Genetically Engineered Produce

Ever since humanity’s discovery of agriculture during the Neolithic period,

our ability to cultivate and harvest high-quality and favorable produce has evolved
with each passing century. Each agricultural revolution has brought forth new
discoveries shaping the way society works and allowing humanity to evolve in
unimaginable ways. We’ve come so far to the point where we are beginning to
genetically enhance our food, allowing us to create valuable and
nutritious produce which could lead to enhanced growth, improved
overall health, and even a possible solution to world hunger.
Humanity’s achievements since its early agricultural days have been
nothing less than remarkable to say the least, but we all start from
somewhere, right?
Modified produce has been around for a quite some time now
with the first known instance being in the form of selective breeding of
cattle around 10,000 years ago (FDA, n.d). Selective breeding and
crossbreeding are both early traditional attempts at producing high
quality produce which have proven to work in the past. An example
Label 1: Another example
most people are visually familiar with since childhood is a species of cow of selective breeding is the
named the Holstein-Friesian, which is known and bred for its ability to Leghorn chicken. It is
known for its egg laying
produce large quantities of milk in a short period of time. Holsteins capabilities and egg size.
originated in the northern Holland located in northwestern Europe
around 2000 years ago by breeding a mixture of black
cattle from Batavian and white cattle from Friesians
(“The Cattle Site”, n.d). Selective and cross breeding
isn’t only restrained to cattle thought, it can also be
applied to crops. A good majority of vegetables,
especially greens, that we eat today are most likely
selectively bred for their nutritional attributes and
unique characteristics. Broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage,
kale, and brussels sprouts were all selectively bred from
a single plant named Brassica Oleracea. Each part of
Label 2: Selective breeding of Brassica
Oleracea resulted in multiple greens we
the plant had its own nutritional value that was
eat today expanded on such as broccoli which was selected from
the stems of the Brassica for its high calcium.

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 Although selective breeding and crossbreeding are a type of genetic
manipulation, it is considered as the utmost basic form of genetic engineering. It
wasn’t until the early to mid-20th century that genetic engineering saw a huge leap
in both a scientific aspect and commercially. The 20th century is often regarded as
the starting point of modern genetic engineering.
The first early attempts of Modern genetic
engineering were in 1953 when two scientists from
Cambridge university named James D. Watson and
Francis H.C. Crick discovered the natural structure
of a DNA strand. This discovery eventually led to
the ability for scientists to “splice” genes meaning
they could remove a DNAs enzyme by unraveling
the DNA from its nucleotide base without harming
the DNA strand itself (Pray, 2008). This would
essentially split the strand by detaching the
enzymes from its hydrogen bonds leaving you with
two distinct DNA strands. The splicing of genes
allowed scientists to select and transfer a certain
genome from one organism and place it into
another organism by recombining the removed
Figure 3: The structure of this DNA strand is
DNA enzyme strand with another desirable DNA
a double helix. The figure on the left is an strand hence the name splicing. Watsons and
example of enzymes being released from Crick’s discovery of the double helix DNA strand
their hydrogen bonds. The figure on the
right shows a DNA’s natural components. was essential for the evolutionary process of
genetic engineering since it allowed scientist to
modify DNA artificially then naturally though selective breeding.
It was not until 1973 till the world saw its first
successful gene transplant. Two biochemists by the name of
Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen were able to successfully
modify a bacteria’s genome by introducing modified enzymes
resistant to antibiotics into its DNA strands. The type of
bacteria used in Boyers, and Cohen’s experiment was a variant
of the E. coli bacteria that was resistant to the antibiotic
tetracycline. Both biochemists found a weak point among the
bacteria’s plasmid that allowed them to plant a gene resistant
to kanamycin into its DNA (“Genetics and Genomics Timeline”,
n.d). The experiment resulted in a new E. Coli bacterium that Figure 4: The hepatitis-B vaccine was one of
many pharmaceutical drugs that were
was both resistant to the antibiotics tetracycline and created using Boyers and Stanley’s
kanamycin. Colonies of the bacteria that formed after the technique.
experiment evolved into the new variant later replacing any old
variants present within the colony. This experiment can be considered as the basis
of genetic engineering as most of the techniques used by later scientists would
heavily depend on Boyer’s and Cohens experimental theory. Antibiotics with

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multiple purposes were created using the “splice” gene method alongside
agricultural modifications such as new variants of corns containing more nutritional
value.
The successful experiment of DNA splicing on the E. Coli bacteria led way to
a possible future were most of the organic material we consume could be
genetically modified. Many concerns would arise regarding the possibility of
allowing the public to consume genetically engineered produce, so the federal
government decided to establish the Coordinated Framework for Regulation of
Biotechnology in 1986. The establishments’ main purpose is to regulate any policy
regarding any biotechnological products for its safety for public use and
consumption. The establishment is currently steal running with the most recent
update to its policy being made in 2017 which allowed oversight of the creation
process of genetically modified products if it does not affect the environment or
health of a person in anyway. The establishment is separated into three agencies
whose main focuses are to regulate polices pertained to their specialized field, the
U.S Environment Protection Agency (EPA), U.S. Food and Drug Administration
(FDA), and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Later in 1992 the FDA created a
policy detailing that any GMO produce would be allowed to be commercialized only
if it met the same nutritional and safety requirements as traditionally grown
produce (“Unified Website for Biotechnology Regulation”, n.d).

Figure 5: Each government policy regulates different policies depending on what type of
modification is being made on the produce. If the produce harms the environment in anyway
such as pesticides, then the EPA steps in. If the produce is found to be affecting the health of the
public, then the FDA steps in. if the produce is harming the animal being modified then the USDA
takes action.

Now that the government had established a safe way to introduce

genetically modified food to the public, it was time to start creating some. The first
commercially engineered produce, that most people can’t agree whether is a fruit
or a vegetable, was the tomato. In 1994 researchers from a biotech company
named Calgene created a tomato named the Flavr Savr tomato which was capable

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 of ripening at a much slower rate than a regular tomato. The
researchers achieved this feat by removing a certain amount
of a specific gene named pectate lyase (PL). Pectate lyase is
one of the genes responsible for the softening of a tomato
so removing this specific gene allowed the fruit, or
vegetable, to have a longer shelf and storing life. Once the
tomato was fully tested and approved by the FDA, it was
immediately put out for the public to buy. Although it saw
some success during its first few months in the market if
slowly began to decline in favorability amount consumers
and was eventually pulled from shelves and ceased
production in 1997 mainly due to the lack of research and
experience from the company (Liban, 2014). The tomato did
serve its purpose, which was to have a long shelf-life, but
the quality of the tomato was greatly affected by the
removal of the pectate lyase gene making it virtually inferior Figure 6: A researcher from
to a regular tomato which offered more nutritional value for Calgene biotech holding one of the
first commercially produced
the cost of a short shelf-life. The tomato may be seen as a produce, the Falvr Savr tomato.
failure in terms of what it has to offer towards the public but
commercially the tomato was seen as a foundation for
biotech companies to start creating and selling their own biologically engineered
produce.
Another most recent example of genetically modified produce made
available to the public is the cosmic crisp apple which was created in 1997 and
released in the market in 2017. The cosmic crisps apple has
the ability to stay fresh for a whole year if left in a
refrigerator and can last for several weeks if left at room
temperature (Gutoskey, 2019).
Production of biologically engineered produce
increased towards the end of the 20th century and
beginning of the 21st century. In 2003 the World Health
Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO) created guidelines which allowed the
international exporting and importing of genetically
Figure 7: The Cosmic crips modified products. This opened a whole new world of
apple was named “Cosmic opportunities for commercializing GMOs. One important
Crisp” due to its glossy outer
shell and white dots making thing that needs to be mentioned is that the regulations
it look as if the apple itself is created by the Coordinated Framework for Regulation of
“otherworldly”.
Biotechnology, WHO and FOA only applies to crops and not
for live produce. It wasn’t until recently in 2015 that the FDA
allowed applications of GMOs in animals alongside crops (“Engineering Crops in a
Needy world”, n.d).

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 The first genetically engineered livestock that was approved for human
consumption by the FDA was an Atlantic salmon produced by the company
AquaBounty. The company was able to genetically modify salmon into making it
grow faster during its early life period ensuring salmon that are healthy and fresh.
This also shortens the harvesting cycle and allows for a much earlier hatching
season. The company started out as AF Protein but eventually changed their name
to AquaBounty when they began to commercialize their new modified salmon.
Although the FDA approved the consumption of modified animals in 2015 plans for
production of the Salmon started back in 2009 in Canada (AquaBounty, 2021).
Genetically modified produce has come a long way since its discovery in the
early 20th century. It first started as a proposal after the discovery of the double
helix structured DNA and later turned into one of the most world changing
biological techniques. About 75% of the food source, we see in supermarkets is
entirely modified or contains at least one ingredient that has been genetically
modified. Genetic modification has allowed scientist to produce foods that are
entirely immune to certain disease that might otherwise lead to a hunger crisis. The
papaya is an example of a fruit that has benefited a large group of people due to its
modification. It has been modified to be resistant to a virus known as the “ring
virus” which slowly kills off a papaya tree. This modification saved most of the
Hawaii’s papaya industry. Now almost 80% of all papayas exported from Hawaii are
genetically modified (Bawa and Anilakumar, 2016). Although Genetic Modification
does have its benefits, many people from around the world oppose the idea of
GMOs. Certain GMOs are known to be dangerous to people who have some type of
allergy or chronic diseases. In fact, most GMOS are known to eliminate allergies all
together by eliminating the gene that cause a person’s body to react negatively to
that gene. Genetic Engineering is still fairly new so not much is known about the
affects it has on the human body, but most people tend to stay away from them.

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 References

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-,
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Gutoskey, Ellen. “New Cross-Bred Cosmic Crisp Apples Can Stay Fresh for up to a
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Figure 1: EFowl, “White leghorn Chickens” “Where to Buy White Leghorn

Chickens.” EFowl, 5 Jan. 2021, https://www.efowl.com/product/white-
leghorn-chickens/.

Figure 2: Stromberg, Joseph. “Kale, Brussels Sprouts, Cauliflower, and Cabbage Are
All Varieties of a Single Magical Plant Species.” Vox, Vox, 6 Aug. 2014,
https://www.vox.com/xpress/2014/8/6/5974989/kale-cauliflower-cabbage-
broccoli-same-plant.

Figure 3: Nature News, Nature Publishing Group,

https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/discovery-of-dna-structure-and-
function-watson-397/. Figure 4.

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3099(19)30582-1/fulltext.

Figure 5: “Genetic Engineering and Society Center.” Politics "Trumps" Science in

the Regulation of Genetically Engineered Crops,
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Figure 6: Liban, Ladan, and Ladan Liban. “Environmental Leadership, Action and
Ethics.” Environmental Leadership Action and Ethics, 12 Mar. 2014,
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gmos-from-the-lab-to-the-supermarket/.

Figure 7: Guarente, Gabe. “Washington's Cosmic Crisp Apple Finally Arrives after
Multimillion-Dollar Hype.” Eater Seattle, Eater Seattle, 3 Dec. 2019,
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arrives-in-grocery-stores-where-to-find.

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