, nor I do want to be your dairy cow.
11. Her friends were “enormously gifted,” nor they were “exceedingly
bright.”
12. The housewife will busy herself with her evening care, nor the children
will run to announce their father’s return.
ANSWERS
10. I do not want to be your shoebox, NOR do I want to be your dairy cow.
11. Her friends were not “enormously gifted,” NOR were they “exceedingly
bright.”
12. The housewife will not busy herself with her evening care, NOR will the
children run to announce their father’s return.
 OR
Here is a sentence:
uncertainty: Hugo is at the House of Pancakes, or he is on the autobahn.
When we read this sentence, we assume that the speaker does not really know
where Hugo is. This sort of uncertainty is often present when two sentences
are joined with the conjunction or.
Another related use of or is to indicate a cause-effect relationship. Here is an
example:
cause-effect: Charles must offer his poem for free, or it will be left out of
the anthology.
In compound sentences created from or, we find two possibilities:
The failure to perform the action of the left-hand clause causes the result
described in the right-hand clause. [negative-positive]
The performance of the left-hand clause prevents the result described in
the right-hand clause from coming to pass. [positive-negative]

YOUR TURN (continued)

For each of the following sentences, decide whether or is expressing
uncertainty or a cause-effect relationship. In the case of the cause-effect
relationship, some consequence of acting or not acting will be described.
13. Elena had better hold tight to the string, or the balloon will float away.
14. It may have been in the shape of a baby’s head, or it may have been in
the shape of a snowflake.
15. She is Victoria Chang the poet, or she is Victoria Chang the track star.
16. You must do the Hokey Pokey, or you won’t know what it’s all about.
17. Colin needs to stop chasing flies along the screen, or people will think
he’s a lemur.
ANSWERS
13. Elena had better hold tight to the string, or the balloon will float away.
cause-effect [Not performing the action of the left-hand clause causes the
action of the right-hand clause.]
14. It may have been in the shape of a baby’s head, or it may have been in
the shape of a snowflake. uncertainty
15. She is Victoria Chang the poet, or she is Victoria Chang the track star.
uncertainty
16. You must do the Hokey Pokey, or you won’t know what it’s all about.
cause-effect [Not performing the action of the left-hand clause causes the
action of the right-hand clause.]
17. Colin needs to stop chasing flies along the screen, or people will think
he’s a lemur. cause-effect [Performing the action of the left-hand clause
prevents the action of the right-hand clause.]
 Lesson 3: Subjects and Verbs in
Compound Sentences
Subjects and verbs—the topic of Book 4—are the foundations of sentences.
But what happens to subjects and verbs when we move from simple to
compound sentences?
Here are two independent clauses (sentences). The subjects are underlined;
the verbs are boldfaced.
The fishermen in the cold sea would not harm the whales.
The man who is gathering salt would look at his hurt hands.
Note that each of these independent clauses contains its own subject and
verb. Now let’s turn these two clauses into a single compound sentence.
We’ll join them with a comma-plus-and.
The fishermen in the cold sea would not harm the whales, AND the man
who is gathering salt would look at his hurt hands.
Note that nothing has changed. From the example above, we draw this
conclusion:
Wherever two independent clauses (sentences) are joined together in a
compound sentence, we will find two sets of subjects and verbs.
If we converted the example above to a base sentence—and included the
conjunction and—our base sentence would look like this:
base sentence: fishermen would harm AND man would look
Here is a second example:
She saw nothing else saw all day long, FOR she would bend sidelong and
sing a faery’s song.
Note once again how each independent clause contains its own subject-verb
combination. This time the two independent clauses are joined by the
conjunction for. Our base sentence for the example above looks like this:
base sentence: she saw FOR she would bend, sing
YOUR TURN 3
Determine the base sentences for each of the following. The first step is to
identify the conjunction. (It will be the word after the comma.) Once you’ve
identified the conjunction, you know that one subject-verb combination (base
sentence) appears to the left and another appears to the right.
1. Everything is the same, yet everything is different.
2. I sit on the grass, but the future slowly disappears.
3. She would fly far away into the sky, or she would rest in the eaves with
uncombed hair.
4. He wanted a job waiting tables, but you proclaimed his black dreadlocks
unclean.
ANSWERS 3
1. Everything is the same, YET everything is different. [base sentence:
everything is YET everything is]
2. I sit on the grass, BUT the future slowly disappears. [base sentence: I sit
BUT future disappears]

3. She would fly far away into the sky, OR she would rest in the eaves with
uncombed hair. [base sentence: she would fly OR she would rest]
4. He wanted a job waiting tables, BUT you proclaimed his black dreadlocks
unclean. [base sentence: he wanted BUT you proclaimed]
 Using Conjunctive Adverbs to
Create Compound Sentences
Compound sentences take this pattern:
independent clause + independent clause
The only variable is the plus sign—the adhesive used to join the two clauses
into a single compound sentence. One type of adhesive is the coordinating
conjunction. We looked at compound sentences created with coordinating
conjunctions in Lessons 1–3. Here in Lesson 4 we’ll take a look at a second
group of joining words: the conjunctive adverbs.
The coordinating conjunctions group contains only seven members (the
FANBOYS words): for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
The conjunctive adverbs group is a much larger group. It includes the
following:
accordingly, again, also, as a result, at last, at the same time, besides,
consequently, conversely, earlier, even so, eventually, finally, first, for
example, for instance, furthermore, hence, however, in addition, in fact, in
like manner, in short, in the meantime, indeed, instead, later, likewise,
meanwhile, moreover, namely, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, now, on the
contrary, on the other hand, similarly, still, subsequently, that is, then,
therefore, thus
You may note that not only is this a much larger group of conjunctions, but
the conjunctive adverbs group consists of many longer and more formal
conjunctions than the teensy coordinating conjunctions.
Another difference between coordinating conjunctions and conjunctive
adverbs lies in the punctuation conventions that accompany each. In the
following sentence patterns, IC stands for independent clause, CC stands for
coordinating conjunction, and CA stands for conjunctive adverb:
IC, CC IC (comma to the left of the coordinating conjunction)
IC; CA, IC (semicolon to the left and comma to the right of the conjunctive
adverb)
When a conjunctive adverb joins two independent clauses, the standard
convention is to place a semicolon to the left and a comma to the right of the
conjunctive adverb.
Why do we punctuate the coordinating conjunction with a comma to the left
and the conjunctive adverb with a semicolon to the left?
This difference is not arbitrary. We can see the fundamental difference
between these two compound sentence types if we use brackets to group
those elements that belong together. Study the following:
[IC] [CC] [IC]
In this example, the coordinating conjunction sits neutrally between the left-
hand and the right-hand independent clauses.
[IC] [CA IC]
In this example, the conjunctive adverb attaches itself to the right-hand
clause. Because the conjunctive adverb is actually a part of the right-hand
clause, a semicolon is necessary to separate the two sentences.
[IC] ; [CA IC]
Okay, back to conjunctive adverbs. Being a somewhat sizeable group of
conjunctions, we can better study the conjunctive adverbs by dividing them
into smaller, more manageable groups:
conjunctive adverbs of time
conjunctive adverbs of similarity and difference
conjunctive adverbs of examples and cause-and-effect
 Lesson 4: Conjunctive Adverbs of
Time
We’ll begin with relationships of time. Here are the conjunctive adverbs
found in this category:
at last, at the same time, earlier, eventually, finally, first, in the meantime,
later, meanwhile, next, now, subsequently (which means later), then.

YOUR TURN 4
You are given six sentence pairs. Create compound sentences by joining the
sentence pairs with a semicolon, a conjunctive adverb, and a comma. Try to
use a variety of conjunctive adverbs. More than one correct answer is
possible for each.
example: Lynne is counting the leaves on the poplar. She’ll count the leaves
on the birch trees. [becomes …]
answer: Lynne is counting the leaves on the poplar; SUBSEQUENTLY, she’ll
count the leaves on the birch trees.
The list of conjunctive adverbs of time reappears here:
at last, at the same time, earlier, eventually, finally, first, in the meantime,
later, meanwhile, next, now, subsequently (which means later), then.
1. At present it is tragedy. It will turn into myth.
2. Earlier, there was a disturbance outside the motel. The parking lot is quiet.
3. I peered into the tiny hummingbird nest. The disturbed mother hovered
just behind me.
4. The ice is beginning to thaw. People will emerge from their houses and
begin walking the sidewalks.
5. The lone wolf makes his way through the ruined city. He lies down on the
floor in the empty room where I sit.
6. We used to dream of living in the sky. We got older.
POSSIBLE ANSWERS 4
1. At present it is tragedy; EVENTUALLY, LATER, NEXT, SUBSEQUENTLY, it will turn
into myth.
2. Earlier, there was a disturbance outside the motel; FINALLY, NOW, the
parking lot is quiet.
3. I peered into the tiny hummingbird nest; AT THE SAME TIME, IN THE
MEANTIME, MEANWHILE, the disturbed mother hovered just behind me.

4. The ice is beginning to thaw; EVENTUALLY, FINALLY, LATER, NEXT, NOW,

SUBSEQUENTLY, people will emerge from their houses and begin walking the
sidewalks.
5. The lone wolf makes his way through the ruined city; AT LAST, EVENTUALLY,
FINALLY, NOW, SUBSEQUENTLY, he lies down on the floor in the empty room
where I sit.
6. We used to dream of living in the sky; EVENTUALLY, FINALLY, THEN, we got
older.
 Lesson 5: Conjunctive Adverbs of
Similarity and Difference
Conjunctive adverbs (as do all conjunctions) show relationships between two
or more parts. When used in the creation of a compound sentences,
conjunctive adverbs show the relationship between the left-hand clause and
the right-hand clause. Of all the relationships that might be shown, similarity
and difference are among the most fundamental.
The simplest examples we have of showing similarity and difference are
found in the coordinating conjunctions and and but. With and, the right-hand
clause agrees with the left-hand clause, then extends the idea by adding
something similar. And says “that first idea is true and, in a similar way, this
next idea is also true.”
But takes issue with what the left-hand clause says. It wants to disagree with
or provide an exception to the left-hand clause. At the very least, but is
saying “if what the left-hand clause says is true, then the information in the
right-hand clause is surprising or unexpected.”
Here are the conjunctive adverbs that show similarity (like and) and
difference (like but).
The right-hand clause expresses SIMILARITY with the left-hand clause:
again, also, besides, furthermore, in addition, in fact, in like manner,
indeed, likewise, moreover, similarly
The right-hand clause expresses DIFFERENCE with the left-hand clause:
conversely, even so, however, instead, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the
contrary, on the other hand, still
YOUR TURN 5
Below, you are given six sentence pairs. Create compound sentences by
joining the sentence pairs with a semicolon, a conjunctive adverb, and a
comma. Try to use a variety of conjunctive adverbs. For three of the
sentences, choose from the similarity category; for the other three, choose
from the difference category.
Here are the conjunctive adverbs of similarity and difference:
similarity: again, also, besides, furthermore, in addition, in fact, in like
manner, indeed, likewise, moreover, similarly
difference: conversely, even so, however, instead, nevertheless,
nonetheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still
1. A tambourine is nothing more than a hip shake. Few musicians know how
to play the instrument properly.
2. Most people return to where they came from. Some do nothing else.
3. The yellow daybreak brings with it a frost-like dew. The patient flowers
refuse to open.
4. Reeds dance in the eastwind, rattling. The warblers sit still and silent.
5. The black root has cracked the jail walls. The walls continue to stand.
6. Now is the time of year when bees are wild and eccentric. The butterflies
flit about even more energetically than usual.
ANSWERS 5
1. (difference) A tambourine is nothing more than a hip shake; EVEN SO,
HOWEVER, NEVERTHELESS, NONETHELESS, ON THE OTHER HAND, STILL, few
musicians know how to play the instrument properly.
2. (similarity) Most people return to where they came from; FURTHERMORE, IN
FACT, INDEED, some do nothing else.

3. (similarity) The yellow daybreak brings with it a frost-like dew;

FURTHERMORE, IN ADDITION, LIKEWISE, MOREOVER, the patient flowers refuse to
open.
4. (difference) Reeds dance in the eastwind, rattling; CONVERSELY, EVEN SO,
HOWEVER, NEVERTHELESS, NONETHELESS, ON THE OTHER HAND, STILL, the
warblers sit still and silent.
5. (difference) The black root has cracked the jail walls; EVEN SO, HOWEVER,
NEVERTHELESS, NONETHELESS, STILL, the walls continue to stand.

6. (similarity) Now is the time of year when bees are wild and eccentric;
ALSO, FURTHERMORE, IN ADDITION, IN LIKE MANNER, LIKEWISE, MOREOVER,
SIMILARLY, the butterflies flit about even more energetically than usual.
 Lesson 6: Conjunctive Adverbs of
Examples and Cause-and-Effect
So far we have practiced using conjunctive adverbs that show relationships of
time and conjunctive adverbs that show relationships of similarity and
difference. We will now visit our last two categories of conjunctive adverbs:
examples and cause-and-effect.
Here is an example of providing an example:
left-hand clause: I have had several strange dreams.
possible conjunctive adverbs: for example, for instance, in short, namely,
that is
right-hand clause: I was standing alone on a stage and the closing curtain
would not drop. [This clause provides an example of a strange dream.]
Here is an example of cause-and-effect:
left-hand clause: I was standing alone on a stage and the final curtain
would not drop.
possible conjunctive adverbs: accordingly, as a result, consequently,
hence, therefore, thus
right-hand clause: The audience looked confusedly at one another. [The
curtain’s not dropping causes the audience’s confusion.]
YOUR TURN 6
You are given six sentence pairs. Create compound sentences by joining each
pair with a semicolon, a conjunctive adverb, and a comma. Try to use a
variety of conjunctive adverbs. For three of the sentences, choose from the
examples category; for the other three, choose from the cause-and-effect
category.
Here are the conjunctive adverbs of examples and cause-and-effect:
examples: for example, for instance, in short, namely, that is
cause and effect: accordingly, as a result, consequently, hence, therefore,
thus
1. We have been thinking of plans for toughening you up. We thought of
sending you to the middle of the desert.
2. The people admire your nobility of spirit. They believe you are the one to
save them from their despair.
3. At the present time the hangman is away. There is a way of escape.
4. You can change the world for the better. You can shake hands with
paupers and treat them as men.
5. I have learned to make do with what I have. I have eaten pancakes with
that clear corn syrup on them because there was no maple syrup.
6. The bells toll the close of day. The plowman drops his plow and begins his
journey homeward.
ANSWERS 6
1. (examples) We have been thinking of plans for toughening you up; FOR
EXAMPLE, FOR INSTANCE, IN SHORT, NAMELY, THAT IS, we have thought of
sending you to the middle of the desert.
2. (cause-and-effect) The people admire your nobility of spirit; ACCORDINGLY,
AS A RESULT, CONSEQUENTLY, HENCE, THEREFORE, THUS, they believe you are
the one to save them from their despair.
3. (cause-and-effect) At the present time the hangman is away; ACCORDINGLY,
AS A RESULT, CONSEQUENTLY, HENCE, THEREFORE, THUS, there is a way of
escape.
4. (examples) You can change the world for the better; FOR EXAMPLE, FOR
INSTANCE, IN SHORT, NAMELY, THAT IS, you can shake hands with paupers and
treat them as men.
5. (examples) I have learned to make do with what I have; FOR EXAMPLE, FOR
INSTANCE, IN SHORT, NAMELY, THAT IS, I have eaten pancakes with that clear
corn syrup on them because there was no maple syrup.
6. (cause-and-effect) The bells toll the close of day; ACCORDINGLY, AS A
RESULT, CONSEQUENTLY, HENCE, THEREFORE, THUS, the plowman drops his
plow and begins his journey homeward.
 Lesson 7: Using Semicolons (;) to
Create Compound Sentences
Compound sentences take this pattern:
independent clause + independent clause
We have learned that this act of coordinating can be achieved by replacing
the plus sign with a coordinating conjunction or a conjunctive adverb.
The final two methods for joining our two clauses are the semicolon and the
colon. Each of these punctuation marks can do the work of coordinating two
clauses—without the assistance of a conjunction.
independent clause [;] independent clause
independent clause [:] independent clause
We’ll turn our attention first to the semicolon. There is one basic rule
governing the use of semicolons to create compound sentences: Use a
semicolon between two closely related sentences.
And to avoid using the semicolon incorrectly, remember this important rule:
A semicolon can substitute for a period; it cannot substitute for a comma.
Consider this: A semicolon is more-or-less the equivalent of a period. Yet
few people use semicolons in their writing. Think of the last thousand times
you came to the end of a sentence (or independent clause). How many times
did you reach for a period? A semicolon? For many people, the answers are a
thousand and zero.
So the goal here is twofold: on one hand, we hope to gain a solid
understanding of how to use semicolons; but we also want to gain a little
appreciation for this humble little mark. And the same is true of the colon,
which we’ll study in the Lesson 8.
YOUR TURN 7
The goal of this Your Turn is to entice you into a change of identity.
Beginning now, you are no longer content to eke out a semicolonless
existence. You are now free to become the person you were meant to be—a
user of semicolons.
Below, you will find five sentence pairs. Each sentence pair is trapped in its
humdrum existence of being separated by a period and a capital letter. As you
read, imagine yourself converting the period to a semicolon and converting
the following capital letter to a lower-case letter.
humdrum: The people are wearing too many clothes. They are thinking too
few things.
the new you: The people are wearing too many clothes; they are thinking too
few things.
1. The wall paper is the real center of attention. The figures serve as mere
background music.
2. One contemplates his apple juice. Another drinks it.
3. That rainbow is loud. Its beauty can make a person faint.
4. A white road crosses the motionless storm. Cockroaches cross the deck.
5. I had mastered myself. I had found clarity and power.
ANSWERS 7
1. The wall paper is the real center of attention; the figures serve as mere
background music.
2. One contemplates his apple juice; another drinks it.
3. That rainbow is loud; its beauty can make a person faint.
4. A white road crosses the motionless storm; cockroaches cross the deck.
5. I had mastered myself; I had found clarity and power. [Here, of course,
the capital “I” remains a capital letter.]
 Lesson 8: Subjects and Verbs in
Compound Sentences Created from
Conjunctive Adverbs and
Semicolons
While joining clauses together, we should strive to be consciously aware that
we are, in fact, joining clauses. The best way to maintain awareness of our
clauses is to be aware of the subjects and verbs on which our clauses our
built.
We’ll start with two independent clauses. The subjects and verbs in each are
marked.
Jacob sold his house and his library.
He packed the trunk of his car with his few remaining things.
If we take the conjunctive adverb finally and drop it between a semicolon and
a comma, we can join these two independent clauses into a compound
sentence:
Jacob sold his house and his library; FINALLY, he packed the trunk of his
car with his few remaining things.
And if we join the two clauses with a semicolon only—leaving out the
conjunctive adverb—our subjects and verbs remain the same:
Jacob sold his house and his library; he packed the trunk of his car with
his few remaining things.
The base sentences for these two compound sentences look like this:
[base sentence: Jacob sold FINALLY he parted]
[base sentence: Jacob sold; he parted]
Note: The tools for joining the clauses might change, but the subjects and
verbs in the independent clauses do not.
YOUR TURN 8
Determine the base sentences (the subjects and verbs) for each of the
following.
The first step is to identify the spot where the joining takes place—either by
conjunctive adverb or by semicolon alone. Once we’ve identified this key
location, we know that one subject-verb combination appears to the left and
another appears to the right.
Note: This Your Turn assumes some prior skill with identifying subjects and
verbs, a skill taught in Book 4 of this series.
1. In her right hand she held a scale; in her left hand she held a sword.
2. Umberto has been invited to the White House; however, to his regret, he
must decline to attend.
3. Like a felon, your path is dark; wormwood infects your foreign bread.
4. Some common things will be impossible for me; for example, I will not
applaud at shows.
5. The socks were so beautiful; nevertheless, I resisted the sharp temptation
to save them.
ANSWERS 8
1. In her right hand she held a scale; in her left hand she held a sword. [base
sentence: she held; she held]
2. Umberto has been invited to the White House; HOWEVER, to his regret, he
must decline to attend. [base sentence: Umberto has been invited
HOWEVER he must decline]

3. Like a felon, your path is dark; wormwood infects your foreign bread.
[base sentence: path is; wormwood infects]
4. Some common things will be impossible for me; FOR EXAMPLE, I will not
applaud at shows. [base sentence: things will be FOR EXAMPLE I will
applaud]
5. The socks were so beautiful; NEVERTHELESS, I resisted the sharp temptation
to save them. [base sentence: socks were NEVERTHELESS I resisted]
 Lesson 9: Semicolons Between Two
Mirror-Image Sentences
Previously we learned that a semicolon can create a compound sentence by
connecting two closely related sentences.
The idea of closely related, however, is a vague one. It is likely that any two
sentences that appear in a sequence of sentences can be considered closely
related. After all, if they weren’t closely related, they probably wouldn’t be
adjacent to one another.
The idea of closely related leaves the judgment up to the writer. If you—as
the writer—believe that two sentences are more closely related than normal,
you are perfectly justified in joining them with a semicolon instead of
separating them with a period and a capital letter.
However, there is a situation in which using a semicolon is more obligatory
and far less a matter of subjective opinion. When two sentences share the
same sentence pattern and some of the same words, the close relationship of
those two sentences demands a semicolon. We can call such sentences
mirror-image sentences.
Example:
The past is stacked up behind us; the future lies stacked up before us.
In the sentence above, the underlined words the, stacked up, and us are
repeated verbatim; the boldfaced words past/future and behind/before are the
flip-flopped words that lend such sentences their mirror-image quality.
Here are two more examples of mirror-image sentences:
Pretend you don’t owe me a thing; I’ll pretend I don’t owe you a thing.
Old newspapers are never read again; today’s newspapers are read by
many.
YOUR TURN 9
This is a matching exercise. First you will be given four left-hand clauses. To
each, match a mirror-image clause from the bulleted list below. Each pair of
matching clauses would be joined by a semicolon.
left-hand clauses
1. Out of the bones of young men arises the lodgepole pine.
2. These hills are sandy.
3. Goya drew a pig on a wall.
4. I read the primrose and the sea and remember nothing.
right-hand (mirror-image) clauses
I read Arcturus and the snow and remember everything.
out of the bones of young women arises the alder.
Picasso sketched a cow on the floor.
these valleys are swampy.
ANSWERS 9
1. Out of the bones of young men arises the lodgepole pine; out of the bones
of young women arises the alder.
2. These hills are sandy; these valleys are swampy.
3. Goya drew a pig on a wall; Picasso sketched a cow on the floor.
4. I read the primrose and the sea and remember nothing; I read Arcturus and
the snow and remember everything.
 Lesson 10: Using Colons (:) to
Create Compound Sentences
When it comes to creating compound sentences, colons and semicolons share
a similarity: in both cases, two independent clauses are being joined.
with a semicolon: one clause; another clause
with a colon: one clause: another clause
To understand the difference between the two, we must understand the
relationship of the right-hand clause to the left-hand clause.
With the semicolon, the right-hand clause is on the same level as the left-
hand clause. In fact, in many cases the two clauses can swap sides:
Beth prefers the California grapes; Ann prefers the French grapes. [can be
rewritten …]
Ann prefers the French grapes; Beth prefers the California grapes.
But with the colon, the two clauses are not interchangeable.
Instead, the left-hand clause makes a general statement; the right-hand
clause makes a specific statement.
Or we might say that the right-hand clause explains what the left-hand
clause has failed to explain.
Or we might say that the left-hand clause leaves the reader with a
question; the right-hand clause answers that question.
These are three ways of describing the clausal relationship when two
independent clauses are joined by a colon.
Example:
Kelev, the first dog, tried to help Adam and Eve: he pointed at the angels
with his nose. (Note that we are not capitalizing after the colon.)
Study the example carefully and notice how the right-hand sentence fulfils all
the requirements:
1. Help is a general idea; pointed is a specific example of helping.
2. The pointed on the right-hand side explains the tried to help on the left.
3. The reader wonders: Tried to help by doing what? The right-hand clause
answers that question.
YOUR TURN 10
This is a matching exercise. First you will be given five left-hand clauses. To
each, match a right-hand clause from the bulleted list below. Each pair of
matching clauses would be joined by a colon.
Remember that a colon signals a relationship between the two clauses. This
Your Turn is designed to help you grasp how that relationship works.
left-hand clauses
1. Amy worried about small details.
2. We can tell when night is approaching.
3. The stegosaurus was happy.
4. John Wayne was deeply tormented.
5. Her life was about to be changed forever.
right-hand clauses (first letters have been converted to lower-case letters)
he had found some water in the drying riverbed.
on this day Adrianne would read The Turn of the Screw.
she wondered whether the fax machine should be placed so close to the
shredder.
the Comanches had abducted Natalie Wood.
the laundromat lights have come on and a man in a suit is walking his dog.
ANSWERS 10
In all five of these answers, note how the right-hand clauses fills in the more
specific details that the left-hand clause leaves out.
1. Amy worried about small details: she wondered whether the fax machine
should be placed so close to the shredder.
2. We can tell when night is approaching: the laundromat lights have come
on and a man in a suit is walking his dog.
3. The stegosaurus was happy: he had found some water in the drying
riverbed.
4. John Wayne was deeply tormented: the Comanches had abducted Natalie
Wood.
5. Her life was about to be changed forever: on this day Adrianne would read
The Turn of the Screw.
 Lesson 11: Error Correction
The lesson material for this lesson will appear in the Answers section to the
Your Turn.
You will be given two matching exercises—a Group A and a Group B. For
each group, match one error from the List of Errors to each sentence. Read
the Answers sections for further explanation.

YOUR TURN 11
GROUP A: LIST OF ERRORS
A. A capital letter needs to be converted to a lower-case letter.
B. A colon needs to be added.
C. A comma needs to be added.
D. A semicolon and a comma need to be removed; a comma needs to be
added.
E. A semicolon needs to be converted to a colon.
GROUP A: SENTENCES
1. Our heads were in the planets and our toes were tucked under carpets.
2. Remy was upset with the waiter he had forgotten to bring extra slices of
lemon.
3. Stacy Harwood lives in Paris; but, she teaches at Thumbkin University.
4. The coffee cup is cracked; The creamer is missing its lid.
5. The people were despondent; they were unable to stop the coming war.
ANSWERS 11
1. Our heads were in the planets AND our toes were tucked under carpets.
Answer: C—A comma needs to be added.
In this compound sentence, two independent clauses are joined by the
coordinating conjunction and. The convention is to place a comma to the left
of and. (There are exceptions to this rule, however, as we’ll learn in Lesson
18.)
2. Remy was upset with the waiter he had forgotten to bring extra slices of
lemon.
Answer: B—A colon needs to be added.
Remy was upset with the waiter. Oh? Why was Remy upset? Please finish the
thought. He had forgotten to bring extra slices of lemon. Ah, now I
understand. Thank you, right-hand clause, for finishing the idea that the left-
hand clause had left unfinished. Here, the relationship between the clauses is
a colon relationship.
3. Stacy Harwood lives in Paris; BUT, she teaches at Thumbkin University.
Answer: D—A semicolon and a comma need to be removed; a comma needs
to be added.
Here the conjunction but is punctuated as if it were a conjunctive adverb.
Sorry, but, but all you get is a comma to the left.
4. The coffee cup is cracked; The creamer is missing its lid.
Answer: A—A capital letter needs to be converted to a lower-case letter.
We don’t capitalize after a semicolon.
5. The people were despondent; they were unable to stop the coming war.
Answer: E—A semicolon needs to be converted to a colon.
The people were despondent. Oh? Why were they despondent? Please finish
the thought. They were unable to stop the coming war. Ah, now I understand.
Thank you, right-hand clause, for finishing the idea that the left-hand clause
left unfinished. Here, the relationship between the clauses is a colon
relationship.
GROUP B: LIST OF ERRORS
A. A capital letter needs to be converted to a lower-case letter.
B. A colon needs to be converted to a semicolon.
C. A comma needs to be removed; a semicolon and a comma need to be
added.
D. A semicolon and a comma need to be added.
E. A semicolon needs to be added.
GROUP B: SENTENCES
6. Some of the politicians have balanced the budget: others have balanced
their checkbooks.
7. The tenor sings a cantata the alto sings an aria.
8. The woman seemed gloomy, however her ostrich feather hat was
remarkable.
9. Today I am sick consequently I do not go out to the fields to work.
10. We see the evidence of winter: Our breath comes in puffs of smoke.
ANSWERS
6. Some of the politicians have balanced the budget: others have balanced
their checkbooks.
Answer: B—A colon needs to be converted to a semicolon.
The words have balanced anchor this mirror-image sentence; the clauses on
each side make a balanced pair. Use a semicolon.
7. The tenor sings a cantata the alto sings an aria.
Answer: E—A semicolon needs to be added.
Here, the pattern on each side of the mirror-image sentence is identical:
Somebody sings something. Use a semicolon.
8. The woman seemed gloomy, HOWEVER her ostrich feather hat was
remarkable.
Answer: C—A comma needs to be removed; a semicolon and a comma need
to be added.
In this example, the conjunction however is wearing the much skimpier
clothing of a coordinating conjunction—one comma only. However, this
humble conjunctive adverb needs to be decked out in its rightful apparel—a
semicolon and a comma.
9. Today I am sick CONSEQUENTLY I do not go out to the fields to work.
Answer: D—A semicolon and a comma need to be added.
Consequently is a conjunctive adverb and should get a semicolon and a colon.
10. We see the evidence of winter: Our breath comes in puffs of smoke.
Answer: A—A capital letter needs to be converted to a lower-case letter.
We don’t (usually) capitalize after a semicolon.
 Lesson 12: Composing with
Coordinating Conjunctions
Let’s give ourselves a pat on the back. We’ve made our first pass through the
four methods of creating compound sentences:
coordinating conjunctions
conjunctive adverbs
semicolons
colons
The preceding eleven lessons are intended to provide a foundational (and
maybe a bit more than foundational) understanding of what compound
sentences are and how we form them. Beginning here in Lesson 10, we’ll
launch into a second pass through the world of compound sentences. Some of
what we’ll cover is review. But in addition to review, we’ll visit a variety of
compound-sentence based writing devices designed to improve our prose
style.
YOUR TURN 12
In this Your Turn, you are given seven left-hand independent clauses. To
each, add a coordinating conjunction and a right-hand clause that you create
on your own. Your goal is to use each of the coordinating conjunctions once.
Note: One of the seven clauses below is especially designed to be used with
nor; another is especially designed to be used with or.
Note: When you use so, make sure your right-hand clause makes sense with
so and not with so that.
1. She shifted the grass-clippers from her right to her left hand, (complete the
compound sentence by adding a coordinating conjunction [for, and, nor,
but, or, yet, so] and a right-hand clause).
2. The blackbird perched upon the broken column, (complete the compound
sentence by adding a coordinating conjunction [for, and, nor, but, or, yet,
so] and a right-hand clause).
3. The potter rejected the pot, (complete the compound sentence by adding a
coordinating conjunction [for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so] and a right-hand
clause).
4. Old Jones did not make those chains, (complete the compound sentence by
adding a coordinating conjunction [for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so] and a
right-hand clause).
5. He may be out in back driving nails, (complete the compound sentence by
adding a coordinating conjunction [for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so] and a
right-hand clause).
6. He took off his tie and dark jacket, (complete the compound sentence by
adding a coordinating conjunction [for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so] and a
right-hand clause).
7. At the banquet all the Muses sang, (complete the compound sentence by
adding a coordinating conjunction [for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so] and a
right-hand clause).
POSSIBLE ANSWERS 12
Note: Number 4 is designed to be used with “nor”; number 5 is designed to
be used with “or.”
1. She shifted the grass-clippers from her right to her left hand, FOR her right
hand was getting tired.
2. The blackbird perched upon the broken column, AND the cardinal
perched upon the weather vane.
3. The potter rejected the pot, YET the pot was in perfectly good condition.
4. Old Jones did not make those chains, NOR did he make the case they
came in.
5. He may be out in back driving nails, OR he may be in the basement
playing ping pong.
6. He took off his tie and dark jacket, BUT still no one recognized who he
was.
7. At the banquet all the Muses sang, SO the people could not help but
applaud.
 Lesson 13: Composing with
Conjunctive Adverbs
Once again we will try our hand at composing clauses. This time the clauses
we create will complete the logical relationships named by conjunctive
adverbs. For example, given a conjunctive adverb like consequently, we
would need to compose a clause that completes a cause-effect relationship.
This exercise is also intended to make us more likely to incorporate the use of
conjunctive adverbs into our writing.

YOUR TURN 13
Each of the following sentences will serve as a left-hand independent clause.
The semicolon has already been added. To each, add a conjunctive adverb, a
comma, and a right-hand clause that you create yourself. The right-hand
clause must be an independent clause capable of standing alone as a sentence.
Try to use each conjunctive adverb once.
Note: Don’t place a comma after then or thus.
Note: Thus is a synonym for therefore.
1. It was a time of peace; (complete the compound sentence by adding a
conjunctive adverb [consequently, for example, furthermore, however,
nevertheless, then, therefore, thus], a comma, and a right-hand clause).
2. The mist blocked the sunshine; (complete the compound sentence by
adding a conjunctive adverb [consequently, for example, furthermore,
however, nevertheless, then, therefore, thus], a comma, and a right-hand
clause).
3. These smoky houses are poorly constructed; (complete the compound
sentence by adding a conjunctive adverb [consequently, for example,
furthermore, however, nevertheless, then, therefore, thus], a comma, and a
right-hand clause).
4. The sea is calm tonight; (complete the compound sentence by adding a
 conjunctive adverb [consequently, for example, furthermore, however,
nevertheless, then, therefore, thus], a comma, and a right-hand clause).
5. We decided that flowers should appear in your painting; (complete the
compound sentence by adding a conjunctive adverb [consequently, for
example, furthermore, however, nevertheless, then, therefore, thus], a
comma, and a right-hand clause).
6. They were as silent as one mounting a stair; (complete the compound
sentence by adding a conjunctive adverb [consequently, for example,
furthermore, however, nevertheless, then, therefore, thus], a comma, and a
right-hand clause).
7. We laid stone upon stone; (complete the compound sentence by adding a
conjunctive adverb [consequently, for example, furthermore, however,
nevertheless, then, therefore, thus], a comma, and a right-hand clause).
8. The heat radiated from the elm branches; (complete the compound
sentence by adding a conjunctive adverb [consequently, for example,
furthermore, however, nevertheless, then, therefore, thus], a comma, and a
right-hand clause).
POSSIBLE ANSWERS 13
1. It was a time of peace; NEVERTHELESS, a certain uneasiness hung in the air.
2. The mist blocked the sunshine; THUS the temperature dropped 20 degrees.
3. These smoky houses are poorly constructed; FOR EXAMPLE, the doors don’t
stay shut.
4. The sea is calm tonight; HOWEVER, tomorrow the waves will be breaking
against the cliffs.
5. We decided that flowers should appear in your painting; FURTHERMORE, a
little toad appearing toward the bottom would work wonders.
6. They were as silent as one mounting a stair; CONSEQUENTLY, we knew
something was wrong.
7. We laid stone upon stone; THEN someone came along and knocked the
stones over.
8. The heat radiated from the elm branches; THEREFORE, the temperature rose
20 degrees.
 Lesson 14: Composing with
Semicolons and Colons
In Lesson 10 we composed clauses to complete compound sentences created
from coordinating conjunctions. In Lesson 11 we composed clauses to
complete compound sentences created from conjunctive adverbs. Here in
Lesson 12 we’ll complete our composing work by composing right-hand
clauses to follow semicolons and colons.
SEMICOLONS
Below, you are given four sentences. Each will serve as your left-hand
independent clause. The semicolon is already given to you. Your job is to
continue exercising your prose generation muscles by creating right-hand
clauses for each of the four.
Your right-hand sentences must be mirror-image sentences.
Mirror image sentences are actually quite simple. As we’ve seen, they tend to
follow the pattern of person A does this; person B does that or thing A does
this; thing B does that.
Here are some examples:
Blackbirds stiffly strut across fields; bluebirds remain perched in the
branches.
To me, the doctor gave a shot; to you, she gave medicine.
Buster uttered a false promise; Jarvis uttered a promise he would keep.

YOUR TURN 14
1. Auburn learned how to read;
2. The Greeks prefer to eat their dessert first;
3. Bettina scored most of her points from the outside;
4. The rocks were found beneath the water;
POSSIBLE ANSWERS 14
1. Auburn learned how to read; Morgan learned how to write.
2. The Greeks prefer to eat their dessert first; the Romans prefer to eat their
dessert last.
3. Bettina scored most of her points from the outside; Dorcas scored most of
her points from the inside.
4. The rocks were found beneath the water; the sticks were found floating on
the surface.
COLONS
Each of the four sentences below will serve as your left-hand independent
clause. The colon is already given to you. Once again, generate right-hand
clauses for each. Verify that your right-hand clause is, indeed, an independent
clause (a complete sentence).
In each case, your right-hand clause should explain something that the left-
hand clause leaves unexplained.
Here are some examples:
The bluebirds remain perched in the branches: they fear the presence of a
predator.
The doctor seems to favor you: she gives me shots while she gives you
medicine.
Buster uttered a false promise: he claimed that he would put all Americans
in a flying car.

YOUR TURN (continued)

5. People gave Coralee strange looks:
6. Darnella ran away from home:
7. We all covered our ears:
8. Our garden lay in ruins:
POSSIBLE ANSWERS
5. People gave Coralee strange looks: she had had her hair cut in the shape of
a parrot.
6. Darnella ran away from home: she felt that no one appreciated her.
7. We all covered our ears: the harmonica and the tuba were playing in
different keys.
8. Our garden lay in ruins: apparently a stampede of horses had come
through while we lay sleeping.
 Lesson 15: Beginning a Sentence
with a Conjunction
Yes, it is permissible to begin a sentence with a conjunction; in fact, if the
device is not overused, beginning sentences with conjunctions can add a little
stylish flair to our writing.
The following examples show the difference between using a conjunction in
a compound sentence and using a conjunction to begin a sentence:
With coordinating conjunctions:
a compound sentence: Ants have no TVs, and they have no cholesterol
problems.
two separate sentences: Ants have no TVs. And they have no cholesterol
problems.
With conjunctive adverbs:
a compound sentence: Ants have no TVs; therefore, they have no
cholesterol problems.
two separate sentences: Ants have no TVs. Therefore, they have no
cholesterol problems. (Note that we retain the comma to the right of the
conjunctive adverb.)
In each pair, the second example is just as correct as the first sentence.
However, the second example is no longer a compound sentence.
YOUR TURN 15
For numbers 1-4, convert the compound sentence to two separate sentences.
The second of your two separate sentences will begin with a conjunction—
either a coordinating conjunction or a conjunctive adverb.
Again, being an e-book, you will be performing these editing moves mentally
rather than on a word processor or with paper and pencil. In number 1, for
example, if you conjure up a mental image of the comma converting to a
period and the lower-case “o” converting to a capital “O,” you’ve satisfied
the requirements of the exercise.
1. Mr. Kehoe may be dancing on the dock, or he may be home asleep in his
bed.
2. My son’s house was destroyed by a hurricane; consequently, he has
decided to stay with us for a while.
3. The refrigerator is nearly empty; nevertheless, no one feels the slightest
concern for tomorrow.
4. She wants to paint a wolf, but her only model is a diseased dog.
Now, in the following sentences, perform the opposite operation. Convert
each sentence pair to a single compound sentence.
5. The poet Shelley wrote of the emancipation of women. In addition, he
believed in the abolition of wealth and class.
6. The statue of Leonid Brezhnev stands in The Graveyard of Fallen
Monuments. But its legs have fallen off.
7. None of us in the starship could locate Alpha Centaur. Nor did we find
any aliens.
8. I wanted to learn of the forest at night. Therefore, I wrote a letter to an
owl.
ANSWERS 15
1. Mr. Kehoe may be dancing on the dock. Or he may be home asleep in his
bed.
2. My son’s house was destroyed by a hurricane. Consequently, he has
decided to stay with us for a while.
3. The refrigerator is nearly empty. Nevertheless, no one feels the slightest
concern for tomorrow.
4. She wants to paint a wolf. But her only model is a diseased dog.
Numbers 5-8 represent the opposite operation.
5. The poet Shelley wrote of the emancipation of women; in addition, he
believed in the abolition of wealth and class. [the period becomes a
semicolon]
6. The statue of Leonid Brezhnev stands in The Graveyard of Fallen
Monuments, but its legs have fallen off. [the period becomes a comma]
7. None of us in the starship could locate Alpha Centaur, nor did we find any
aliens. [the period becomes a comma]
8. I wanted to learn of the forest at night; therefore, I wrote a letter to an
owl. [the period becomes a semicolon]
 Lesson 16: So Vs. So That
If this were a unit on complex sentences (the subject of Book 6 in this series),
we would encounter the two-word subordinating conjunction so that.
Because the subordinating conjunction so that frequently gets confused with
the coordinating conjunction so, we need to understand the difference
between the two conjunctions so that we can avoid confusing the two.
The problem arises because—due to indolence—so that is often written as so.
Examples:
We were hoping to attract some bees SO THAT our flowers would be
pollinated.
We were hoping to attract some bees SO our flowers would be pollinated.
By studying the two sentences, we see that the two sentences are identical—
except that in the second sentence the word that has been (improperly) left
out.
Because of this tendency to reduce so that to so, each time we use the word
so, we should pause and reflect. We should ask: “Do I mean to use so, or do I
mean to use so that?” If we mean to use so that, we should do so. However,
so that does not make a compound sentence and it receives no comma, as in
the bees example above.
YOUR TURN 16
For each of the following, decide what should replace the blank. Either . . .
a comma and so, or
so that and no comma
1. We mixed a horse and a tiger ___ we could get a zebra.
2. It was among the best of words ___ Jennifer used it frequently.
3. The temperature reached 112 degrees ___ Lyn stayed in the shade.
4. They walked behind some trees ___ no one could hear their conversation.
5. Someone had filled the burlap sack with stones ___ it would be too heavy
to lift.
6. Someone had filled the burlap sack with stones ___ it was too heavy to
lift.
ANSWERS 16
1. We mixed a horse and a tiger SO THAT we could get a zebra.
2. It was among the best of words, SO Jennifer used it frequently.
3. The temperature reached 112 degrees, SO Lyn stayed in the shade.
4. They walked behind some trees SO THAT no one could hear their
conversation.
5. Someone had filled the burlap sack with stones SO THAT it would be too
heavy to lift.
6. Someone had filled the burlap sack with stones, SO it was too heavy to lift.
 Lesson 17: Compound Sentences
Versus Less-Than-Compound
Sentences
Let’s return to the simple pattern for compound sentences:
independent clause + independent clause
For the most part, we’ve been focusing on what can replace the plus sign. But
here in Lesson 15 we’re going to look more closely at the independent clause
on each side of the plus sign.
If either the left-hand or the right-hand clause is not an independent clause
(less than a complete sentence), that word group is not a compound
sentence.
Examples:
compound sentence: The wind swings past broken glass, and it seethes
like a frightened cat.
less than a compound sentence: The wind swings past broken glass and
seethes like a frightened cat.
In the two example sentences, study the words that appear to the right of the
conjunction and. In the first case we have a complete sentence (an
independent clause): it seethes like a frightened cat. In the second case we
have less than a complete sentence: seethes like a frightened cat.
Note also how the two sentences are punctuated differently: the compound
sentence receives a comma, while the less-than-compound sentence receives
no comma.
In reality, the less-than sentence is a compound verb (wind swings and
seethes), not a compound sentence.
YOUR TURN 17
Convert each of the three following compound sentences to compound verbs.
To do this, read the sentence with the comma and the right-hand subject
removed. For example, in number 1 imagine the comma and the right-hand I
being removed.
1. I grasped the tower like a cornstalk, and I snapped it from its roots of rock.
2. A quivering shadow of life-flame darkened the air, and it sputtered a last
drop of blood.
3. The fisherman waded through slowly, and he ascended the other side.
Now in the next three sentences, reverse the process. In numbers 4-6 you will
convert compound verbs to compound sentences. For example, in number 4
imagine a comma after suits and the pronoun they appearing between and and
broke.
4. The dictators in our neighborhoods wore blue suits and broke our doors
down.
5. Winter throws its great white shield on the ground and freezes the thin
arms of the twisting branches.
6. I look out my window and see that dirty pair of boots in the yard.
ANSWERS 17
1. I grasped the tower like a cornstalk AND snapped it from its roots of rock.
(compound verb)
2. A quivering shadow of life-flame darkened the air AND sputtered a last
drop of blood. (compound verb)
3. The fisherman waded through slowly AND ascended the other side.
(compound verb)
4. The dictators in our neighborhoods wore blue suits, AND they broke our
doors down. (compound sentence)
5. Winter throws its great white shield on the ground, AND it freezes the thin
arms of the twisting branches. (compound sentence)
6. I look out my window, AND I see that dirty pair of boots in the yard.
(compound sentence)
 Lesson 18: The Short Conjunctive
Adverb Exception
When a conjunctive adverb is used in the creation of a compound sentence,
we conventionally place a semicolon to the left of the conjunctive adverb and
a comma to the right.
In this lesson we will learn an exception to this rule.
the exception: If the conjunctive adverb is a one-syllable conjunctive
adverb, the comma is unnecessary.
There are only seven one-syllable conjunctive adverbs in our list of
conjunctive adverbs; therefore, we can refine our exception to this more
specific rule:
Don’t place a comma after these conjunctive adverbs: first, hence, next,
now, still, then, thus.
(The “one-syllable” rule is more of a suggestion in the direction of a lighter
punctuation style than a strict rule of grammar. If you were to retain the
comma, life would go on.)
YOUR TURN 18
Edit (mentally) each of the following sentences according to the instructions
given.
1. The mule will go no further; THEREFORE, we quit for the day. [Change the
conjunctive adverb to hence; drop the comma.]
2. First we learned some basic chords; SUBSEQUENTLY, we learned to play
boogie-woogie. [Change the conjunctive adverb to next; drop the comma.]
3. Jennifer had Jell-O for dinner; CONSEQUENTLY, she is still hungry. [Change
the conjunctive adverb to thus; drop the comma.]
4. They will stroll by the old-age home; LATER, they will look at some
Studebakers. [Change the conjunctive adverb to then; drop the comma.]
ANSWERS 18
1. The mule will go no further; HENCE we quit for the day.
2. First we learned some basic chords; NEXT we learned to play boogie-
woogie.
3. Jennifer had Jell-O for dinner; THUS she is still hungry.
4. They will stroll by the old-age home; THEN they will look at some
Studebakers.
 Lesson 19: Moving Conjunctive
Adverbs to the Right
When a conjunctive adverb joins two sentences to create a compound
sentence, the standard position for that conjunctive adverb is between the left-
hand and the right-hand clauses. However, that is not the only place where
conjunctive adverbs can be placed. A certain degree of style and grace can be
gained when we take our conjunctive adverbs and slide them to the right.
Examples:
Adrienne dreamed of the country; HOWEVER, her house was situated fifty
yards from the train tracks.
Adrienne dreamed of the country; her house, HOWEVER, was situated fifty
yards from the train tracks.
Note that, once our conjunctive adverb has slid to the right, we will need two
commas—one on each side of it.
The same sliding to the right trick can also be accomplished with sentence-
beginning conjunctive adverbs:
Adrienne dreamed of the country. HOWEVER, her house was situated fifty
yards from the train tracks.
Adrienne dreamed of the country. Her house, HOWEVER, was situated fifty
yards from the train tracks. (Again, note the two commas.)
Some points to consider:
The sliding to the right trick works with a limited number of conjunctive
adverbs.
The sliding to the right trick is most commonly performed with however.
When we do slide a conjunctive adverb to the right, we are looking for a
place where the word will sound natural. That place will probably be just
after a subject or an introductory phrase; here, our ear for language will
guide us.
YOUR TURN 19
Revise each of the following compound sentences so that the conjunctive
adverb is moved to a position to the right of its current position. Remember to
mentally add a comma to each side of your conjunctive adverb.
1. Many people believe in quitting while they are ahead; FOR EXAMPLE, Guy
Waterman climbed into the New Hampshire mountains to meet his death.
2. Dr. Rich was the most accomplished doctor at the V.A. hospital; HOWEVER,
the other doctors resented his presence.
3. The chickens are circling in the sky above us; THEREFORE, the day has been
darkened.
4. A soldier was carving Kilroy was here into a shattered wall; MEANWHILE,
the war was raging across the murky continent.
5. A man’s social status can be determined by his views on the grilled cheese
sandwich; ON THE OTHER HAND, the tuna sandwich has little relevancy.
ANSWERS 19
1. Many people believe in quitting while they are ahead; Guy Waterman, FOR
EXAMPLE, climbed into the New Hampshire mountains to meet his death.

2. Dr. Rich was the most accomplished doctor at the V.A. hospital; the other
doctors, HOWEVER, resented his presence.
3. The chickens are circling in the sky above us; the day, THEREFORE, has
been darkened.
4. A soldier was carving “Kilroy was here” into a shattered wall; the war,
MEANWHILE, was raging across the murky continent.

5. A man’s social status can be determined by his views on the grilled cheese
sandwich; the tuna sandwich, ON THE OTHER HAND, has little relevancy.
Lesson 20: Two Exceptions to Using
a Comma
Normally, when two independent clauses (sentences) are joined by a
coordinating conjunction, we place a comma before the coordinating
conjunction. However, there are two exceptions to this rule. We can call these
exceptions the less-than exception and the more-than exception.
In the following formulations, we’ll abbreviate independent clause as IC and
coordinating conjunction as CC.
Normally, we place a comma before the conjunction:
the normal way: IC [,] CC IC
However, if the clauses are short and simple, we can eliminate the comma
(less than normal punctuation):
the less-than exception: IC [ ] CC IC
If the clauses are longer or contain one or more commas of their own, we
“upgrade” the comma to a semicolon (more than normal punctuation):
the more-than exception: IC [;] CC IC
Here are some examples demonstrating the three levels of punctuation. First,
the normal way:
The dregs gave the coffee a bitter taste [,] and the rattling of the plates
unnerved me.
Now, the less-than exception:
The coffee was awful [ ] and the restaurant was noisy.
Note the disappearance of the comma in the presence of two short, simple
clauses.
Now, the more-than exception:
The coffee, which I believe may have been brewed yesterday, was bitter
[;] and the restaurant was noisy, dirty, and cold.
Note the commas in the two clauses, and note that the comma in front of and
has been upgraded to a semicolon.
YOUR TURN 20
Edit the punctuation in the following sentences.
In three of the sentences, the clauses are short and simple: for these,
mentally remove the comma that customarily appears before the
coordinating conjunction
In the other three sentences, the clauses are more complex and will likely
contain commas of their own: for these, mentally change the comma
before the coordinating conjunction to a semicolon.
1. When young, you toured with Nadia Boulanger through languages,
continents, and festivals, BUT now that you are older, you are content to
remain in your quiet apartment.
2. I stand by my suitcase, AND I wait.
3. The doors open, AND the customers stampede in.
4. Joseph Conrad, who was Polish born, wrote Heart of Darkness, BUT as for
Dale Evan’s horse, we cannot recall its name.
5. James passed the giant cairn of stones, just past the brook with its bridge
of rope, AND he looked up at the huge, billowy clouds wafting above him.
6. You could smell the rain, AND you could feel the leaves brightening.
ANSWERS 20
1. [clauses have their own commas—convert the comma before the
conjunction to a semicolon] When young, you toured with Nadia
Boulanger through languages, continents, and festivals; BUT now that you
are older, you are content to remain in your quiet apartment.
2. [clauses are short and simple—remove the comma] I stand by my
suitcase AND I wait.
3. [clauses are short and simple—remove the comma] The doors open AND
the customers stampede in.
4. [clauses have their own commas—convert the comma before the
conjunction to a semicolon] Joseph Conrad, who was Polish born, wrote
Heart of Darkness; BUT as for Dale Evan’s horse, we cannot recall its
name.
5. [clauses have their own commas—convert the comma before the
conjunction to a semicolon] James passed the giant cairn of stones, just
past the brook with its bridge of rope; AND he looked up at the huge,
billowy clouds wafting above him.
6. [clauses are short and simple—remove the comma] You could smell
the rain AND you could feel the leaves brightening.
 Lesson 21: Moving Between Types
of Compound Sentences
Once you are familiar with the four ways to create compound sentences, you
will be able to move fluently from one method to another.
For example, a compound sentence created with a coordinating conjunction .
..
Blue mustangs race like rivers through the canyons, AND the cottonwoods
close in around us.
. . . could also be written as a compound sentence created with a conjunctive
adverb . . .
Blue mustangs race like rivers through the canyons; FURTHERMORE, the
cottonwoods close in around us.
. . . or as a compound sentence created with a semicolon . . .
Blue mustangs race like rivers through the canyons; the cottonwoods close
in around us.
YOUR TURN 21
Edit each of the following sentences according to the directions given. Also,
decide on the appropriate punctuation for each.
1. My dog is old and ill, so he can only run free in his dreams. [Change from
two clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction to two sentences joined
by a conjunctive adverb.]
conjunctive adverbs: accordingly, again, also, as a result, at last, at the
same time, besides, consequently, conversely, earlier, even so, eventually,
finally, first, for example, for instance, furthermore, hence, however, in
addition, in fact, in like manner, in short, in the meantime, indeed, instead,
later, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, namely, nevertheless, next, nonetheless,
now, on the contrary, on the other hand, similarly, still, subsequently, that is,
then, therefore, thus
2. Today he lies on the rug, brought down by fleas, yet in dreams he is
running free. [Change from two clauses joined by a coordinating
conjunction to two sentences joined by a semicolon.]
3. My dog is a dismal sight, for he can do nothing more than lie on the rug,
brought down by fleas. [Change from two clauses joined by a
coordinating conjunction to two sentences joined by a colon.]
4. Now I understand why you are sad; eventually, the pumpkins will
disappear and the tomatoes will wither. [Change from two clauses joined
by a conjunctive adverb to two sentences joined by a colon.]
5. Today you are sad; eventually, the pumpkins will disappear and the
tomatoes will wither. [Change from two clauses joined by a conjunctive
adverb to two sentences joined by a coordinating conjunction.]
coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
6. It is true that today I feel like a giant mouth; nevertheless, yesterday I felt
like a giant ear. [Change from two clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb
to two sentences joined by a semicolon.]
7. The ground opened up and swallowed the man: he had defied the gods.
[Change from two sentences joined by a colon to two sentences joined by
 a coordinating conjunction.]
coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
8. The man disappeared into the ground; the woman disappeared into a white
cloud. [Change from two sentences joined by a semicolon to two sentences
joined by a conjunctive adverb.]
conjunctive adverbs: accordingly, again, also, as a result, at last, at the
same time, besides, consequently, conversely, earlier, even so, eventually,
finally, first, for example, for instance, furthermore, hence, however, in
addition, in fact, in like manner, in short, in the meantime, indeed, instead,
later, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, namely, nevertheless, next, nonetheless,
now, on the contrary, on the other hand, similarly, still, subsequently, that is,
then, therefore, thus
ANSWERS AND POSSIBLE ANSWERS 21
1. My dog is old and ill; THEREFORE, he can only run free in his dreams.
[comma + “so” has been converted to semicolon + “therefore” +
comma]
2. Today he lies on the rug, brought down by fleas; in dreams he is running
free. [comma + “yet” has been converted to a semicolon]
3. My dog is a dismal sight: he can do nothing more than lie on the rug,
brought down by fleas. [comma + “for” has been converted to a colon]
4. Now I understand why you are sad: the pumpkins will disappear and the
tomatoes will wither. [semicolon + “eventually” + comma has been
converted to a colon]
5. Today you are sad, FOR the pumpkins will disappear and the tomatoes will
wither. [semicolon + “eventually” + comma has been converted to
comma + “for”]
6. It is true that today I feel like a giant mouth; yesterday I felt like a giant
ear. [semicolon + “nevertheless” + comma has been converted to a
semicolon]
7. The ground opened up and swallowed the man, FOR he had defied the
gods. [the colon has been converted to comma + “for”]
8. The man disappeared into the ground; MOREOVER, the woman disappeared
into a white cloud. [the semicolon has been converted to semicolon +
“moreover” + comma]
 Compound Sentences Glossary of
Terms
base sentence: A sentence reduced to its essentials only. The base sentence
of a compound sentence includes subjects, verbs, and the joining conjunction
(if there is one).
beginning sentences with conjunctions: Yes, go right ahead. There is no
rule against this.
colon: (:) A punctuation mark that joins two clauses when the left-hand
clause makes a general statement and the right-hand clause makes a specific
statement or when the right-hand clause answers a question left unanswered
by the left-hand clause.
compound sentence: Two sentences (independent clauses) joined by a
comma and a coordinating conjunction; a semicolon, a conjunctive adverb,
and a comma; a semicolon; or a colon.
conjunctive adverbs: accordingly, again, also, as a result, at last, at the
same time, besides, consequently, conversely, earlier, even so, eventually,
finally, first, for example, for instance, furthermore, hence, however, in
addition, in fact, in like manner, in short, in the meantime, indeed, instead,
later, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, namely, nevertheless, next, nonetheless,
now, on the contrary, on the other hand, similarly, still, subsequently, that is,
then, therefore, thus
coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
coordination: The process of creating compound sentences.
FANBOYS: The mnemonic device that helps us recall the seven coordinating
conjunctions.
independent clause: The same as a sentence. This term allows us to more
easily discuss the parts of a compound sentence by referring to the left-hand
clause or right-hand clause, for example.
mirror-image sentences: A pair of sentences that are similar in structure and
that share some of the same words. A pair of mirror-image sentences should
be joined by a semicolon.
punctuating conjunctions: When joining clauses in compound sentences,
coordinating conjunctions receive a comma to the left; conjunctive adverbs
receive a semicolon to the left and a comma to the right.
punctuating exceptions-to-the-rule: (1) With one-syllable conjunctive
adverbs (first, hence, next, now, still, then, thus), the comma to the right is
unnecessary. (2) The less-than exception: If the clauses are short and simple,
the comma to the left of the coordinating conjunction is unnecessary. (3) The
more-than exception: If the clauses have commas of their own, we upgrade
the comma before the coordinating conjunction to a semicolon.
semicolon: (;) A punctuation mark that joins two closely related sentences.
slide to the right: Some conjunctive adverbs—however is the most notable
—can be moved from the position between the two clauses to a position
within the right-hand clause.
subjects and verbs: The building blocks of sentences. In compound
sentences, we will find a subject and verb in each of the two clauses being
joined.
time, similarity, difference, examples, cause-and-effect: Five categories—
and functions—of conjunctive adverbs.
 Test Questions
The Test Questions section contains thirty questions that test the following
compound-sentence related skills:
composition: questions 1–4
clause recognition: questions 5–6
semicolon and colon use: questions 7–10
error recognition: questions 11–20
exceptions-to-the-rule recognition: questions 21–30
 TEST PART 1: Composition
coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
conjunctive adverbs: accordingly, again, also, as a result, at last, at the
same time, besides, consequently, conversely, earlier, even so, eventually,
finally, first, for example, for instance, furthermore, hence, however, in
addition, in fact, in like manner, in short, in the meantime, indeed, instead,
later, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, namely, nevertheless, next, nonetheless,
now, on the contrary, on the other hand, similarly, still, subsequently, that is,
then, therefore, thus
1. Use The geese are waddling toward the pond as a left-hand clause. Create
a compound sentence using a coordinating conjunction. If possible, try to
create your sentence without scrolling to the word list above.
2. Use The geese are waddling toward the pond as a left-hand clause. Create
a compound sentence using a conjunctive adverb. If possible, try to create
your sentence without scrolling to the word list above.
3. Use The geese are waddling toward the pond as a left-hand clause. Create
a compound sentence using a semicolon.
4. Use The geese are waddling toward the pond as a left-hand clause. Create
a compound sentence using a colon.
POSSIBLE ANSWERS PART 1
1. with a coordinating conjunction: The geese are waddling toward the
pond, and the pinwheels in the lawn are spinning.
2. with a conjunctive adverb: The geese are waddling toward the pond;
therefore, they must be hungry.
3. with a semicolon: The geese are waddling toward the pond; the horses are
galloping toward the barn.
4. with a colon: The geese are waddling toward the pond: they need to begin
searching for food.
 TEST PART 2: Clause Recognition
5. Let us make ourselves visible, or we might disappear suddenly from the
sidewalks of Calumet. In the preceding sentence, the second independent
clause begins with the word ___ and ends with the word ___.
6. The heart of youth is so light, for on its hot brow there blows a wind of
promise. In the preceding sentence, the second independent clause begins
with the word ___ and ends with the word ___.
ANSWERS PART 2
5. Let us make ourselves visible, or [we might disappear suddenly from the
sidewalks of Calumet]. In the preceding sentence, the second independent
clause begins with the word we and ends with the word Calumet.
6. The heart of youth is so light, for [on its hot brow there blows a wind of
promise]. In the preceding sentence, the second independent clause begins
with the word on and ends with the word promise.
 TEST PART 3: Semicolon and Colon Use
7. Cecelia enjoys lying on the sofa. Suppose that this clause appears on the
left side of a semicolon. Which of the following four choices would best
appear to the right of the semicolon? Also, explain your choice.
a. her sofa is especially comfortable
b. at night, however, she moves to her bed
c. she gets doubly comfortable when she wears her flannel pajamas
d. Wesley prefers exercising on the treadmill
8. Norton climbed to the top of the stairs. Suppose that this clause appears on
the left side of a semicolon. Which of the following four choices would
best appear to the right of the semicolon? Also, explain your choice.
a. from there he could get a terrific view of the city
b. Elena crawled under the house
c. he began to get short of breath
d. he wanted to try out his new athletic shoes
9. We are all finding it difficult to relax. Suppose that this clause appears on
the left side of a colon. Which of the following four choices would best
appear to the right of the colon? Also, explain your choice.
a. we have not been relaxed in days
b. the wind outside is blowing fiercely
c. Cecelia, however, seems to be quite relaxed
d. we are all finding it easy to tap our fingers nervously
10. The doorbell rang. Suppose that this clause appears on the left side of a
colon. Which of the following four choices would best appear to the right
of the colon? Also, explain your choice.
a. startled, we all turned to face the door
b. I had planned to disconnect the doorbell, but had forgotten
c. the postman had a package to deliver
d. the teakettle whistled
ANSWERS PART 3
7. (D) Cecelia enjoys lying on the sofa; Wesley prefers exercising on the
treadmill. [This choice gives us a mirror-image sentence.]
8. (B) Norton climbed to the top of the stairs; Elena crawled under the house.
[This choice gives us a mirror-image sentence.]
9. (B) We are all finding it difficult to relax: the wind outside is blowing
fiercely. [The fact that the wind is blowing fiercely explains why we are
unable to relax.]
10. (C) Suddenly the doorbell rang: the postman had a package to deliver.
[The fact that the postman had a package to deliver explains why the
doorbell rang.]
 TEST PART 4: Error Recognition I
11. I was down by the river; You were knocking at the front door.
The italicized sentence above demonstrates which of the errors listed
below? Each answer gets used once.
a. A comma belongs to the left of the coordinating conjunction.
b. A comma is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
c. A semicolon is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
d. The writer has failed to distinguish between so and so that.
e. We do not capitalize after a semicolon.
12. She tiptoed down the hallway, so the children in their beds would not
be disturbed.
a. A comma belongs to the left of the coordinating conjunction.
b. A comma is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
c. A semicolon is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
d. The writer has failed to distinguish between so and so that.
e. We do not capitalize after a semicolon.
13. The barefoot people frolic in the flowers, and laugh as if tomorrow will
never come.
a. A comma belongs to the left of the coordinating conjunction.
b. A comma is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
c. A semicolon is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
d. The writer has failed to distinguish between so and so that.
e. We do not capitalize after a semicolon.
14. Happy Hooligan pulls up in his rusted green automobile; so we all go
outside to greet him.
a. A comma belongs to the left of the coordinating conjunction.
b. A comma is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
c. A semicolon is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
d. The writer has failed to distinguish between so and so that.
e. We do not capitalize after a semicolon.
15. I was down by the river; hoping you would see me there.
a. A comma belongs to the left of the coordinating conjunction.
b. A comma is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
c. A semicolon is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
d. The writer has failed to distinguish between so and so that.
e. We do not capitalize after a semicolon.
ANSWERS PART 4
11. I was down by the river; You were knocking at the front door.
(E) We do not capitalize after a semicolon.
12. She tiptoed down the hallway, so the children in their beds would not
be disturbed.
(D) The writer has failed to distinguish between so and so that. [She tiptoed
down the hallway so that the children in their beds would not be disturbed.]
13. The barefoot people frolic in the flowers, and laugh as if tomorrow will
never come.
(B) A comma is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
[Either remove the comma or add the subject “they” to the second clause:
“and they laugh as if ….”]
14. Happy Hooligan pulls up in his rusted green automobile; so we all go
outside to greet him.
(A) A comma belongs to the left of the coordinating conjunction.
15. I was down by the river; hoping you would see me there.
(C) A semicolon is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
[Because the right-hand word group is not a clause, the semicolon should be
converted to a comma.]
 TEST PART 5: Error Recognition II
Each answer gets used once.
16. The leaves wither, and hang heavily on the melodious boughs.
a. A comma belongs to the left of the coordinating conjunction.
b. A comma is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
c. A semicolon is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
d. The writer has failed to distinguish between so and so that.
e. We do not capitalize after a semicolon.
17. Johnny dropped his plate on the kitchen floor; His mother hurried over
to clean up the mess.
a. A comma belongs to the left of the coordinating conjunction.
b. A comma is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
c. A semicolon is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
d. The writer has failed to distinguish between so and so that.
e. We do not capitalize after a semicolon.
18. As the express comes to a rapid halt; the passengers grasp the straps
more tightly.
a. A comma belongs to the left of the coordinating conjunction.
b. A comma is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
c. A semicolon is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
d. The writer has failed to distinguish between so and so that.
e. We do not capitalize after a semicolon.
19. You declined the presidential nomination, so you could retire to your
farm.
a. A comma belongs to the left of the coordinating conjunction.
b. A comma is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
c. A semicolon is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
d. The writer has failed to distinguish between so and so that.
e. We do not capitalize after a semicolon.
20. They are human; so they must have arms and veins and secrets.
a. A comma belongs to the left of the coordinating conjunction.
b. A comma is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
c. A semicolon is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
d. The writer has failed to distinguish between so and so that.
e. We do not capitalize after a semicolon.
ANSWERS PART 5
16. The leaves wither, and hang heavily on the melodious boughs.
(B) A comma is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
[Either remove the comma or add the subject “they” to the second clause:
“and they hang heavily ….”]
17. Johnny dropped his plate on the kitchen floor; His mother hurried over
to clean up the mess.
(E) We do not capitalize after a semicolon.
18. As the express comes to a rapid halt; the passengers grasp the straps
more tightly.
(C) A semicolon is used, yet one of the clauses is not an independent clause.
[Because the right-hand word group is not a clause, the semicolon should be
converted to a comma.]
19. You declined the presidential nomination, so you could retire to your
farm.
(D) The writer has failed to distinguish between so and so that. [You declined
the presidential nomination so that you could retire to your farm.]
20. They are human; so they must have arms and veins and secrets.
(A) A comma belongs to the left of the coordinating conjunction.
 TEST PART 6: Exceptions-to-the-Rule
Recognition I
21. A soaring lament rose and rang silver like a bell; next I covered up my
face and begged for mercy.
The italicized sentence above demonstrates which of the exceptions-to-
the-rule listed below? Each answer gets used once.
a. If the clauses have commas of their own, we upgrade the comma before
the coordinating conjunction to a semicolon (the more-than exception).
b. If the two clauses are short and simple, we can eliminate the comma
before the coordinating conjunction (the less-than exception).
c. The comma after a one-syllable conjunctive adverb is unnecessary.
d. We can begin a sentence with a conjunction.
e. We can slide conjunctive adverbs to the right.
22. He wouldn’t have robbed a bird’s nest. Furthermore, he would never
bring a stork to harm.
a. If the clauses have commas of their own, we upgrade the comma before
the coordinating conjunction to a semicolon (the more-than exception).
b. If the two clauses are short and simple, we can eliminate the comma
before the coordinating conjunction (the less-than exception).
c. The comma after a one-syllable conjunctive adverb is unnecessary.
d. We can begin a sentence with a conjunction.
e. We can slide conjunctive adverbs to the right.
23. Mr. Tuttle quit his job and he ran into the streets.
a. If the clauses have commas of their own, we upgrade the comma before
the coordinating conjunction to a semicolon (the more-than exception).
b. If the two clauses are short and simple, we can eliminate the comma
before the coordinating conjunction (the less-than exception).
c. The comma after a one-syllable conjunctive adverb is unnecessary.
d. We can begin a sentence with a conjunction.
e. We can slide conjunctive adverbs to the right.
24. Out of nowhere, the colorful monster appears at Mildred’s feet; yet her
friends only scratch their heads, bend down, and stare in wonder.
a. If the clauses have commas of their own, we upgrade the comma before
the coordinating conjunction to a semicolon (the more-than exception).
b. If the two clauses are short and simple, we can eliminate the comma
before the coordinating conjunction (the less-than exception).
c. The comma after a one-syllable conjunctive adverb is unnecessary.
d. We can begin a sentence with a conjunction.
e. We can slide conjunctive adverbs to the right.
25. Philosophers are not always rational; Kierkegaard, for example, would
weep at the white color of the smooth flag-stones.
a. If the clauses have commas of their own, we upgrade the comma before
the coordinating conjunction to a semicolon (the more-than exception).
b. If the two clauses are short and simple, we can eliminate the comma
before the coordinating conjunction (the less-than exception).
c. The comma after a one-syllable conjunctive adverb is unnecessary.
d. We can begin a sentence with a conjunction.
e. We can slide conjunctive adverbs to the right.
ANSWERS PART 6
21. A soaring lament rose and rang silver like a bell; next I covered up my
face and begged for mercy.
(C) The comma after a one-syllable conjunctive adverb is unnecessary.
22. He wouldn’t have robbed a bird’s nest. Furthermore, he would never
bring a stork to harm.
(D) We can begin a sentence with a conjunction.
23. Mr. Tuttle quit his job and he ran into the streets.
(B) If the two clauses are short and simple, we can eliminate the comma
before the coordinating conjunction (the less-than exception).
24. Out of nowhere, the colorful monster appears at Mildred’s feet; yet her
friends only scratch their heads, bend down, and stare in wonder.
(A) If the clauses have commas of their own, we upgrade the comma before
the coordinating conjunction to a semicolon (the more-than exception).
25. Philosophers are not always rational; Kierkegaard, for example,
would weep at the white color of the smooth flag-stones.
(E) We can slide conjunctive adverbs to the right.
 TEST PART 7: Exceptions-to-the-Rule
Recognition II
Each answer gets used once.
26. The sun rose and the bells rang.
a. If the clauses have commas of their own, we upgrade the comma before
the coordinating conjunction to a semicolon (the more-than exception).
b. If the two clauses are short and simple, we can eliminate the comma
before the coordinating conjunction (the less-than exception).
c. The comma after a one-syllable conjunctive adverb is unnecessary.
d. We can begin a sentence with a conjunction.
e. We can slide conjunctive adverbs to the right.
27. My father returns on the darkest of nights; then he begins knocking
wildly at the door.
a. If the clauses have commas of their own, we upgrade the comma before
the coordinating conjunction to a semicolon (the more-than exception).
b. If the two clauses are short and simple, we can eliminate the comma
before the coordinating conjunction (the less-than exception).
c. The comma after a one-syllable conjunctive adverb is unnecessary.
d. We can begin a sentence with a conjunction.
e. We can slide conjunctive adverbs to the right.
28. I crack two eggs into the cast-iron skillet. Yet they do not begin sizzling.
a. If the clauses have commas of their own, we upgrade the comma before
the coordinating conjunction to a semicolon (the more-than exception).
b. If the two clauses are short and simple, we can eliminate the comma
before the coordinating conjunction (the less-than exception).
c. The comma after a one-syllable conjunctive adverb is unnecessary.
d. We can begin a sentence with a conjunction.
e. We can slide conjunctive adverbs to the right.
29. We have been shaped by a single voice; we wake, therefore, to find
 ourselves already weeping.
a. If the clauses have commas of their own, we upgrade the comma before
the coordinating conjunction to a semicolon (the more-than exception).
b. If the two clauses are short and simple, we can eliminate the comma
before the coordinating conjunction (the less-than exception).
c. The comma after a one-syllable conjunctive adverb is unnecessary.
d. We can begin a sentence with a conjunction.
e. We can slide conjunctive adverbs to the right.
30. The sun rose, bringing a golden light to all that it shone upon; but
David, still despondent over his lost love, could not appreciate the golden
beauty.
a. If the clauses have commas of their own, we upgrade the comma before
the coordinating conjunction to a semicolon (the more-than exception).
b. If the two clauses are short and simple, we can eliminate the comma
before the coordinating conjunction (the less-than exception).
c. The comma after a one-syllable conjunctive adverb is unnecessary.
d. We can begin a sentence with a conjunction.
e. We can slide conjunctive adverbs to the right.
ANSWERS PART 7
26. The sun rose and the bells rang.
(B) If the two clauses are short and simple, we can eliminate the comma
before the coordinating conjunction (the less-than exception).
27. My father returns on the darkest of nights; then he begins knocking
wildly at the door.
(C) The comma after a one-syllable conjunctive adverb is unnecessary.
28. I crack two eggs into the cast-iron skillet. Yet they do not begin
sizzling.
(D) We can begin a sentence with a conjunction.
29. We have been shaped by a single voice; we wake, therefore, to find
ourselves already weeping.
(E) We can slide conjunctive adverbs to the right.
30. The sun rose, bringing a golden light to all that it shone upon; but
David, still despondent over his lost love, could not appreciate the golden
beauty.
(A) If the clauses have commas of their own, we upgrade the comma before
the coordinating conjunction to a semicolon (the more-than exception).
 Titles in the Mastering English Grammar
Series
ALL TITLES ARE AVAILABLE ON KINDLE OR IN PRINT
Parts of Speech
Book 1: Nouns and Adjectives
Book 2: Verbs and Adverbs
Book 3: Pronouns, Prepositions, and Conjunctions
Sentence Structure
Book 4: Subjects and Verbs
Book 5: Compound Sentences
Book 6: Complex Sentences
Punctuation
Book 7: Commas
Book 8: Semicolons and Colons
Book 9: Parentheses, Brackets, Dashes, Ellipses, Italics, and
Hyphens