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 The Summary of Changes to the Contents of Syllabuses for
Secondary Schools-AL Applied Mathematics (1992)
4 r
# jJI'V *-<?$*•"« ""•• "fe^'^ *^S' "
« 1 ' ' *& " \T^" » &*

4t% *,N* * ^i
1.9 The whole sub-unit 'Triple Product" 2
is deleted
1 Vectors 1.12 'The moment of a force in vector 1
form about a line in R3" is deleted

9 Simple Harmonic Motion 9.3 The whole sub-unit "Forced 5

Oscillation" is deleted

11 Motion of a Rigid Body 11.4 The whole sub-unit "General Motion 16

of a Rigid Body" is deleted

13 Second Order Differential 13.7 On the 2nd line of Point 1, the words 0
Equations and its "and forced oscillation" is deleted
Applications
Total 24
Percentage (out of 372) 6,5

Mathematics Education Section

Education and Manpower Bureau
April 2004
 Revised Sixth Form Mathematics Curriculum

1. A revised curriculum for Additional Mathematics has been implemented at

S4 since September 2002 and will be first examined in the HKCEE in 2004.
Changes in the Additional Mathematics curriculum might have an impact
on the learning and teaching of the sixth form mathematics subjects.

2. The CDC Committee on Mathematics Education recommends that the ASL

Mathematics & Statistics and ASL Applied Mathematics curricula would
remain unchanged, while the curriculum contents of the AL Pure
Mathematics and the AL Applied Mathematics should be trimmed down.
The purpose is to allow students more time and space to develop their
thinking abilities, and to better cover the two AL courses over a period of
two years.

3. The two revised AL curricula will be implemented at S6 in September 2004

and first examined in Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination in 2006.
 Page

Contents i

Membership of the CDC-HKEAA Joint Working Party on Revision of iii

Sixth Form Mathematics Curriculum

Membership of the CDC-HKEAA Joint Working Group on Revision iv

of AL Pure Mathematics

Preamble v

Chapter

1 Aims and Objectives 1

* Overall Aims of Mathematics Education 1

+ Objectives of the AL Pure Mathematics Curriculum 2

2 Curriculum Framework 3

* Content and Specific Learning Objectives 3

* Suggested Sequence 7

* Suggested Time Allocation 8

3 Learning and Teaching 13

* Guiding Principles 13

* Suggested Learning and Teaching Strategies 13

 Assessment 17

* Purposes of Assessment 17

* School Assessment 18

« Feedback from Assessment 22

« Public Assessment 23

Exemplars 25

Appendix 1 Summary of Changes to the Contents of Syllabuses for Secondary 35

Schools - Pure Mathematics (Advanced Level) 1992

Appendix 2 Comparison between Pure Mathematics Curriculum and Assessment 37

Guide (Advanced Level) and Syllabuses for Secondary Schools -Pure
Mathematics (Advanced Level) 1992

Appendix 3 Resources for Learning and Teaching of AL Pure Mathematics 83

 Membership of the CDC-HKEAA Joint Working Party
on Revision of Sixth Form Mathematics Curriculum

The membership since 21 March 2002 has been as follows:

Chairman Chief Curriculum Development Officer (Mathematics)

Education and Manpower Bureau
(Mr KWAN Siu-kam)
(to 5 May 2003)

Members Mr CHAN Chi-hung MrTSUIPee-tak

Ms CHAN Ching-yee Mr WAN Tak-wing
Prof CHENG Shiu-yuen MrWONGKa-lok
Mr CHU Kan-kong Dr WONG Ngai-ying
Mr FUNG Chi-yeung Dr WU Ka-ho
Ms HO Hau-yee Mr WU Keung-fai
Mr HUNG Chun-wah Ms YAN Pui-lung
Mr KWOK Ka-keung MrYIPKai-to
Mr LEE Tak-fai Mr YU Kar-ming
Mr LEUNG Kwong-shing

Recorders Curriculum Development Officer (Mathematics)

Education and Manpower Bureau
(Mr CHIANG Kin-nam)
(to 1 July 2002)

Subject Officer (Mathematics)

Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority
(Mr CHU Kan-kong)
(from 2 July 2002)

in
 Membership of the CDC-HKEAA Joint Working Group
on Revision of AL Pure Mathematics

The membership since 11 April 2002 has been as follows:

Chairman Senior Curriculum Development Officer (Mathematics)

Education and Manpower Bureau
(Mr LEUNG Kwong-shing)

Members Mr CHAN Chi-hung MrKWANSiu-kam

Ms CHAN Ching-yee MrKWOKKa-keung
Prof CHENG Shiu-yuen Dr WONG Ngai-ying
Mr CHU Kan-kong Ms YAN Pui-lung
Mr FUNG Chi-yeung MrYIPKai-to
Ms HO Hau-yee Mr YU Kar-ming

Recorder Curriculum Development Officer (Mathematics)

Education and Manpower Bureau
(MrWAIKwok-keung)

IV
This Curriculum and Assessment Guide is one of the series jointly prepared by the Hong
Kong Curriculum Development Council (CDC) and the Hong Kong Examinations and
Assessment Authority (HKEAA). It forms the basis for learning and teaching of the subject
curriculum as well as for setting public assessment. The issue of this single document on
curriculum and assessment aims at conveying a clear message to the public that assessment is
an integral part of the school curriculum and at promoting the culture of "assessment for
learning" to improve learning and teaching.

The CDC is an advisory body giving recommendations to the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region Government on all matters relating to curriculum development for the
school system from kindergarten to sixth form. Its membership includes heads of schools,
practising teachers, parents, employers, academics from tertiary institutions, professionals
from related fields or related bodies, representatives from the HKEAA and the Vocational
Training Council, as well as officers from the Education and Manpower Bureau.

The HKEAA is an independent statutory body responsible for the conduct of the Hong Kong
Certificate of Education Examination and the Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination.
The governing council of the HKEAA includes members who are mainly drawn from the
school sector, tertiary institutions, government bodies, professionals and persons experienced
in commerce and industry.

This Curriculum and Assessment Guide is recommended by the Education and Manpower
Bureau for use in secondary schools. The subject curriculum developed leads to the
appropriate examination provided by the HKEAA. In this connection, the HKEAA has
issued a handbook to provide information on the format of the public examination of the
subject and the related rules and regulations.
The CDC and HKEAA will keep the subject curriculum under constant review and
evaluation in the light of classroom experiences, students' performance in the public
assessment, and the changing needs of society and students. All comments and suggestions
on this Curriculum and Assessment Guide should be sent to:

Chief Curriculum Development Officer (Mathematics)

Curriculum Development Institute
Education and Manpower Bureau
4/F Kowloon Government Offices
405 Nathan Road
Yau Ma Tei
Kowloon

VI
 1

Mathematics pervades all aspects of life and has been central to nearly all major scientific
and technological advances. Many of the developments and decisions made In our
Community rely to an extent on the use of mathematics. Mathematics Is considered as a
powerful means of communication, a tool for studying other disciplines, an intellectual
endeavour, a mode of thinking and a discipline through which students can develop their
ability to appreciate the beauty of nature., think logically and make sound judgment (CDC,
2002)l. It is valuable to help students develop necessary skills for lifelong learning.
Besides foundation skills and knowledge in mathematics for all citizens In the society, It is
also important to widen mathematics experience to those students who are mathematically
inclined.

The Advanced Level (AL) Pure Mathematics Curriculum Is a two-year sixth form course
designed for students intending to continue their studies in mathematics., engineering, science
and technology. Students studying this curriculum are expected to have acquired
mathematical knowledge at the Certificate of Education level, but previous knowledge of
Additional Mathematics at the Certificate of Education level is not required.

This curriculum and assessment guide is presented as a revised edition of the Syllabuses for
Secondary Schools - Pure Mathematics (Advanced Level) 1992. The curriculum has been
scheduled for implementation in schools with effect from September 2004 at Secondary 6
and the first public examination will be held In 2006.

Overall Aims of Mathematics Education

The overall aims of mathematics education (CDC? 2000)2 are to develop:

• our youngsters' knowledge, skills and concepts of mathematics and to enhance their
confidence and interest In mathematics, so that they can master mathematics effectively
and are able to formulate and solve problems from a mathematical perspective; and

1 CDC (2002). Mathematics Education Key Learning Area Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 — Secondary 3)
(R2). Hong Kong: The Printing Department.
2 CDC (2000), Learning to Learn: Key Learning Area Mathematics Education - Consultation Document
(R7). Hong Kong: The Printing Department.
• their thinking abilities and positive attitudes towards learning mathematics and build
related generic skills throughout their life time.

Objectives of the AL Pure Mathematics Curriculum

The objectives of the AL Pure Mathematics Curriculum are to:

* develop students' understanding of more advanced mathematical concepts and processes

and build up better foundations for further studies in the fields of mathematics,
engineering, science and technology;

* strengthen students' abilities to conceptualize, inquire and reason mathematically, and to

use mathematics to formulate and solve problems in mathematical context and other
disciplines;

« strengthen students' abilities to communicate with others logically and critically in

mathematical languages; and

* develop students a positive attitude towards mathematics learning and the capability of
appreciating the aesthetic nature and cultural aspect of mathematics.
 2

This curriculum is adapted from the Syllabuses for Secondary Schools - Pure Mathematics
(Advanced Level) 1992 (referred as Syllabus 1992 hereafter). Some topics have been
deleted or trimmed from the Syllabus 1992. The relevant changes and the comparison
between this curriculum and the Syllabus 1992 can be found in Appendices 1 and 2
respectively. The rationale of the revision is to create curriculum space for consolidating
concepts and adjusting teaching strategies (to cater for students' individual differences), etc.
so as to improve the learning of AL Pure Mathematics. The total teaching time for this
curriculum should be unchanged when compared with the Syllabus 1992 to serve the said
rationale (refer to the suggested time allocation on page 8).

Instead of dividing the contents of the curriculum into dimensions as in the secondary
mathematics curriculum, they are divided into 2 topic areas, namely "Algebra" and "Calculus
and Analytical Geometry", "Algebra" consists of 9 units while "Calculus and Analytical
Geometry" 7 units. For each unit, specific learning objectives are given to provide a sharper
focus. The subject matter of each unit is broken into sub-units to facilitate learning/teaching
and achievement of the specific learning objectives.

Some of the contents in the curriculum may overlap with those in the Additional Mathematics
Curriculum, but it should be noted that they may have different approaches and depths of
treatment. Teachers should also note that knowledge of the contents of the Additional
Mathematics Curriculum is not required in studying AL Pure Mathematics.

Content and Specific Learning Objectives

Unit Content Specific Learning Objectives

Al The Language of Mathematics 1. To understand the first notion of set

1.1 Set Language language
L2 Simple Logic 2. To understand the first notion of
logic
A2 Functions 1. To recognize function as a
2.1 Functions and their graphs fundamental tool In other branches
2.2 Properties and operations of of mathematics
 functions To sketch and to describe the shapes
.3 Algebraic functions of different functions
4 Trigonometric functions and their
formulae
5 Exponential and logarithmic
functions
A3 /latfaematieal To understand the Principle of
, 1 The Principle of Mathematical Mathematical Induction
Induction and its applications To apply the Principle of
,2 Other common variations of the Mathematical Induction to prove
Principle of Mathematical Induction propositions involving integers
and their applications To be able to modify the Principle of
Mathematical Induction to suit
different purposes
A4 nequalities To learn the elementary properties of
. 1 Absolute inequalities inequalities
.2 A.M.>G.M. 2. To prove simple absolute inequalities
.3 Cauchy-Schwarz's inequality 3. To solve simple conditional
.4 Conditional inequalities inequalities

A5 'he Binomial Theorem for Positive 1. To learn and apply the binomial
utegral Indices
theorem for positive integral indices
. 1 The binomial theorem for positive
To study the simple properties of the
integral indices
binomial coefficients
5.2 Applications of the binomial theorem
for positive integral indices
5.3 Simple properties of the binomial
coefficients
A6 Polynomials and Equations 1. To learn the properties of
6.1 Polynomials with real coefficients in polynomials with real coefficients in
one variable one variable
6.2 Rational functions 2. To learn division algorithm,
6.3 Polynomial equations with real remainder theorem and Euclidean
coefficients in one variable algorithm and their applications
3. To resolve rational functions into
partial fractions
4. To learn the properties of roots of
polynomial equations with real
coefficients in one variable
 9 "\
A7 in R R (deleted)

A8 Matrices To ieam the concept and operations

8.1 Matrices and their operations of matrices
8.2 Square matrices of order 2 and 3 To learn the properties and
8.3 Applications to two dimensional operations of square matrices of
geometry order 2 and 3 and determinants
To apply matrices to two
dimensional geometry
A9 System of Linear in 2 or 3 1. To solve a system of linear equations
Unknowns using Gaussian elimination
9.1 Gaussian elimination and Echelon To recognize the existence and
form uniqueness of solution
9.2 Existence and uniqueness of solution
A10 omplex Numbers To learn the properties of complex
10.1 Definition of complex numbers and numbers, their geometrical
their arithmetic operations representations and applications
10.2 Argand diagram, argument and To learn the De Moivre's Theorem
conjugate and its applications in finding the nth
10.3 Simple applications in plane roots of complex numbers, in solving
geometry polynomial equations and proving
10.4 De Moivre 's theorem trigonometric identities
Bl Sequence5 Series Limits 1. To learn the concept of sequence and
1.1 Sequence and series series
1.2 Limit of a sequence and series 2. To understand the intuitive concept
1.3 Convergence of a sequence and of the limit of sequence and series
series To understand the behaviour of
infinite sequence and series
B2 Limit, Continuity Differentiability To understand the intuitive concept
2.1 Limit of a function of the limit of a function
2.2 Continuity of a function To understand the intuitive concept
2.3 Differentiability of a function of continuity and differentiability of
a function
To recognize limit as a fundamental
concept in calculus

B3 Differentiation I. To acquire different techniques of

3.1 Fundamental rules for differentiation differentiation
 3.2 Differentiation of trigonometric To learn and acquire techniques to
functions find higher order derivative
3.3 Differentiation of composite 3. To understand the intuitive concept
functions and inverse functions of Rolle's Theorem and Mean Value
3.4 Differentiation of implicit functions Theorem
3.5 Differentiation of parametric
equations
3.6 Differentiation of logarithmic and
exponential function
3.7 Higher order derivatives and
Leibniz's Theorem
3.8 The Rolle's Theorem and Mean
Value Theorem
B4 Application of Differentiation To learn and to use the L' Hospital's
4.1 The L'Hospital's Rule Rule
4.2 Rate of change To learn the applications of
4.3 Monotonic functions differentiation
4.4 Maxima and minima
4.5 Curve sketching
B5 Integration To understand the notion of integral
5.1 The Riemann definition of as limit of a sum
integration 2. To learn some properties of integrals
5.2 Simple properties of definite 3. To understand the Fundamental
integrals Theorem of Integral Calculus
5.3 The Mean Value Theorem for 4. To apply the Fundamental Theorem
Integrals of Integral Calculus in the evaluation
5.4 Fundamental Theorem of Integral of integrals
Calculus and its application to the 5. To learn the methods of integration
evaluation of integrals
5.5 Indefinite integration
5.6 Method of integration
5.7 Improper integrals (deleted)
B6 Application of Integration 1. To learn the application of definite
6.1 Plane area integration in the evaluation of plane
6.2 Arc length (deleted) area and volume of solid of
6.3 Volume of revolution revolution
6.4 Area of surface of revolution (deleted) To apply definite integration to the
6.5 Limit of sum evaluation of limit of sum
 B7 1. To learn the conic sections
7.1 Basic knowledge in coordinate 2. To study locus problems
geometry algebraically
7.2 Sketching of curves in the polar To solve related problems
coordinate system (deleted)
7.3 Conic sections in rectangular
coordinate system
7.4 Tangents and normals of conic
sections
7.5 Locus problems in rectangular
coordinate system
7.6 Tangents and normals of plane curves

Suggested Sequence

There are two main topic areas in the curriculum and they are presented in the sequence as
below.

Topic Area A Topic Area B

Algebra Calculus Analytical Geometry
Unit Content Unit Content
Al The Language of Mathematics Bl Sequence, Series and their Limits
A2 Functions B2 Limit, Continuity and
Differentiability
A3 Mathematical Induction B3 Differentiation
A4 Inequalities B4 Application of Differentiation
A5 The Binomial Theorem for Positive B5 Integration
Integral Indices
A6 Polynomials and Equations B6 Application of Integration
A8 Matrices B7 Analytical Geometry
A9 System of Linear Equations in 2 or 3
Unknowns
A10 Complex Numbers
(Note: The unit A7 has been deleted from the Syllabus 1992.)
Teachers should note that the sequence presented here only serves as an example and the
categorization of the topics as A or B is done with a belief that such grouping and
arrangement may offer a certain degree of fluency in teaching. In fact, teachers are free to
design their own teaching sequence to suit the needs of their students. When designing a
school-based curriculum of the subject, teachers should ensure that the curriculum should be
coherent and students have already possessed the pre-requisite knowledge for the topics
concerned. One possible sequence is as follows:

A1 —+ A2 —*> A3 —^ A4 —> AS —> A6 —> Bl

—» B2 —+ B3 —> B4 —> B5 —> B6 —> B7 —>
A8 —> A9 —+ A10

Some teachers, on the other hand, may prefer to apportion the number of periods allotted per
week/cycle and start teaching according to the two sequences of topics in a "parallel" manner
Amongst different feasible approaches and sequencing of topics, teachers are expected to
exercise their expertise in smoothing out, during teaching, possible irregularities sprung from
the teaching sequence preferred. It is anticipated and advisable that the unit Al "The
Language of Mathematics" should be taught in the first place as a preliminary prerequisite so
as to familiarize students with the usual symbols and trends of thinking in AL Pure
Mathematics. The presentation in this curriculum and assessment guide will provide
teachers with maximum flexibility so that the course of teaching adopted can be adjusted to
meet the individual teaching situation.

To realize the spirit of the curriculum, teachers are advised to teach the curriculum as a
connected body of mathematical knowledge as far as possible. Adequate arrangements
should be provided for students to inquire, reason and communicate mathematically.

Suggested Time Allocation

The suggested time allocation for the course is 8 periods per week. It is assumed that there
are 40 minutes in each period and 5 days in a week. A total of 380 periods (excluding the
time spent on classroom tests and examinations) should be available for the two years. A
time ratio is given to aid teachers in judging how far to take a given topic. This time ratio
will indicate what fraction of the available total time may be spent on a certain unit, but
schools are free to choose an equivalent or slightly different time allocation to suit their own
situations. It can be seen, from the following table, that the total time ratio 312 is still 68
periods running short. This amount of time could be used for carrying out exploratory
activities, consolidation activities or enrichment activities, etc. to suit the teaching approaches
and the standard of students in the individual schools.

Topic Area A Topic Area B

Algebra Calculus and Analytical Geometry
Unit Content Time Unit Content Time
Ratio Ratio
Al The Language of Mathematics 10 Bl Sequence, Series and their 18
Limits
A2 Functions 28 B2 Limit, Continuity and 13
Differentiability
A3 Mathematical Induction 11 B3 Differentiation 28
A4 Inequalities 20 B4 Application of Differentiation 20
A5 The Binomial Theorem for 13 B5 Integration 41
Positive Integral Indices
A6 Polynomials and Equations 15 B6 Application of Integration 13
A8 Matrices 21 B7 Analytical Geometry 27
A9 System of Linear Equations in 10
2 or 3 Unknowns
A10 Complex Numbers 24
Sub-Total 152 Sub-Total 160
312

The following table shows the detailed breakdown of the units and the corresponding time
ratios:

Time Unit
Unit Content
Ratio Total
Al The Language of Mathematics
1.1 Set Language 5
1 .2 Simple Logic 5 10
A2 Functions
2. 1 Functions and their graphs 2
2.2 Properties and operations of functions 4
2.3 Algebraic functions 2
2.4 Trigonometric functions and their formulae 14
2.5 Exponential and logarithmic functions 6 28
A3 IVlathematical Induction
3. 1 The Principle of Mathematical Induction and its 6
applications
3 .2 Other common variations of the Principle of 5
Mathematical Induction and their applications 11
A4 1inequalities
L1.1 Absolute inequalities 6
L1.2 A.M.>G.M. 4
iO Cauchy-Schwarz's inequality 3
4.4 Conditional inequalities 7 20
A5 The Binomial Theorem for Positive Integral Indices
5.1 The binomial theorem for positive integral indices 3
5.2 Applications of the binomial theorem for positive 5
integral indices
5.3 Simple properties of the binomial coefficients 5 13
A6 Polynomials and Equations
6.1 Polynomials with real coefficients in one variable 5
6.2 Rational functions 4
6.3 Polynomial equations with real coefficients in one 6
variable 15
A7 Vectors in R 2 and R3 (deleted) / /

A8 Matrices
8.1 Matrices and their operations 4
8.2 Square matrices of order 2 and 3 9
8.3 Applications to two dimensional geometry 8 21
A9 System of Linear Equations in 2 or 3 Unknowns
9. 1 Gaussian elimination and Echelon form 5
9.2 Existence and uniqueness of solution 5 10
A10 Complex Numbers
10.1 Definition of complex numbers and their arithmetic 3
operations
10.2 Argand diagram, argument and conjugate 6
1 0.3 Simple applications in plane geometry 5
1 10.4 De Moivre's theorem 10 24
Sub-Total 152

10
 Time Unit
Unit Content
Ratio Total
Bl Sequence, Series and their Limits
1.1 Sequence and series 6
1.2 Limit of a sequence and series 7
1.3 Convergence of a sequence and series 5 18
B2 Limit, Continuity and Differentiability
2.1 Limit of a function 5
2.2 Continuity of a function 4
2.3 Differentiability of a function 4 13
B3 Differentiation
3.1 Fundamental rules for differentiation 4
3.2 Differentiation of trigonometric functions 2
3.3 Differentiation of composite functions and inverse 4
functions
3.4 Differentiation of implicit functions 2
3.5 Differentiation of parametric equations 2
3.6 Differentiation of logarithmic and exponential function 6
3.7 Higher order derivatives and Leibniz's Theorem 5
3.8 The Rolle's Theorem and Mean Value Theorem 3 28
B4 Application of Differentiation
4.1 The U Hospital's Rule 4
4.2 Rate of change 3
4.3 Monotonic functions 2
4.4 Maxima and minima 5
4.5 Curve sketching 6 20
B5 Integration
5.1 The Riemann definition of integration 5
5.2 Simple properties of definite integrals 4
5.3 The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals 2
5.4 Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus and its 4
application to the evaluation of integrals
5.5 Indefinite integration 6
5.6 Method of integration 20
5.7 Improper integrals (deleted) 41

11
B6 Application of Integration
6.1 Plane area 5
6.2 Arc length (deleted) /
6.3 Volume of revolution 4
6.4 Area of surface of revolution (deleted) /
6.5 Limit of sum 4 13
B7 Analytical Geometry
7.1 Basic knowledge in coordinate geometry 5
7.2 Sketching of curves in the polar coordinate system /
(deleted)
7.3 Conic sections in rectangular coordinate system 7
7.4 Tangents and normals of conic sections 6
7.5 Locus problems in rectangular coordinate system 5
7.6 Tangents and normals of plane curves 4 27
Sub-Total 160

Total (Topic Areas A and B) 312

12
 3 aid

In designing learning and teaching activities for AL Pure Mathematics, the following
principles should be noted:
• Our main concern is to help students learn to learn rather than to deliver merely
subject contents to students.
• All students can learn although at different paces.
• A learner-focused approach should be adopted.
• Information technology, when used appropriately, would increase the effectiveness
of learning and teaching.

Both the learning process and the end product in the learning of AL Pure Mathematics
are important. Students should be allocated sufficient time to develop mathematical
concepts, master problem solving skills and foster thinking abilities. It should be
noted that students studying this curriculum are expected to have acquired
mathematical knowledge at the Certificate of Education level (CE level), but previous
knowledge of Additional Mathematics at the CE level is not necessary.

It should also be noted that no matter what emphasis of strategies is adopted, the
teacher is the key person in classroom teaching. Liveliness and clear explanation of
the teachers are students' main concern. Diversified learning and teaching activities
are definitely beneficial to students. Applications of mathematical concepts to
real-life situations also provide students motivation for learning AL Pure
Mathematics.

In particular, attention should be paid to the following strategies when designing and
preparing learning and teaching activities to facilitate students' learning.

Catering for Learner Differences

There is no hard and fast rule to address the problem of learner differences.
However, the general approach of providing students with tasks or activities at
different levels of difficulties seems viable. For less able students, tasks should be

13
relatively simple and fundamental in nature. For more able ones, tasks assigned
should be challenging enough to cultivate and sustain their interest in learning.
Alternatively, teachers could provide students with the same task, but vary the amount
and style of supports, for example, giving more clues, breaking the more complicated
problems into small parts for weaker students, etc.

The use of information technology (IT) could also provide another solution for
teachers to cater for learner differences. For some topics, such as the limits of
sequences and functions, sketching of curves, the use of appropriate software
packages provides a simple, fast and accurate presentation which traditional teaching
cannot fulfill. The use of IT in the learning of the subject is especially important to
weaker students.

On the whole, no matter what strategy we are going to use to cater for learner
differences, it should be able to maintain students' interest and confidence in learning
mathematics.

Appropriate Use of Information Technology

For many years, lessons of AL Pure Mathematics have always been conducted with
chalk and talk. Until recently, the wide spread use of computers provides
enhancement for the learning and teaching in AL Pure Mathematics. Using IT in
learning and teaching mathematics may bring about the following benefits:

(a) IT can enhance and extend mathematics learning experience, and encourage
active student participation in exploratory and investigative activities.

(b) IT, when used as a tool, can support, supplement and extend learning and
teaching activities, such as:
• exercises and tutorials;
• charting and graphical analysis;
• simulation and modeling;
• information retrieval and handling; and
• data processing.

(c) IT may lead to new teaching strategies and practices in classrooms such as
providing students with an interactive learning environment for contextual and
situational learning.

14
IT In mathematics education could be considered as:
(I) a tool Teachers could use presentation software to present notes,
geometry software to demonstrate graphs and models, zoom-In
and zoom-out facilities In some graphing calculators or graph
plotter software to sketch the graphs of different functions.
For example, teachers could use Excel programs to illustrate the
limits of sequences and functions.

(ii) a tutor Many mathematical software packages, in the form of

CD-ROMs, could be served as a tutor to teach students
mathematical concepts. These software packages illustrate
mathematical concepts with texts, graphics and sound and
contain graded exercises or tests. Students could use these
software packages to revise the contents learnt in the classroom,
remedy the weak areas or even learn new topics prior to
teachers' teaching. They could further consolidate their learning
with appropriate exercises chosen for their levels of difficulty at
their own pace.

(ill) a tutee Teachers could develop their own educational programs using
spreadsheets or other programming languages to suit their own
teaching strategies. Students could also make use of software to
explore properties of curves.

Both teachers and students of AL Pure Mathematics are expected to decide when to
use the available technology both Intelligently and critically. For example, students
have to decide whether to use graphing software or French curve to draw graphs of
parabolas, ellipses and hyperbolas. Teachers have to decide whether to use computers
or other devices for demonstration and which software is more appropriate for the
task.

Besides, varieties of group work to facilitate collaborative learning or investigative

approach in learning with IT should also be considered. Classwork or homework
should emphasize concept development and understanding instead of manipulating
complicated expressions or symbols or just rote memorization of formulae.

15
Appropriate Use of Multifarious Teaching Resources
Besides IT, there are other teaching resources that teachers could make use of in
planning and conducting the learning and teaching activities:
« Reference books
^ Learning and teaching packages
• Audio-visual tapes
• Instruments and other equipment for drawing shapes and making models
• Resources in libraries / resource centres, etc.

It is unlikely that a book / a series of books will cover all the topics of AL Pure
Mathematics at an appropriate depth of treatment. Teachers should therefore
exercise their discretion in selecting suitable parts from different books and reference
materials to teach.

Mathematical language is progressively abstract. Different learning theories point

out the importance of providing students with rich experiences in manipulating
concrete objects as a foundation for the symbolic development. Teachers could
make use of teaching aids such as simulation models, graph boards* etc., to
demonstrate the mathematical concepts and allow students to "play" around before
asking students to "structure and apply" the concepts.

A large quantity of related materials for teachers' reference can be obtained from
libraries or various resource centres operated by the Education and Manpower Bureau,
such as Curriculum Resources Centres.

Internet is another popular source for sharing and retrieving information. Gathering
and selecting information from these sources would be major learning activities in the
21st century.

Finally, teachers should note that this document is only a guide rather than a rigid
teaching plan that must be followed closely. They are encouraged to explore and
discover their own teaching methods and schedules appropriate to the ability level of
their students.

16
 4

It Is generally agreed that assessment should promote students' learning and is an Integral part
of the learning-teaching cycle. The prime function of assessment has changed from
providing a score or grade for ranking students to serving as an aid for learning. In general,
assessment should be able to :

« provide reliable information that can be used to Improve learning and teaching;

• provide feedback to students about their progress; and

• generate information to be used in reporting processes.

Clearly, assessment involves collecting, judging and interpreting Information about students'
performance. It can be formative or summative :

• Formative assessment Is designed to measure what students know and are learning as
they go along. The Information collected is used as feedback to plan the future
learning and teaching activities in which students and teachers are to be engaged.
Formative assessment should be regular and ongoing and can be done in a number of
ways including observations and discussions In class and examining students' written
work done in class or at home.

• Summative assessment is designed to measure students3 achievements and performance

at certain Intervals In time, such as at the end of a term or a school year. It is mainly
used for providing a comprehensive and summary description of performance and
progress in students' learning.

Both formative and summative assessments could achieve the said purposes. However, for
diagnostic purpose aiming to identify students' strengths and weaknesses, it is imperative to
make assessment on a regular basis. Therefore, formative assessment becomes more and
more important in the learning and teaching process. There is nothing new as all teachers
make regular assessments in the classes they teach. Most teachers would ask students
questions, request them to attempt some questions either on the blackboard or at their seats,

17
hold discussions, organize class activities, etc. All these are formative assessments. What
are highlighted here is that information should be collected regularly for making
improvements to both learning and teaching and eventually raising standards. In general,
assessment should not be considered as a separate add-on activity, but as an integral part of
the learning and teaching cycle.

School

School assessment refers to all kinds of assessment activities that are administered in schools.
It flexibly allows teachers to gather information to find out students5 achievements related to
the set objectives so as to make professional judgements about students1 progress and to
enhance the learning and teaching processes.

AL Pure Mathematics involves a wide range of learning objectives and processes. To gain a
comprehensive understanding of student progress and achievement, evidence of student
learning should be collected by a variety of assessment activities matching with the learning
objectives. Both the processes (such as the strategies involved in solving a problem) and the
products of learning (such as the solutions to problems) are important in mathematics
learning. These should be reflected in the design of assessment. Different modes of
assessment serve different purposes. Various assessment activities are needed to provide
teachers with opportunities to collect, judge and interpret information about students'
performance. Teachers should let students know how they will be assessed. Some
common school assessment activities in AL Pure Mathematics include:

* Class discussions or oral presentations

Class discussions and oral presentations are effective assessment activities. In the
learning and teaching process, discussions, questioning and answering between the
teacher and students (or among students) are often involved. Discussions in class not
only enable teachers to discover what students understand about a particular topic, but
also provide opportunities for students to present their views. They help foster their
communication skills. Problems suitable for discussion include:

> Can you describe what happens to the curve y = -|— as x tends to infinity?
x —1

> It is true that all convergent sequences are bounded. Is the converse true?
In other words, are all bounded sequences convergent?

18
 0 D

> Why f f (jc)ck > f g(x)dx if f(x) > g(x) for all values in [ a, b ] ?
a a

> What is the meaning of partial fractions? Can you express 5 ~ *nto

partial fractions?

> What is the definition of an asymptote of a curve? How many types of

asymptotes are associated with curve sketching? What are their characteristics?

> Is the sequence a n =(-l)' l (l + -) oscillatory? Why?

n

> Given that f(jc) = x3 and f'(0)= 0. Is it sufficient to conclude that f(x) has a
relative extremum at x =0? Why?

Observations of students9 performance in class

Observations of students' performance in class are useful assessment activities. It is

not easy to judge progress and achievement in the development of thinking abilities (e.g.
high order thinking skills) and attitudes. However, through observations (particularly
long time observations), teachers can develop an ever-clearer picture of students'
performance. Some criteria may be used for assessing students during observations.
These include:

> Are students able to answer questions raised by teacher and peers?
> Can students present their solutions properly?
> Can students explain how they have arrived at the solutions and what strategies
they have employed?
> What is the degree of students' participation in class?
> Do students raise sensible questions?
> Do students raise questions actively?
> What are students attitudes, e.g. independence, cooperation and perseverance to
work?

Classwork and homework

Assignments such as classwork and homework are widely used in the learning and
teaching processes and can help students consolidate concepts in mathematics and

19
 teachers assess the performance of their students. It is important to give appropriate
amount of assignments and to ensure that they are at a suitable level of difficulty. Each
assignment should be appropriately related to specific objectives. It is inappropriate,
for example, to give students an assignment which involves extremely difficult skills in
evaluating an integral while the aim is to assess the application of definite integration in
finding plane areas. Moreover, assignments should not be confined to routine
mathematical problems. They should include reading mathematics reference books,
preparatory work for discussions in class, searching the Internet and looking up
newspapers, magazines and journals, etc. When marking classwork/homework,
specific, clear, constructive and supportive comments, feedback and suggestions for
improvement should be given. This kind of information tells students about their
strengths, weaknesses, progress and enables them to know what they should do next in
order to improve.

Project work

Project learning is a powerful learning and teaching strategy to promote self-directed

and self-regulated learning. It is not intended to replace the learning and teaching of
subject knowledge in a discipline but provides an alternative learning experience, which
allows students to have more space for learning. It enables students to construct and
connect knowledge, skills, values and attitudes through a variety of activities. It is also
a good vehicle for facilitating students' development of generic skills3. Therefore,
project is a very useful activity to assess students' performance. Teachers should note
that projects can be done individually or in groups depending on their nature. Students'
performance in project work may be assessed using the following criteria:

1. Comprehension of the proj ect

2. Use of strategy and approach
3. Coverage, depth, accuracy of content
4. Presentation and communication
5. Attitude

3 The 9 essential generic skills identified are collaboration skills, communication skills, creativity, critical
thinking skills, information technology skills, numeracy skills, problem solving skills, self management
skills and study skills.

20
Short quizzes can be conducted during a lesson as a revision. Students' responses often
provide clues to their misunderstanding, levels of understanding, strengths, weaknesses,
abilities, etc. Teachers can pose one or two simple problems on the topics previously
taught (e.g. students are asked to evaluate a determinant with two rows identical or
proportional) and assess from students9 solutions their understanding on that topic (e.g.
students are asked to evaluate a determinant by elementary row operations with all steps
clearly shown). Short quizzes can sometimes be done in oral form.

Investigations

Investigation is one type of class activity. When students conduct investigations,

teachers can look at students' problem-solving skills and, if the activities are conducted
in groups, collaboration skills. Students' performance during investigations can be
assessed through observations. Criteria on assessing investigations include:

1. Comprehension of the problem

2. Use of strategies and approaches
3. Degree of participation and attitude

Tests examinations

Tests and examinations have been widely employed as the major methods of assessment
within schools. Nevertheless, teachers should pay attention to the following points
when setting test/examination papers:

1. The coverage in the paper should be proper and the item formats should be
diversified.
2. Each item should have a clear assessment objective or objectives. Teachers should
constantly refer to the curriculum aims and objectives when setting test and
examination items.
3. Teachers should avoid testing only basic information recall and should try to
construct items that assess the understanding of concepts, problem solving skills
and high order thinking skills.
4. The item difficulty level should reflect students' abilities.
5. The language used in the paper should be simple and clear.

21
 Before setting a test/examination paper, teachers should prepare a table of specifications
and a marking scheme. In the table of specifications,, marks allocation on the learning
units being assessed should be clearly shown. Appropriate amount of marks should be
allocated so as to reflect the aims and focus of the paper and to ensure the proper
coverage of the topics being assessed. The paper should embrace various types of
items, like short items, long items, structured items, etc. to assesss students' knowledge
in various aspects of mathematics. Open-ended questions should also be included to
assess students5 thinking abilities including communicating and reasoning skills in AL
Pure Mathematics. Open-ended questions focus on students* understanding and their
ability to reason and apply knowledge in less routine contexts. Such questions can
reflect more clearly the levels of student achievement. In general, open-ended
questions require complex thinking and may yield multiple solutions. They require
teachers to interpret and use multiple criteria in evaluating students' responses. Instead
of simple memorization, they require students to construct their own responses (e.g.
construct a sequence which converges to zero; construct a non-zero 3x 3 matrix so that
its inverse does not exist) and hence open a window to students' thinking and
understanding. Such tasks become vehicles for communicating students' actual
achievements to parents, teachers and students themselves.

In summary, a balanced assessment program including a variety of valid assessment activities

is necessary for assessing achievement of the general objectives.

Feedback from Assessment

Feedback is a crucial element of assessment. Effective feedback should help students

recognise their next step in the process of learning, how to carry it forward and provide
encouragement. It should also help teachers recognise the gaps between students' actual
and expected performances, identify students' strengths and areas for improvement, and
improve teaching practice.

Teachers can use the information collected in the formative assessment activities to adjust
teaching strategies, decide whether to include further consolidation activities or introduce
enrichment topics in subsequent day-to-day teaching.

Feedback from summative assessment activities can provide information for students to plan
their subsequent phase of study and teachers to plan the teaching sequence, and to adjust the

22
breath and depth of the curriculum for the subsequent term or year. This information can be
very useful for schools to adjust the aims and strategies of the school-based curriculum of AL
Pure Mathematics.

Hong Kong has relied on written tests and examinations as major methods of public
assessment as well as within schools. Written tests and examinations assess the products of
learning such as memory, understanding of knowledge and concepts at a certain point in time.
The Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) organizes the public
assessment on AL Pure Mathematics curriculum to assess students' attainment on the aims
and objectives. The public assessment serves to provide a testing of all students for the
purposes of certification and selection. Moreover, the public assessment can also generate
useful feedback on the effectiveness of learning and teaching of the subject through the
subject report which provides students' overall performance in the examination.

The AL Pure Mathematics is the subject that has been designed for students intending to
continue their studies in mathematics, engineering, science and technology. Students
studying this subject are expected to have acquired mathematical knowledge at the Certificate
of Education (CE) level in the subject Mathematics.

The assessment objective of the public examination is to test the understanding of basic
mathematical concepts and their applications. The formats and details of the public
examination can be found in the Handbook "Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination
Regulations and Syllabuses" published annually by the Hong Kong Examinations and
Assessment Authority.

23
This is a blank page

24
5

1 A. M. > G M.

Exemplar 2 Plane Area

Exemplar 3 The

25
 ^^
h;
(a -f b)'= A $ab 4N^
A. M. > G M.

To prove A. M. > G. M. without the application of Backward Induction

(1) The Principle of Mathematical Induction

(2) Fundamental techniques in proving absolute inequalities

of the Activity:

i
a + a, H h an , ^ , - -
Let An = -1 i and Gn=(ala2--an)Nn , where ^,a 2 ,...,a n are n positive
n
numbers. It was suggested in the Syllabuses for Secondary Schools - Pure Mathematics
(Advanced Level) 1992 that teachers may prove An> Gn by backward induction if required.
However, backward induction is deleted from this Curriculum. Some suggestions to prove
the inequality are as follows:

Method 1
It is obvious that Al = Gl and A2 > G2.
Assume that Ak > Gk is true, where A: is a positive integer greater than or equal to 2.
When » = £ + !,
Case (i) If ^ = a2 = • • • = aM, then Ak+l = Gk^.
Case (ii) If not all al}a2,..., ak+l are equal, we may assume, without loss of generality,
that al < a2 < - • • < ak+l and al < aM.
It follows that —]— < I , —^- > I .

Let y = avak+l. Since Ak>Gk, we have

Adding —l— + -^±L _ to both sides of the inequality, we have

^k+l ^+1 WJfc-j-l)

GM GM GM

26
 Thus, we have
Hfe+l
.". Ak+l >Gk+l holds.
From cases (i) and (ii), we have Ak+l > Gk+l
By the principle of mathematical induction, An>Gn is true for all natural numbers n.

Method 2
It is obvious that Al = Gj and A2>G2.
Assume that Ak > Gk is true, where A: is a positive integer greater than or equal to 2.
Let the geometric mean and the arithmetic mean of Ak+l9Ak+l9...9Ak+l and ak^ be
(k-I) terms

M and L respectively. Then M= (^+i-4k+i*"1 )* an(

^ ^= ~~ [ak+i + (^ *" 0-4k+i 1 •
/c
By the induction hypothesis, M < L and

• a,

<-(Ak+L) since G t < 4 and M<L

.e.

.-.Gk+l<AM holds.
By the principle of mathematical induction, An>Gn is true for all natural numbers n.

27
Method 3
It Is obvious that 4 = Gl and A2>G2.
Assume that Ak > Gk is true, where k is a positive integer greater than or equal to 2.
When H = jfc + l,
Case (i) If a{ = a2 = • • • = ak+l, then Ak+l = Gk+l.
Case (ii) If not all alta2,..., ak+l are equal, we may assume, without loss of generality,
that 0j < a2 < • • • < ak+l and av < akJrl.
Since Ak > Gk, we have

where rk(k+l} = 1 2
'" £f and r^ +1) <l with r>0

Since 0<r* ( * +1) <l , then 0<r<l and rk <rk"1 <rk'2 < <r3<r2<r.

^s _

Hence, we have 1 - rk+1 +(k + l)rM >(k + l)rk

1f~P JL. 1 ^ (If JL, "\\v
• • A// i 1 >* 1 Ii, ~T I )/

Since ^ + a2 + • • - + ak + ak+l > (krk+l + \}a*k+\

k

A
•'• M>GM holds.
From cases (i) and (ii), we have AM > Gt+l .
By the principle of mathematical induction, An > Gn is true for all natural numbers » .

28
Method 4
It is obvious that Al = Gl and A2 > G2.
Assume that Ak > Gk is true, where A; is a positive integer greater than or equal to 2.
When n = k + l,
Case (i) If a, = a2 = • • • = ak+l, then Ak+l = G w .
Case(ii) If not all al,a2,...,ak+l are equal, we may assume, without loss of generality,
that a} <a2<---<ak+l and a\ <ak+l.

It follows that ak+] > ^Ja}a2---ak = Gk , and so ak+l -Gk>0.

By the induction hypothesis,

k +l

k +l
= ak+l-Gk
k
k +l
By the Binomial Theorem, we have

(Gk )A+1 + (k + l)(Gk )k (a^~Gk) + ... (all terms are positive)

/C 4" 1

•'•4 + i> G w holds

-
From cases (i) and (ii), we have Ak+l > Gk+l.
By the principle of mathematical induction, An>Gn is true for all natural numbers n.

29
 Exemplar 2:
(a + A/ss A \

Objective: To prove that the area bounded by the curve with parametric equations x=x(f),

y=y(t\ and the lines OA, OB is ~ f '(*-£ - j— )df (*)

2 J/Q Cu 0.1
where the parameters of A and B are to and t\ respectively.

Pre-requislte knowledge: (1) The application of definite integrals to find the area under
a curve in Cartesian form.
(2) The Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus.

Description of the Activity:

Many teachers used to prove the formula (*) by means of formulae related to the polar
1 ?P
coordinate system. The formula (*) can be readily derived from -I r dd 9 which gives
2 Ja

the area bounded by the curve with the polar equation r = f(0) and the two radii with
radius vectors 6 = a and 9 = ft. The contents related to the polar coordinate system are
deleted from this curriculum. A suggestion to prove the formula (*) is as follows;

A(/0)

A curve with the parametric equations x=sx(t\ y-y(f) is shown in the diagram above.
The parameters of A and B are fy and t\ respectively. Without loss of generality, we may
assume that, when the parameter t increases, the curve is continuous and goes in the
anticlockwise direction.

30
Area of the shaded region = Area of A BOC + Area of ABCD - Area of A AOD
= 1 1 1- I ydx 9 9—
2 J/./, 2

•+

0) X'0)l - Jrf X0
2 0

By the Second fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus (p.69 in Appendix 2),

we have x(f,)X'i)-*('o)X'o)= [ d[*(OXO]-

J/=/0

Hence, we have
1 fr=?1 fr'
Area of the shaded region =— d[x(OXOJ- X0^f
2 J/=f 0 J/ 0

2 J^o
1 f r ' r dy dx.,
=--2 Jfo
[x—~y
L — ]d^
dr ^dr J

i.e. The area bounded by the curve with parametric equations x=x(t\ y=y(f) and the lines OA?

ir^-Ad,.
2 J/ ft of dr

31
 Exemplar 3:
(a + b)

Objective: To prove the Binomial Theorem for positive integral indices.

Pre-reqeisite knowledge: The relations between the roots and coefficients of a

polynomial equation with real coefficients.

Description of the Activity :

Most teachers apply the Principle of Mathematical Induction to prove the Binomial Theorem
for positive integral indices. An alternative way to prove that, for positive integers n,
rt
r**n ~n i /^w^/i «^,w-272 , , /^nn-riLr . n—l . s^n-in
(a +i L\
b) = C 0 a +C{a a b -f ...... + Ca b + ...... +Cnb

is as follows:

Let n_l9an are

real constants.

Since the equation (x + b)n = 0 has n repeated roots j=-&,

theequation anx" +an_lxn~l +... + akxk +... + a1x + a0 =0 has/?roots xn,l9 xn

with xl = x2 = ... = xn_i = xn = -b .

By using the relations between the roots and coefficients of a polynomial equation with
real coefficients,
x- _ #„_!

i v v __
aM-2
X X
1 2 ^-Si-l-Si ""

Xlx2...xk + xlx2..xM + + xn_Mxn_k+2...xn = (-1)* L,

32
In the &th equality above, the left-hand side is the sum of the product of k terms of x,
Since x}=x2 = ... = xn_, =xn=-b,

As an is the coefficient of xn in the expansion of (x+bf, it is obvious that an= 1 ,

+an_2x"~2+...

Putting x=a, we have

(a + b)n = C",a" +C?ba"-1 +C^b2a"~2 +... + C"n_kbn~kak

+ C2an~2b2 + ... + Cnn_kakb"~k + ... + C^ab"'1 + C"nb"

33
This is a blank page

34
 Appendix 1

Summary of Changes to the Contents of Syllabuses for

Secondary Schools - Pure Mathematics (Advanced Level) 1992

Time
Unit Sub-unit Topics
Ratio
A3 3.2 Other common variations "Backward induction" is deleted 1
of the Principle of
Mathematical Induction
and their applications
A4 4.2 A.M. > G.M. The sentence "If required, teachers 0
may apply backward induction" is
deleted
A5 5.2 Applications of the The sentence "Students are 0
3inomial theorem for expected should be
3ositive integral indices discussed" is deleted
A7 7.1-7.6 Vectors in R2 and R3 The whole unit is deleted 31
A9 9.2 3xistence and uniqueness The sentence "The corresponding 0
of solution geometrical meaning coordinate
geometry" is deleted
th
A10 10.4c n roots of a complex The sentence "4. Factorize z2n- 2zn 1
number and their cos n6 + 1 into real quadratic
geometrical interpretation factors" is deleted
B5 5.7 Improper integrals The sub-unit is deleted 4
6.2 Arc length The sub-unit is deleted 3
B6 6.4 Area of surface of The sub-unit is deleted 4
revolution
B7 7.1 Basic knowledge in The paragraph "Students should be 0
coordinate geometry able to make conversions between
polar and rectangular coordinate
systems in which (x,y) lies" is
deleted
7.2 Sketching of curves in the The sub-unit is deleted 4
polar coordinate system
Total 48
Percentage 133

35
This is a blank page

36
 2

This Pure Mathematics Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Advanced

Level) Is a revised edition of the version published In 1992. Some topics have been
deleted or trimmed. For ease of reference of teachers, these topics are enclosed in
boxes like from the 1992 version, page for page. Notes and additional
remarks are enclosed In boxes like [I l| to delimit the complexity of teaching.

37
 ,
UNIT A1: The Language of
Objective: (1) To understand the first notion of set language.
(2) To understand the first notion of logic.

Detailed Content Time Ratio on Teaching

1.1 Set language Basic terminology to be introduced includes set, element, subset, mother set,
power set, empty (void) set, equal sets, disjoint sets, universal set, intersection, union,
complement, and product of sets, it should be noted that in ushering in the foregoing
concepts, just informal treatment is expected and teachers are encouraged to adopt an
adequately wide spectrum of simple and factual examples of daily life nature to
support their teaching. Conventionally used symbols and notations should be clearly
taught. The following are for reference.
(1) Sets are generally denoted by capital letters and elements by small letters. The
sets of numbers listed below are commonly denoted by the accompanying
symbols:

the set of all natural numbers N

the set of all integers Z; I

the set of all rational numbers Q

the set of all real numbers R

the set of all complex numbers C

(2) Sets are usually presented either in tabular form i.e. with all the elements
listed out like A = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 } or in prepositional form {x:p (x)} like A =
{x:x < 10, x is an even and positive integer}
(3) Just simple and straight forward operation rules on intersection, union and
complement may be introduced to substantiate students' learning. It is
advisable to use Venn diagrams to offer intuitive understanding of the rules as
it is probably the first time for the students to come across terms like
commutative, associative and distributive etc.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

1.2 Simple logic 5 Basic terminology to be introduced includes statement/proposition, truth value,
conjunction, disjunction, negation, conditional and biconditional, equivalent
statements, equivalence, implication, quantifiers, examples and counter-examples. The
use of truth table to manifest the meaning of the above connectives is an advisable
approach. It is anticipated that more emphasis will be directed to the teaching of
conditional and biconditional in the form of "if-then" and If-and-only-if which are
very widely used in the study of mathematics. Teachers should also touch upon
"theorem" and "converse". In teaching this topic, teachers should provide adequate
relevant daily life statements for illustration in the first place and then students should
be encouraged to give examples of their own. It must be noted that class discussion
with the students is helpful in bringing around the concept and using it as a tool. The
pure analytical approach is not desirable.
To reinforce students' understanding regarding 'sufficient condition', 'necessary
condition' and 'necessary and sufficient condition', teachers may lead a discussion
with them using simple examples as follows which consist of two propositions and
teachers may proceed to investigate with students which condition(s) is (are)
applicable:
(1 ) x and y are integers; xy is an integer.
(2) x and y are even; x+y is even.
(3) x and y are even; x+y and xy are even.
(4) The equation ax 2 +bx + c = 0 has equal roots;
b 2 -4ac = 0.
Furthermore, the feet that
(p-»q)s(~q->~p) should be elaborated
(commonly known as contrapositive) with reference to some simple results like the
above-mentioned examples. Also teachers may demonstrate some proofs using the
method of contradiction. For example, to prove V2 is irrational is a commonplace.

10

38 indicates the parts deleted

 UrtitA2: Functions
Objective : (1) To recognize function as a fundamental tool in other branches of mathematics
(2) To sketch and to describe the shapes of different functions

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

2.1 Functions and their graphs Students should be taught with a clear definition of function, however rigorous
treatment is not expected The following version may be adopted
f A -» B, f is a function from A to B if every element in A associated with an
unique element in B A is called the domain of f, B the range of f For an element x in
A, the element in B which is associated with x under f usually denoted by f(x) is called
the image of x under f and f [A] denotes the set of images of A under f Special
emphasis should be put on real-valued functions since they are most useful in the
discussion of other mathematical topics sn this syllabus Students are also expected to
be able to plot/ sketch the graph of functions
2 2 Properties and operations Clear definitions of snjective, surjective and bijectsve functions should be taught
of functions so that students are able to distinguish them and to apply the knowledge to solve
problems concerned The following suggested versions may be adopted
A function f A-»B is
(i) injective (one-to-one) rf and only if for elements a-i, a2 in A, ai * a2 implies
f(ai) 9t f(a2), or equivalently, f(ai) = f(a2> implies ai = 82,
(n) surjective (onto) if and only if f [A] = B
i e every element in B is the image of an element in A,
(in) bijective (one-to-one correspondence) if and only if f ss snjective and surjective
At this juncture, teachers may provide sufficient preparation on the part of the
students so that the concept of inverse function denoted by f1 can be easily figured
out and the property that
f is bijective if and only if its inverse function f1 exists
Moreover the property that the graphs of a function and its inverse (sf exists) are
reflections about the Sine y = x should be studied with adequate illustrations
Students should be able to distinguish odd even, periodic increasing and
decreasing 'functions In this connection, clear definitions should be provided For
increasing and decreasing functions, prior to the teaching of differential calculus,
teachers may adopt the following suggested definitions
(i) f(x) is increasing (stnctly increasing) if and only if x2 > Xi implies f(x2) £
f(Xi)(f(X 2 )>f(X 1 )),

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

(ii) f(x) is decreasing (strictly decreasing) if and only if x2 > implies f(x2) <
f(Xi)(f(X2)<f(Xi))

-f(x)

«i x2 r 0 xt x2
f (x) is strictly Increasing f(x) is strictly decreasing
These properties may be useful in sketching curves and in evaluating definite
integrals, etc
Concerning the operations with functions, teachers should discuss with the
students that, for functions f and g, f + g, f - g, f x g and — (provided g(x) * 0 for all
9
01
values of x concerned) are again functions However regarding the composition of
functions which is very useful especially in teaching the chain rule in differential
calculus, it is desirable to give ample simple examples so as to support students'
mastery of the concepts Teachers may consider the following suggestion with due
emphasis directed to real-valued functions
If f A -> B and g B ~> C are functions, then the composition of f and g is the
function gof A -»Csuch that go f(x) = g(f(x))for all element x in A

39 indicates the parts deleted

 Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

2.3 Algebraic functions Students should be able to recognize the- following algebraic functions:
(a) polynomial functions
(b) rational functions
(c) power functions xa where a is rational
(d) other algebraic functions derived from the above-mentioned ones through
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and composition like Vx 2 +7
2.4 Trigonometric functions 14 Students should be able to sketch the graphs of the six trigonometric functions
and their formulae and their inverse functions. The basic relations like
sin20 * cos20 = 1
tan2<9+1 = sec2#
cot2^ + 1 = cosec20 should also be included in the discussion with the
students. Simplification of these functions at (—±0) for odd and even n and proving
of identities are expected. The knowledge and related applications of the following are
also expected:
(1) compound angle formulae
o> sin(A±B) = sinAcosB±cosAsinB
cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B T sin A sin B
. / A 0. tanA ttanB
tan(A ± B) =
1 + tanAtanB
(2) Multiple angle formulae
sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A
cos 2A = cos2 A - sin2 A
= 2cos 2 A-l
= l-2sin 2 A
2tanA
tan2A-
Lai I Lif\ — _
l-tan 2 A
sin3A = 3sin A - 4s5n3 A
cos3A = 4cos3 A~3cosA
3tanA~tan 3 A
tan3A = -
l-3tan 2 A

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

(3) Half-angle formulae
sin2 — = 1(1-cos A)
2 2
cos2 — = 1(1 +cos A)

sinA = - , cosA = -
1 + t2
A
with tstan-—
(4) sum and product formulae
s i n A + s i n B = 2 sin - - cos ~
2 2

sin A - sin B = 2 cos - sin

2 2
cosA + cosB =

cosA - cosB =

sin A cos B = - (sin(A+B)+sin(A - B))

cos A sin B = 1 (sin( A+B) - sin( A - B))

cos A cos B = ~ (cos(A + B) + cos(A - B))

sin A sin B = 1 (cos(A - B) - cos(A+B))

As a matter of fact, most of the formulae are direct consequence from the basic
ones thus teachers should encourage their students to work out the proofs for

40 indicates the parts deleted

 Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching
themselves. The transformation of the expression acosx + bslnx into the form rsinfx +
a) or rcos(x + (3) should be discussed. Applications of the above formulae In proving
identities and in solving trigonometric equation should be included.
2.5 Exponential and logarithmic Students should know the relation between the exponential and logarithmic
functions functions, viz. one is the inverse function of the other. The common definition of
logarithm, like
loga x = y if and only if x = a y
with a > 0 and a * 1 should be revised. As for logarithmic functions of a variable x,
students should know that they are functions of logx or of the logarithm of some
function of x, like
(log!O x) 2 and loge(1 + tanx)etc.
Some common properties of the logarithmic function should be studied:
For f (x) = loga x with a > o and a # 1 ;
(i) f (x) is defined for x > 0 only;
(ii) f (x) is an increasing function if a > 1 and is a decreasing function if 0 < a <
1;
CO
(iii) forb,c>0andb#1, lo -
logba
(iv) f(a) = logaa = 1;
(v) f(1) = loga1 = 0 .
For the exponential function, a parallel treatment should be provided, viz, a
function of the form ax where a is a positive constant and x a variable is called an
exponential function. Those common properties of the exponential function include
the following:
For f(x) = ax with a > 0 and a * 1 ,
(i) f(x) is defined for all real x;
(ii) (x) is an increasing function if a > 1 and is a decreasing one if 0 < a < 1 ;
(iii) f(0) = a°=1.
Students should be able to sketch the graph for
(i) the logarithmic function
f(x) = loga x for the cases a > 1 and 0 < a < 1
(ii) the exponential function also for the cases a > 1 and 0 < a < 1.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

At this juncture, teachers may embark on the following important results so as to
extend students' perspective on logarithmic and exponential functions
(i) |jm(1+-)x=e
1
(ii) lim(1 + h)h =eand
h-»0

(iii) log e x= f 4 d t -
•h t
(Please note that the third one is optional which could be taken as an alternative
definition for loge x or written as ^n x ).
The general functional properties of logarithmic and exponential functions should
also be mentioned.
Logarithmic function f(x) = loga x with a > 0 , a *1 .
(i) f(x) + f(y) = f(xy)

CD (ii) f( X )-f(y) = f(-)

y
(iii) f(xn) = nf(x) and
Exponential function g(x) = a x with a > 0
(j) g(x + y) = g(x)-g(y)

(iii) g(nx) = (g(x))n

And, in particular, the importance of the functions ex and #ix in the study of
mathematics should be emphasized.

28

41 indicates the parts deleted

Unit A3:
Objective: (1) To understand the Principle of Mathematical Induction.
(2) To apply the Principle of Mathematical induction to prove propositions involving integers.
(3) To be able to modify the Principle of Mathematical Induction to suit different purposes.

Detailed Content Time Ratio on Teaching

3.1 The Principle of 6 As an introduction, students may be asked to guess the formula for the sum of the
Mathematical Induction first n odd positive integers by considering
and its applications 1 =1
1 +3 =4
1 + 3 + 5 =9

After the proposition 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n - 1) = n2 is established, students should be

led to understand that they should not claim this result is true by considering only a
finite number of cases. An illustration of the use of mathematical induction should
then follow.
The Principle of Mathematical Induction should be formally written on the board.
Teachers may find it easier to explain the Principle by referring to a game of dominoes:

DD D D
1 2
D 3 4 5
Examples should be done on the applications to the summation of series,
divisibility and proving inequalities. The Principle of Mathematical Induction may

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

sometimes modified to suit different cases. Examples should also be used to illustrate
that both conditions of the Principle must be satisfied to prove a proposition. Further
applications include the proofs of
(i) the binomial theorem for positive integral indices
(ii) De Moivre's theorem for a positive integer n
(iii) some propositions involving determinants and square matrices
(iv) Leibniz's Theorem and some propositions involving the nth derivative.
3.2 Other common variations -6-
of the Principle of As further development, teachers may discuss with the students cases where the
5
Mathematical Induction Principle has to be modified.
and their applications Example:
xn + yn is divisible by x + y for ail positive odd integers n.
Excluding Backward Induction
Example:
The Fibonacci sequence is defined as follows:
a0 = ota! = 1
a
n+i = an-i + ^n for a^ natural numbers n.
Prove that

Teachers should point out that a variation of the Principle is required for the proof
of these examples. A few more examples on sequences defined by recurrence relations
may be discussed.

42
11

42 indicates tie parts deleted

 Unit A4: inequalities

Objectives: (1) To Searn the elementary properties of inequalities

(2) To prove simple absolute inequalities
(3) To solve simple conditional inequalities

Detailed Content Time Ratio on Teaching

4.1 Absolute inequalities Students are expected to use the symbols a > b and a > b correctly Elementary
properties of inequalities including
(i) For any real number x, x 2 > 0
(si) a > b > 0 and n is a positive integer, then an > bn and H/"a~ > tf~b
(HI) If a > b > 0 and x > y > 0, then ax > by
should be revised Formal proofs of these properties are not required However,
students are expected to be able to deduce simple absolute inequalities from the
elementary properties The following techniques in proving absolute inequalities should
be emphasized
ro
Example
Prove that Ej > E2
Proof Ej - E2 =

4.2 A.M.!>G.M. The proof of AM > GM may be provided up to four variables in the first
instance and the general proof need not be emphasized | If required, teachers may|
apply backward induction! Students are expected to apply this result to n variables

4.3 Caochy—Schwarz's Students are expected to understand that the necessary and sufficient conditions
Inequality for the quadratic form ax2 + bx + c to be positive for all real values of x are a > 0 and b2
- 4ac < 0 Students should be able to apply this result to problems such as finding the
range of C for which the expression Cx2 + 4x + C + 3 is positive for all values of x The
above result may be used to prove the Cauchy-Schwarz's inequality

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

A geometric interpretation of the Cauchy—Schwarz's inequality for n =2 may be

given by using points on the coordinate plane
+ OB 2 -AB 2
cos6 = -
2OA OB
_(at2+a22 + b22 ) - [ + (a2 - b2 )

a1b1+a2b2

B(bv

(a 1 2 +a 2 2 )(b 1 2 +b 2 2 )
Since cos 2 6<l,
ho (a-jb., + a2b2 )* < (af + a22 )(bf + b 2 2 )
oo Students are also expected to apply the Cauchy—Schwarz's inequality in solving
simple problems

The concepts of intervals on the real number line should be revised The definition
4.4 Conditional inequalities
and properties of the absolute value of a real number should be discussed. Students
should be able to solve linear inequalities, quadratic inequalities and inequalities of
higher degrees in x Solutions of inequalities involving absolute values such as | ax2 +
bx + c | > d , |x-a| + | x - b l > c and ( x - a ) | x ~ b | > c are required Teachers should
P(x)
also discuss with students inequalities of the form' • £ 0, where P(x) and Q(x) are
Q(x)
polynomials in x Compound inequalities of the above inequalities should also be
taught

20

43 | j indicates the parts deleted

 Unit A5: The for
Objective: (1) To learn and apply the binomial theorem for positive integral indices.
(2) To study the simple properties of the binomial coefficients.

Detailed Content on Teaching

5.1 The binomial theorem for Students should learn how to evaluate n! and Cf . The binomial theorem for
positive Integral Indices positive integral indices may be proved by the Principle of Mathematical Induction.
Discussions concerning the notation C? should be related to its use as a binomial
coefficient. The Pascal's triangle in relation to the coefficients C? in the binomial
expansion may be discussed. Students are not expected to know the general binomial
theorem.

5.2 Application of the Students should be able to expand expressions using the binomial theorem for
binomial theorem for positive integral indices. The determination of a particular term or a particular
positive integral indices coefficient in a binomial expansion should also be taught [Students are expected to be
able to find the greatest term and the greatest coefficient in a binomial expansion,
Applications to numerical approximation should be discussed.
5.3 Simple properties of the Students should know that both the notations C? and (?) may be used
binomial coefficients to represent the binomial coefficients. Discussions should include simple properties
of the binomial coefficients and the relations between these coefficients such as
Cfto +i G
r*ft] _L O
+ tr*ft +L ... _i+
2
_ r*n
Un = o^
2 •,

and similar relations.

N.B. Permutation and combination may be used to introduce the binomial theorem
but problems concerning permutation and combination are not required.
Problems involving the use of differentiation and integration may be taught
after students have learnt calculus.

13

Unit A6: Polynomials and Equations

Objective: (1) To learn the properties of polynomials with real coefficients in one variable.
(2) To learn division algorithm, remainder theorem and Euclidean algorithm and their applications.
(3) To resolve rational functions into partial fractions.
(4) To learn the properties of roots of polynomial equations with real coefficients in one variable.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

6.1 Polynomials with real Students are expected to know the general form of a polynomial with real
coefficients in one variable coefficients in one variable and the following terms: degree of a non-zero polynomial,
leading coefficient, constant term, monic polynomial, null or zero polynomial.
Definitions of equality, sum, difference and product of two polynomials should
also be studied.
Also from definition, it is clear that for non-zero polynomials f(x), g(x)
deg {f(x) g(x)} = deg f(x) + deg g(x).
and deg (f(x) + g(x)} < max {deg f(x), deg g(x)}

Ol The greatest common divisor (G.C.D.) or highest common factor (H.C.F.) of two
non-zero polynomials should be defined.
Students should clearly distinguish between division algorithm and Euclidean
algorithm. By the division algorithm, the remainder theorem can be proved. Since
students have studied the remainder theorem in lower forms, more difficult problems
on this theorem can -be given. The Euclidean algorithm is a method of finding the
G.C.D. of two polynomials. Some problems on finding the G.C.D. of two polynomials
6.2 Rational functions should be given as exercise.
A rational function should be defined first. Students may come across partial
fractions the first time. Teacher may quote a simple example such as

x(x + l) x x+l

The fractions - and -I- are called partial fractions.

x x ~{~ i
The rules for resolving a proper rational function into partial fractions should be
clearly stated and examples studied. It should be emphasized and illustrated by
examples that if a given rational function is improper, it should first be expressed as the
sum of a polynomial and a proper fraction.
Applications of partial fractions should be studied.

44 indicates the parts deleted

 Content Time Notes on Teaching
Examples:
y2 Oy i Q

1. Express -—— —3 in partial fractions.

(x + i)(x-2)
2. Resolve • into partial fractions.
(x-a)(x 2 +a 2
I
3. Evaluate Y
M
6.3 Polynomial equations with For the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a * 0) with a, p as roots, students
real coefficients in one should be familiar with the relations
variable
a + /? = -^, ap-1
a a
For the genera! polynomial equation of degree n,
f(x) = anxn + an-ixn-1 + . .. + aix + a0 = 0
n
or £akxk = o , the following theorem gives the relations between coefficients
k=o
CD
and roots:
Sf <xi, a2. .... an are the roots of the polynomial equation f(x) = 0, then the sum sk
of all possible products of the a/s taken k at a time (k = 1 , 2, . . . , n) is equal to

i.e. if f(x) = a n (x-a 1 }(x-a 2 )...(x~a n ),

then = ——

S2 = aja 2 + a2a3 +... 4- a n _j

Detailed Content Time Notes on Teaching

The following properties should be studied in detail:

(i) The number of distinct zeros of a non-zero polynomial is less than or equal to
the degree of the polynomial.
(ii) Sf the polynomial equation with integral coefficients has a rational root of the
form — where p and q are coprime integers, then p is an exact divisor of the
q
constant term and q is an exact divisor of the leading coefficient of the
polynomial.
(iii) The condition for repeated (multiple) roots:
For the polynomial equation f(x) = 0 to have x = a as a repeated root, it is
necessary and sufficient that f(a) = 0 and a is also a root of the equation f '(x)
= 0 where f (x) denotes the derivative of f(x).
The more general form will be:
For any positive integer k, a is a root of multiplicity k + 1 of the equation f(x)
hO
= 0 if and only if f(a) = 0 and a is a root of multiplicity k of f '(x) = 0.
and
a is a root of multiplicity k + 1 of the equation f(x) = 0 if and only if a is a
common root of
f(x) = 0,
f'(x)=0

f (k)(x) = 0
but not of f(k+1)(x) = 0
N.B. Complex roots occurring in conjugate pairs will be treated in the study of
complex number in Unit A10.
15

45 [ ] Indicates the parts deleted

 UnitA7: Vectors in Rz and RJ "~
Objective: (1) To study the operations of vectors in R2 and R3.
(2) To understand the concept of linearly dependent vectors and linearly independent vectors
(3) To apply vectors in geometrical problems.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

7.1 Definition of Vectors and To begin with this unit, the difference between vectors and scalars should be
scalars explained to students. The representation of a vector, both pictorial and written,
should be introduced. The current notations of vectors (such as AB , AB, "a*, a) and
their magnitudes (such as | AB |, |AB|, | T |, |a|) are to be taught. The terms null
vector, unit vector, equal vectors, negative vector, coliinear vectors and coplanar
vectors should also be defined.

7.2 Operations of vectors Student should know the Saws of vector addition (namely, the triangle law, the
parallelogram law, and the polygon law), the subtraction of vectors and the
multiplication of a vector by a scalar.

(i) Triangle law

CO

or

It should be pointed out to the student that, when using the law to find a +
b , the end point of vector a must coincide with the initial point of vector b. It should
be noted that the validity of the law still holds when A, B, C are coltinear points.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

(ii) Parallelogram law

or
a +b ^ c

In a similar manner, teachers should remind the students that the initial points of
vectors a and b must be coincident and in either of the above cases, T can also be
regarded as the resultant of "a* and IT. The equivalence of the triangle law and the
CO parallelogram law is worth discussing.

(Hi) Polygon law

The laws of ttie vector algebra like commutative law, associative law and distributive
law should also be mete known to students. The Mowing diagrams may be useful in

46 indicates the parts deleted

 Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching
(a) Commutative Saw of addition: a + b = b + a

Associative law of addition: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

fcj Associative law for scalar multiplication :

(o0)a = aG0i)
Distributive laws for scalar muStipSScation:

After understanding the concept of scalar multiplication, students should have no

difficulty to deduce the result that
if a, 5 are non-zero vectors such that a = ab for some scalar a, then i//b,
It should be made clear to students concerning the resolution of a vector into
component vectors, and the specification of a vectors as a sum of component vectors in
R2 and R3, The resolution of vectors in R2 can be introduced with the following
examples. In the first example, r is resolved into two components 5a and 4b in the
directions^ of a and B respectively. This can be generalized t o r = c r a - f £ b where
a and b are non-collinear vectors in R2 and r =<ya-f^b-hKC where a , B and
c are non-coplanar vectors in R3, for scalars a, p and j.

Detailed Content Tim© Ratio Notes on Teaching

Examples:

2.

CO

Furthermore, scalar multiplication, addition and subtraction of vectors in terms

component vectors should be discussed.

47 | j indicates the parts deleted

 Detailed Content Time Ratio on Teaching

7,3 Resolution of vectors in the The face that T , j and k represent the unit vectors in the directions of the
rectangular coordinate positive x-, y- and z-axss respectively and that any vector in R2 and R3 can be expressed'
system rs the form aT + bj + ck should be explained in detail
Students are required to be familiar with the following properties of vectors in
:errrts of i , j and k :
(i)

(ii) two vectors r, = aj + bj + Cjk and r2 = a 2 s + b2 j + c2k

parallel if a}: b } : GJ - a 2 : b 2 : c 2 .
Moreover the meaning of direction ratio, direction cosines and direction angle of
should be explained with the help of diagrams, and the following properties should
be discussed.
(i) cos2 a+cos2 ft + cos2 y = 1

oo (I!) cos/? j+cos^k

Y\

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

7.4 Linear combination of The following definitions should be taught:
vectors Let r, be a set of vectors. An expression of the form
-f X2r2 -K.. + X n r n , where ^, X 2 , X 3 , ...»A,n are scalars, is called a
linear combination of the vectors n , r£ , rT, ,.»»r . If the scalars Vs are
not all zero, it is called a non-trivial linear combination, otherwise it is a trivia
linear combination^ ^ _^
(ii) A set of vectors i\ , r^ , r£, ...,£ is said to be linearly dependent if there
exists a npn-trivial linear combination of them equal to the zero vector, i.e.
11 "^~ 2 2 3^3 ~^~ *** *^~ ^n^n ~~ ^ wnere
X, * o for some i ~j\»2_^3,... ,ji „
(iii) A set of vectors rt , r 2 , fj, ...,rn is said to be linearly independent if the
only linear combination of them equal to zero is the trivial one. i.e.
if KI?I + X2r2 -)- X3TJ +...4- Xnrn =0 then

Students should be helped to deduce an immediate result from (ii) that the set pi
co vectors r[, r 2 , i^, .^^ is linearly dependent if and only if one of the vectors is a
00
linear combination of the others in the set
The geometrical significance of linear dependence of vectors in R2 and R3 like the
following should be elaborated.
(i) vectors rj and r£ of R2 are linearly dependent if and only if they are
parallel;
(ii) vectors f j , r^ and £ of R3 are linearly dependent if and only if they are
coplanar.
7-5 Scalar (dot) product and The definition of the scalar product of two vectors a and b, written as a - B , in
vector (cros&> product its usuaj context that a-bHiilb|cosj9 where 0 «s the angle between a and
S > sltcwfcl be taaght and the following properties discussed.
1, cx>mmtrtalive law of scalar product? a-S^S-a
<ffsMbtitiv§ law of scalar product arfB^g^^.S + a - c

§ ?hd B ^reorthogpRafifaiiioniyif a ^ ^ o
{
?'*'Tur*WT *

48 indicates the parts deleted

 Content Time on Teaching
In particular, teachers should point out that, with references to the fifth property
listed above, the scalar product can be used to find the angle between two vectors
expressed in ^Cartesian components. In this connection students may be hinted to
show jhat j . i =1 , ^ \ .j =j) etc and the result that for ^ = a j T +bj-f
c}k , r2 = a 2 I + b 2 j + c 2 k , ^ • r2 = a^ + bjb2 + c^.
As for vectors product, the definition must be clearly provided, Special attention
should be directed to the proper orientation of the right-hand system.
The vector product of two vectors a and b , written as a x b is defined as a x
b = [ a | | b | s i n $ e , where
(i) e is the unit vector perpendicular to both a and b ;
(ii) B is the angle from a to B measured in the direction determined by e
according to the right-hand rule.

CO

Discussion on the following properties is essential.

(i) a x b = -(b x a)
(ii) a x ( b + c) = a x b 4 - i x c and

(Hi) A(axb) = (^ ) x b =
(Sv) | a x b j 2 = | a | 2 I b | 2 ~ ( a . b ) 2

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

Students may be required to work out for themselves the results like 5 x i =
6 , TxJ = k etc as a_^ prelude to deduce the result that for vectors expressed in
Cartesian components f[ = aj + bj + Cjk and r2 = a2T + b 2 j + c2k
4- (a^b2 — a->bj ^c or
j
b1
b2 C2

Moreover, the properties that

(i) two non-zero vectors a , b are parallel if and only if
axb = 0
(ii) J a x b | may be interpreted as the area of the parallelogram formed by the
vectors a and b .
are helpful in reinforcing students' mastery of the concept,
7.6 Application of vectors in Teachers are advised to provide students with detailed explanation and adequate
geometry discussion as well as exemplification on the use of relative vectors including position
CO vector and displacement vector. The usual convention that the position vectors of
Ol
points P and Q with respect to a reference point O are denoted by
OP, OQ or p , q respectively
and that
PQ = q - p should be highlighted,
The following results should be derived whilst other related generalization are also
worth discussing for consolidation.
Position vector of point of division:
Let a , b and p be the respective position vectors of A, B and P with reference to
the point 0. If P divides the line segment A8 in the ratio of m:n then

The different treatments for points of internal and external division should also be
discussed. Sometimes the form p = should be preferred because, with
H-k
adequate preparation on the part of the students this may be interpreted as the vecto
equation of the straight line passing through A and B, In particular, with respect to th
Cartesian system with A being the point (x t , y 1t Zi),B(x 2 , y 2 , z2)and P(x, y, z), th
two-point form of the line

49 [ | indicates the parts deleted

 Detailed Content Time Ratio on Teaching

can be easily obtained. At this juncture students may be asked to write down the
direction number of the vector b-a prior to the smooth generalization of the
two-point form into
(i) symmetrical form

t m n
(ii) parametric form
y = y1 + m
z = zi + n
where i: rn: n stands for the direction number of the line.
As a continuation, the equation of the plane having normal in the direction i: m:
n and passing through (x^y^z^) can be introduced as an application of dot product;

In this connection the general equation of a plane Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 should

CO be introduced as a supplement with the following properties introduced,
O)
(i) the direction ratios of the normal to the plane is A: B: C.
(ii) the perpendicular distance of the point P(x', /, z1) to the plane is given by
Ax'+Bv'+Cz'+D
—.r , •* , , ••«*• , where the sign is chosen so as to make the expression
±VA2+B24-C2
positive.
(Hi) the angle 6 between two planes
i = 0 and
i =0is
A 1 A 2 +B 1 B 2 +C 1 C 2
given by cos0 = -
+B 2 +C

(iv) KI II it2 if and only if ~-i- = -~l~ = —i.

A2 B2 C2
7c 3 l7t 2 if and only if A1A24-B1B2 "0

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

(v) the equation of the planes bisecting the angles between two planes 711 and %2
are
A t x + B t y + fiz * PI _ + A_2x + B2y + C2z + D2
^At2 + B t 2 -f C^ V A 2 2 + B22 + C22
Following the acquisition of the general knowledge of lines and planes, teachers
represents
may lead the students to appreciate the fact that

'&$$£&!*
the line of intersection of the planes TCI and n2 (if not parallel) and the direction ratios
of the line can be found by
IB, C, .to A, IA,
"|A: B
Furthermore the following properties between a line L with direction ratios p : q :
and a plane %: Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 should be discussed
(i) L//TC iff Ap+Bq-K>=0
(ii) LlTt iff A«B. = C
CO
P q r
(iri) the angle 6 made between L and n is given by
Ap+Bq-fCr

The conditions for two lines to be coplanar should be also studied i.e. two lines
are coptanar if and only if they intersect or are parallel.
Suppose LJ i$
Pi
L2 is

'% Pi P2
and j.2 are coplanar iff •^2 fy %
c r
' ? i r2
Tfir0u0hout this sub-unit teachers are encouraged to apply vector approach as fa
as possible; Ifl deducing the ab6ve-rnenlio5ed progecttes or results, In particular th
use qf djot fxodud: toJnd; the projection Q! a Vector p along a vector F and the use o
^ ^^ ,.__ ^eBna Qftriang|,e ^j^ ^^^5 g1Ve^ ^0^ be explained.

I SIT

50 indicates the parts deleted

 Unit AS:

Objective (1) To learn the concept and operations of matrices

(2) To Searn the properties and operations of square matrices of order 2 and 3 and their determinants
(3) To apply matrices to two dimensional geometry

Detailed Content Time on Teaching

8 1 Matrices and their The general form of a matrix with rn rows and n columns, namely an m x n matrix,
operations should be introduced Students should know the operations addition subtraction,
multiplication and scalar multiplication of matrices and study their properties The fact
that, in general AB * BA holds for matrices A and B should be mentioned and
explained Terms like zero matrix identity matrix and the transpose of a matrix should
be introduced

8.2 Square matrices of order 2 The definition of square matrices and their determinants should be defined The
and 3 concepts and uses of singular and non-ssngular matrices should also be made clear to
students Students should be able to evaluate determinants of square matrices and find
the inverses for non-singular matrices They are also expected to have knowledge of
simple properties of inverses and determinants like
A Properties of inverse
oo (i) The inverse of a matrix is unique
CO
(n) A square matrix has inverse sf and only sf it is non-singular
(in) If A-is non-singular, then AB = 0 implies B = 0
(tv) Sf A is non-singular, then AB = AC implies B = C
(v) If A, B are non-ssngular, X is a non-zero scalar and n is a positive integer,
then AB, A 1, A*, AA, An are non-singular and
(AB) 1 = B 1 A 1
(A~ 1 ) 1 =A,
(A4) 'MA'1)',

Properties of determinant
(i) If two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical or proportional, the
value of the determinant is zero
(n) The interchange of two rows (or columns) changes the sign of the
determinant without altering its numerical value

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

(in) The value of a determinant is unaltered by changing its rows into columns (or
vise versa), i e

(iv) If every element in any row (column) is multiplied by the same number, then
the value of the determinant is multiplied by that number
(v) The determinant of the product of two square matrices of the same order is
equal to the product of the determinants of the matrices, i e
detAB = detA detBor |AB| = |'"~
8 3 Applications to two Students should be familiar with matrix representation of a point land a vegtoj
dimensional geometry and, furthermore, reflections, rotations, enlargements, shears, translations and~tfle1r
compositions A few examples of such transformations, represented by 2 x 2 matrices
are given below
(i) Reflection in the line y = (tan#)x is given by

(n) Rotation through an angle ^ about the origin is given by

CD (in) Enlargement about origin with scale factor k* 0 is given by

the matrix C = 0
(iv) Shear parallel to x-axis with factor k is given by
the matrix D = 0
For (in) and (iv), the effect on shape and area should be discussed
It should be made clear to students that under all these transformations of the plane,
each point P(x, y) will be transformed to a new point P'(x', y') satisfying
where T stands for a transformation
Elaboration on the composition of the transformations is essential to enable students
to have a thorough understanding on matrix multiplication
Example
The effect of reflection in the line y = (tan0) x followed by a rotation through an angle
0 about the origin is given by the product BA complying with the convention BA(*) =
(*) as mentioned above It should be emphasized that the product ss to be interpreted
from right to left first apply transformation A, then apply transformation B

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Other composition of transformations like the following may be mentioned:

Example:
The transformation having equations
x'= y + 2 whose representation in matrix form is
y'=-x + 4
o lYx
-1 o A v .
The transformation with matrix 1
is a clockwise rotation about the origin
-1 0
through 90°. Hence, it could be viewed as a rotation followed by a translation,
however, with (3, 1) as the invariant point the transformation can be regarded as a
clockwise rotation about (3,1) through 90°.
21

Unit A9: System of Linear Equations in 2 or 3 Unknowns

Objective: (1) To solve a system of linear equations using Gaussian elimination.
(2) To recognize the existence and uniqueness of solution.
Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching
9.1 Gaussian elimination and 5 A matrix which satisfies the following 2 properties is said to be in Echelon form:
Echelon form (1 ) The 1 st k rows are non-zero;
the other rows are zero.
(2) The 1st non-zero element in each non-zero row is 1, and it appears in a
column to the right of the 1 st non-zero element of any preceding row.
Example:
The following 5 x 8 matrix is in Echelon form:
0 0 1 * * * * *
o o o o i * * *
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
, 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Students should be able to solve a system of linear equations in two or three
unknowns by using Gaussian elimination, which reduces a matrix in Echelon form by
elementary operations on its rows.
Example:
Solve the system
Xj + 2x2 + X 3 = 2
3xj H- x 2 - 2x3 = 1
4xj - 3x2 - x3 = 3
2x! + 4x2 + 2x3 = 4
The augmented matrix
[1 2 1 2Wl 2 1 2
3 1 -2 1 1 0 -5 -5 -5
4 -3 -1 3 0 -11 -5 -5
12 4 2 4j \ 0 0 0 0
fl 2 1 2Wl 0 -1 0
. 0 1 1 1 . 0 1 1 1
0 - 1 1- 5 - 5 0 0 1 1
1^0 0 0 0 J [0 0 0 0
The original system of equations is equivalent to the system of equations
Xj ~x 3 =0
X2+X3=1
' Y - =1
V, " V 3 "~ 4

which gives Xi = 1 , x^ = 0, Xs = 1 .

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9.2 Existence and uniqueness Students should be able to know the conditions for the existence and uniqueness
of solution of solution for a system of linear equations in two or three unknowns.
For a system of linear equations in two unknowns:

= d2
de!
(i) If U ' the s stem has
y unique solution. Geometrically, the
equations represent a pair of intersecting straight lines.

Geometrically, the equations represent a pair of parallel (but not coincident)

straight lines.
(Hi) If de and d e t . 1 D, 1 1 = 0 , the system has infinite number
V°2 2 '
of solutions. Geometrically, the equations represent a pair of coincident
straight lines.
For systems of. equation in three unknowns, examples like the following should be
mentioned. [The corresponding geometrical meaning may HP ritem.^^ if the students
have grasped some ideas of three dimensional coordinate geometry. __
(i) In solving the equations
f 2x + y - z = 7

it is obvious that the third one is redundant Teachers may discuss with the
students on the method to obtain the solution
29-3/1 __ 33 + 19/1 ,
X=
~~l3~~~'y -- 13~'2~A
where ^ is arbitrary.
Solving equations like
y +z =3
2x - 3y + 2z = 1 which are inconsistent
3x - 2y + 3z = 7
Following this manner, the conditions for the existence and uniqueness of
solution for a system of equations in three unknowns may be given in more
abstract terms.
10

Unit A10: Complex Numbers

Objective: (1) To learn the properties of complex numbers, their geometrical representations and applications.
(2) To learn the De Moivre's Theorem and its applications in finding the nth roots of complex numbers, in solving polynomial
equations and proving trigonometric identities.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

10.1 Definition of complex A short introduction of the symbol i should be given. The number z = x + yi,
where x, y are real, is called a complex number and x and y are known respectively as
numbers and their its real (Re z) and imaginary (Im z) parts. When x = 0, y # 0, z = yi is said to be
arithmetic operations purely imaginary and when y = 0, z = x is real.
Students may be asked what definition should be adopted for the equality of
complex numbers, however there is no ordering property for complex numbers.
The sum, difference, product and quotient of two complex numbers should be
defined.
10.2 Argand diagram, argument
Students are expected to know the definitions of the terms modulus |z], argument
and conjugate arg z, principal (value of) argument (or amplitude) and conjugate z of a complex
number z.
CO The complex number z = r(cos<9 + isin#), in the modulus — argument form (polar
form ), can be written as z = rcis&
Students are expected to know the following properties of complex numbers:

(ii) arg Zi z2 = arg z^ + argz2 +2k7i where k is an integer

(Hi)

-^- = argz! - argz2 + 2k7i where k is an integer and z2 * 0 .

Properties about conjugate complex numbers should be taught:

1. f = z
2. z=0iffz=0
3. A complex number is self-conjugate (conjugate to itself) iff it is real.
4. z-z"=|z| 2

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 Detailed Content Time Ratio on Teaching

5. Z 1 +z 2 = z 1 +z 2

7. Z ! Z 2 = Z ^ Z 2

8. (-S-) = i, z2 * 0
Z2 Z2
From these properties students can easily prove that if a is a root of a polynomial
equation with real coefficients, then a is also a root. i.e. in a polynomial equation with
real coefficients, roots which are not real occur in conjugate pairs.
Students are expected to know the following inequalities:
(i) |Rez|<|z|
(ii) |lm z| < |z|
(lii) |2i + z2| < |2i| + |z2| (Triangle inequality)
Students can also be asked to prove in a similar way that |zi - z2| ; - |z2|
and |zi -z2[ > |z2| - |zi|.
The triangle inequality can easily be extended by induction to |Zi + z2 +...+ zn|
<|z1| + |z2|-f....-f.|Zn|.
The geometrical representation of complex numbers in an Argand diagram should
be studied. Students should know the terms real axis and imaginary axis. The
representation of a complex number in polar form and its geometrical meaning should
also be taught
The notation e'6 for cisO may be introduced so that z = reie. The notation is known
as the exponential form or the Euler form of a complex number.

10.3 Simple applications in plane Students are expected to know the geometrical meaning of the triangle inequality.
geometry Various uses of complex number in plane geometry should be studied. The following
are two examples:
1. In the Argand diagram, XYZ is an equilateral triangle whose circumcentre is at
the origin. If X represents the complex number 1 + i, find the numbers
represented by Y and Z.
2. If ZL z2 and Zs are three distinct complex numbers denoting the vertices of an
equilateral triangle, then

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

Examples on the loci of points moving on the Argand plane should be studied. Two
simple examples are given below:
(i) To find the locus of the point z such that |z - a| = k, where a is a complex
number and k is a positive constant.
2
(ii) To find the locus of the point z which moves such that ~ a = k , where a,
z-b
b are complex numbers, for various values of the positive constant k.
10.4 De Moivre's theorem

10.4a De Moivre's theorem for Students should Searn how to prove the theorem
rational indices (COS0+ isin#)n = cosnO + isin n&
when n is a positive integer with the assumption that (cos© + isin0)° = 1.
When n is a negative integer, by putting n = -m where m is a positive integer,
students should be able to prove that the theorem is also true for negative integer n.
However for the case n = — , where p, q are integers and q * 0, the proof may be
01 q
provided afterwards till the students have acquired the knowledge of the nth roots of a
complex number.

10.4b Applications to trigonometric By De Moivre's theorem,

identities cosnG + isin n0 = (cos0+ isin0)n
where n is positive integer, expressions for cos n6 and sin n0 can be obtained in
terms of the powers of cos# and sin#.
By considering z = cos0 + isin#, then expressions
±
z
1
:-- = 2isin<9
z
and

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can be used to express powers of cos0 and sine in terms of sines and cosines of
multiples of 6. For example, students should be able to express
cos4 0 sin3 0 as a sum of sines of multiples of 9
and cos3 0 sin4 0 as a sum of cosines of multiples of 6.

10.4c nth roots of a complex number Students should learn the meaning of the nth roots of a complex number The ntfl
and their geometrical roots of unity should be studied In detail.
interpretation Several examples can be discussed in class:
1. To find the fifth roots of -1.
2. To solve the equation z4 + z3 + z2 + z -H 1 = 0.
3. To find the cube roots of 1 +i.
14. Factorize z2n - 2zn cos n8 +1 Into real quadratic factors.]

CD
24

Unit B1: Sequence, Series and their Limits

Objective: (1) To learn the concept of sequence and series.
(2) To understand the intuitive concept of the limit of sequence and series.
(3) To understand the behaviour of infinite sequence and series.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

1.1 Sequence and series Clear concepts of sequence and series should be provided. The foSlowing
suggested versions may be adopted:
If an is a function of n which is defined for all positive integral values of n, its
values 81, a2, a3, ..., an, ... are said to form a sequence. The sequence is finite or
infinite according to the numbers of terms of it being finite or infinite. Furthermore ai +
a 2 -+ ... + a n + ... is said to form a series. Likewise, it is finite or infinite according to
the numbers of terms contained. The notation
n n
S n =^a r or ]Tar is commonly used.
r=l 1

Some simple rules concerning the operations of sequences and series may be
introduced. For the sake of convenience, denote the sequences ai, 82, a3, ... and bi,
b2, b3, ... by {a,} and
{bJJhenO) {a,} ± {b,} = {BI ± b,}
(ii) l{ai} = {Aai},
viz, the idea of terrnwise operations may be touched upon.
Regarding series, the following methods of summation should be discussed.
(1 ) Mathematical induction: already dealth with in Unit A3.
(2) Method of difference: teachers should amplify in the expressing the rth term of
the series as the difference of f(r + 1) and f(r) where f(x) is a function of x.
i.e.
ar = f(r+1)-f(r)

1 1
n
1 and A
Some typical examples are ]T——:r 2/(r+1)

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For series whose terms are presented in a recurrence of the form ar - aM

= f(r) or ar = Aar-i + Bar_2 some basic methods should be introduced, especially for
the latter one the following approach may be discussed:
Suppose 2
a, p are the roots of the auxiliary equation A = M + B,
(i) if a # ft, ar = ki ar + k2/?r;
(si) if a= /?, ar = (ki + rk2)ar
where k! and k2 are constants to be determined.

1.2 Limit of a sequence and The concept of the limit of a sequence should be taught with an intuitive
series approach. The following version may be considered:
Let 81, a2, ..., an, ... be a sequence. If for all sufficiently large values of n, the
difference between an and a constant t is as small as we please, we say that an -»t
when n -> oo or lim an = £.
n~»oo
Teachers should emphasize on the following points:
(I) i is called the limit of the sequence;
(is) the limit i, if exists, is unique;
CO
(Hi) the sequence is said to converge to t or the sequence is convergent with
limit t\
(iv) if a sequence does not converge to any limit, it is said to be divergent.
Ample examples illustrating convergence and divergence should be provided.
I
(1) lim a n =1 fora>0.

sin —mr
(2) The sequence an = —2— which converges to the limit 0.
n
(3) The divergent sequence an = {1 + (-1)"} Vn .

(4) The divergent oscillatory sequence an = (-!)"(! + —).

n
N.B. Sequences could be classified as convergent, divergent ( to +00 or -oo) or
oscillatory (does not converge nor diverge (to +00 or ~oo)).
Some common properties of convergent sequence should be included in the
discussion with students:

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

Let a1t a2, a3, .... an, ... and bi, b2, b3, ..., bn, ... be convergent sequences with
limits be a and b respectively, the following sequence are also convergent:
(i) Aat, /Ia2, /ia3,... converges Aa, where Z is a constant,
(ii) ai + bi, a2 + b2, as + b3,... converges to a + b.
(Hi) aibi, a2b2, a3b3l... converges to ab.

(iv) ll, -A, •—,... converges to — provided b * 0.

DI b2 b3 b
Finally, students should be led to appreciate the following results that
(i) for the convergent sequence ai, a2, a3,... with limit a,
lim an+k = lim an = a ,
n—xo n->o>
where k is a positive integer,
(ii) for the two convergent sequences
ai, a2, a3> ... and bi, b2, b3,... with the same limit t and if a sequence d, 02,
c3,... such that a, < c i( < b, when i > k for some positive integer k, then d,
c2, c3, ... also converges and to the same limit I, This property is commonly
known as the Sandwich Theorem. Teachers may also touch upon the
CO meaning of monotonic sequence and bounded sequence to broaden
students' understanding.
As for infinite series, a parallel treatment could be provided as follows:
(1) Concept of convergence
n
The series Ui + u2 + u3 +... is convergent if lim ^u, = S exists and

the series is said to be convergent to the limit. (Sometimes S may be called

the sum of the series.) If Sn represents Ui + u2 +..,+ un, then the result may
be stated as Sn -»S as n -> oo or lim Sn = S , (Sn = Ui + u2 +...+ un is

commonly known as the nth partial sum). And, in a more or less the same
situation, divergent series and/ or oscillatory series may be introduced subject
to teachers' preference.
(2) Properties of convergent series
ui + u2 + u3 +.., with limit S and
Vi + v2 + v3 +... with limit S* then
(a) M + ^,u2 + lu3 •»-... converges to ^S where K is a constant.
(b) (ui + v^ + (u2 + v2) + (u3 + v3) converges to S + S'.
(c) If ut + u2 + u3 +... Is convergent, then lim un = 0
n-»o»

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1.3 Convergence of a sequence Further properties of convergent sequence like
and series (i) convergent sequences are bounded
a ITlonotonlc and
bounded sequence is convergent
iii SforPe^Picai^vergent and divergent sequences should be
°f S6quences
" The

(A) Convergent sequences

(i) an = xn with |x| < 1
(si) a n =^/n~
Yn
(iii) a n =-

(B) Convergent series

(S) r + r2 + r 3 ...with|r| <1
(ii) 1+I+JL+.JL.+...
1 1 2 1-2-3
en
o (iii) 1+I + 1+1 + ...
IS 21 3!

-
2 3 4
(C) Divergent series

Some typical applications of the Sandwich Theorem should be included for

illustration whereas convergence tests of series are not required.

18

Unit B2: Limit, Continuity and Differentiability

Objective: (1) To understand the intuitive concept of the limit of a function.
To understand the intuitive concept of continuity and differentiability of a function.
To recognize limit a$ a fundamental concept in calculus.
Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

2.1 Limit of a function An intuitive understanding of the concept of limit of function is expected. As a
matter of fact, the concept of the limit of a function y = f ( x ) at the point x = a can be
related to the concept of the limit of a sequence. This is done by allowing the
independent variable to run through a convergent sequence of numbers {xn} tending
to the limit a (the abscissa sequence), and considering the ordinate sequence (f(xn)}.
Thus a more vivid visualization of the fact that (f(xn)} tends to a finite value t as
{xn} tends to a could be established i.e.
f (x) ~»t when x -> a or lim f (x) = t.
Some teachers may perhaps prefer just to focus students' attention to the fact that
the difference between f(x) and t can be made arbitrarily small when x is sufficiently
close to a so as to reinforce the idea that f(x)->^ when x~»a . It must be pointed to
students that, from the existence of the value f(a) of the function, one can certainly
not conclude that the limit lim f(x) must also exist and be equal to f(a), though this is
x-»-a
very often the case. The following example may be considered:
|1 when x * 0
f(X)
"|0 whenx = 0
in which f(0) = 0 and lim f(x) = 1
It may be important in the passage to the limit whether the independent variable
approaches the value a in the sense of increasing values of x, that is, from the left, or in
the sense of decreasing values of x, that is from the right In these cases, the limits are
referred to, respectively, as the left-hand limit, usually denoted by lim_ f(x), and the

right-hand limit lim^f(x). In this context, students could be led easily to appreciate that

the function f(x) has a limit as x -> a if and only if the left-hand and right-hand limits
as x -> a are equal. For a more comprehensive understanding of limit, teachers should
touch upon the case when x -»oo by reiterating that the difference between f(x) and
I could be made arbitrarily small when x is sufficiently large. Symbolically, it is
presented as lim f (x) = t.

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The following properties of the limit of a function should be included in

discussion:
(i) lim[f(x)+g(x)]= Ism f(x)+ lim g(x)
x->a x->a x-»a

(ii) ism [kf(x)] = k lim f (x) , k is independent of x

x-»a x-»a

(Hi) lim [f (x) • g(x)] = Ism f (x) • Sim g(x)

x-»a x-»a x-»a

f/x\
lim f(x)
(IV) Jim JLW = j^- provided SImg(x)*0
x~»a g(x) Urn g(x) x-»a
x-»a

(v) Sf f(x)<h(x)<g(x) holds when x is close to a and lim f(x) = lim g(x) = £
x->a x-»a

then lim h(x) = i also.

x-»a
Some important limits, like the following, should be introduced:
01 (1) n
ro x~» X

(2) lsm(l+l)x=e
X-»«3 X

(3) -)
X

_•«

(4) lim
x-»0 X

(5) lim = £n a ; a > 0

x->0 X

(6)
x->0

Adequate practice in evaluating the limit of function should be provided for

consolidation.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

2.2 Continuity of a function Continuity should be defined on the basis of the limit of function with an intuitive
approach; the e - 8 approach may not be desirable. The following suggested version
may be considered:
A function f(x) is continuous atx= a if lim f(x) exists and is equal to f(a).
x-*a
A function is continuous in an interval if it is continuous at every point of the
interval.
Some common functions like
(i) f(x) = x2 which is continuous in every interval;
1 which is not continuous in the whole interval 0 < x < 5
(ii) f(x) =
x-l
should be discussed as a prelude to introduce the concept of point of discontinuity.
it should be noted that just informal treatment on this concept is expected,
however, teachers are advised to provide students with a good spectrum of examples
as a form of reinforcement Furthermore, the fact that the sum, difference and product
01 of two functions continuous at x = a are likewise continuous at this point. Their
00 quotient is continuous provided that the denominator is not zero at x = a. Teachers
may quote a lot of everywhere continuous functions to initiate students' further study
on this topic:
(i) polynomial function f(x) = anxn + a^x""1 + ...+a0
(ii) exponential function f(x) = a x ; a > 0
(iii) logarithmic function f(x) = loga x ; a > 0, a * 1
(iv) trigonometric functions like sinx, cosx.
Concerning the continuity of composite function, teachers may consider the
suggested version:
Let y = f[g(x)] be a composite function, when inner function g(x) is continuous
at x = a and whose outer function y = f(t) is continuous at t = g(a), then the
composite function y = f[g(x)] is continuous at x = a.
Also teachers may highlight the fact that every continuous function of a
continuous function is again continuous.
Teachers should point out that functions which are continuous in an interval form
a class of functions with noteworthy properties, like the following, and the discussion
of them is expected but formal proof of them is not desirable.

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(i) Sf a function f(x) is continuous in a closed interval [a, b] with f(a) = A and
f(b) = B where A * B, then f(x) takes every value between A and B at least
once. (The intermediate Value Theorem).
(ii) A function that is continuous in a closed interval is bounded there.
(isi) A function that is continuous in a closed interval attains maximum and
minimum values in the interval. (Properties (ii) and (in) are known as
Weierstrass Theorem).

2.3 Differentiability of a Regarding the differentiability of a function f(x) at the point x = a the following
function version may be considered.
A function f(x) is said to be differentiable at the point x = a if and only if the limit
lim f(x )- f ( a > or
x->a x - a
, -if(a+h)-f(a)
-1—i_iexists
h-»0 h
Teachers may also at the same time put forth the idea that if a function is
differentiable at a certain point, it is also continuous there and that continuity is a
necessary condition for differentiability but not a sufficient one. Moreover, the
definition of the derivative of a function at x = a, being the value of the above limit,
can be taught very smoothly following students' acceptance of the idea of
differentiability. The common notations for the derivative of f(x) at x = a like
dy
x 7
and
'dx dx
should be mentioned.

Teachers may also touch upon the differentiability of a function in the whole
interval in the context that the .derivative of the function exists for all points in that
interval. Furthermore, teachers should elaborate on the property that to each value x in
the interval, there corresponds the derivative f(x) of the function at the point x; thus
f (x) is again a function of x and is called the derived function of f(x).

At this stage, ample examples should be worked out to reinforce students' mastery
of the concept and skills concerning differentiation. In particular, examples to find the
derivative of different typical functions from the first principles are of particular
importance. In this connection, adequate practices are indispensable. The following
examples are typical:

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

(1 ) Find the derivative of the functions from the first principles

(i) x 2 a t x = 1
(ii) e x atx = 0
(Hi) sinxatx = n/4
(2) Differentiate, from the first principles, the following functions
(i) f(x) = xn where n is a positive integer
(ii) f(x) = ex

13

Ol
Ol

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 Unit B3: Differentiation
Objective: (1) To acquire different techniques of differentiation.
(2) To learn and acquire techniques to find higher order derivative.
(3) To understand the intuitive concept of Rolie's Theorem and Mean Value Theorem.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

3.1 Fundamental rules for As a continuition, the following rules should be taught:
differentiation
(1) — (k) = 0 , where k is a constant
CSX

(2) — (xr ) = rxr"1 , where r is real

(3)

(4) _r_ [kf (x)] = k — f (x) , where k is a constant

en
o>
(5) ^-[f(x)g(x)] = g(x)-if(x)+f(x)-~g(x) (product rule)
OX OX QX

(6)
£h&r
g(x) 56 0 (quotient rule)
g(x)2

Proofs of the above rules should be mentioned or presented as a form of practice

in order to strengthen students' mastery of the concept and skill. From (3) to (6), the
existence of the derivatives of f(x) and g(x) should be emphasized. Regarding (2), a
proof for r being integral will be enough while for the general case r being real the
proof may be provided at a later stage till the students have leamt Chain rule. Typical
examples in using the above rules to obtain derivative of various common functions
should be done for illustration.
3.2 Differentiation of Differentiation of the following functions should be taught:
trigonometric functions 1 . sinx
2. cosx

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

3. tanx
4. cosecx
5. secx
6. cotx
Students may be encouraged to do the proof themselves under teachers'
supervision and, in particular, they should be reminded to derive the results for (4) to
(6) using the quotient rule.
3.3 Differentiation of For a composite function y = f[g(x)], the derivative is obtained through the chain
composite functions and rule
inverse functions
^L-^L JL
dx ~ dt ' dx
or = f(t)g'(x)witht = g(x)
For the inverse function x = f 1(y) of y = f(x), the derivative is obtained through
dx = 1
dy " dy
01
dx
It is suggested that examples like
~~-(sirr ~~(cos-1x)» -~-(tan~1x) and

d d -
— (x"" ) , — (xn ) with n being positive integer may be used for illustration.

3.4 Differentiation of implicit It is often necessary to differentiate a function defined implicitly by F(x, y) = 0.
functions This is done by differentiating both sides of the given equation with respect to the
independent variable x and applying the rules mentioned above. Various illustrating
examples should be included to enrich the discussion, The following are some
suggestions.
(i) If xcosy 3 -fysin2x = l,fmd -^
dx
(ii) Given 2x 2 -y 2 +12x~2y+3 = ( .find ^ at the point (2, 5),

dv
Find -£- for cos(x*-y 2 )=xy .

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 Detailed Content Time Notes on Teaching
3.5 Differentiation of A parametric representation of a function y = f(x) is given by x = u(t) and y =
parametric equations v(t). Hence y can be expressed as a composite function of the parameter t in the form
y = f(u(t)). By applying the chain rule for differentiation, the result
dy dy dx
~ = -~ andhence

or
dx
dt
can be obtained, it should be clarified that in this derivation it is assumed that u(t) and
v(t) are differentiable and u'(t) * 0.
Typical examples for illustration include finding -^ for the following functions:
(i) the ellipse x = acost, y = bsmt
(ii) the cycloid, x = a(t-sint), y = a(1 -cost)
01
00 The following rules should be taught and their proofs may be provided with the
3.6 Differentiation of
logarithmic and exponential suggested approach.
functions
1. - - = - (using Km (1 + x)*" = e )
dx x X-H>O
2. _ e x =e x (using — (£ny) = — and chain rule, where y = ex , or applying

the rule about the derivative of inverse function)

3- -f(!og
dx x^na

4. (

Examples provided should include functions of the types like ex3 and loga Vx 2 + 1 .

(N.B. At this juncture the proof for the formula — xn =nxn~* when n is rational and
dx
when n is real may be mentioned for the sake of completeness.)

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

Teachers should also highlight some common applications of logarithmic

differentiation as follows:
when y is a complicated function of x and especially when it involves a variable as
dv
index, the value of — may sometimes be more easily obtained by logarithmic
dx
differentiation. Typical examples of this kind include functions like y = x* and
(x+a)(x+b)
(x+c)(x+d)'

3.7 Higher order derivatives The definition of higher order derivatives and the symbols f (x),
and Leibniz's Theorem dnvy
should be introduced. Also the abilities to find higher order derivatives of
dxn
functions given in parametric form and to apply the Leibniz's Theorem, viz

_(uv) = are expected. Students may attempt to prove

01 dx1
CO
the theorem by mathematical induction. Examples showing the use of Leibniz's
Theorem in obtaining relations involving higher order derivatives especially of implicit
functions should be illustrated. Examples of this kind include
1 . Find the nth derivatives of cos2 xsinx and x3 cosx.
2. Let f(x) = tan~1x, show that (1 + x2) f(x) + 2x f (x) = 0 and hence obtain
the n derivative of f(x) for x = 0.

3. Given f(x) = 2
X -l

u *u «. *fn)/A\ [ 0 if n is even
show that f(n)(0) = (_ n!ifnisodd
where n is an integer and n > 3
3.8 The Rolle's Theorem and The intuitive concept of the Rolle's Theorem and Mean Value Theorem as well as
Mean Value Theorem their geometrical interpretation should be taught. For abler students the proof may be
mentioned. Simple and straightforward applications of the theorems are expected. The
following examples may be considered:

61 ) ) indicates the parts deleted

 Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

1. If f (x) = 0 for all x in an interval, then f(x) is constant in that interval.

2. If f (x) = g'(x) for all x in an interval, then f(x) and g(x) differ in that interval
by a constant.
3. Prove that if

"nTl ~rT+ "" 2 n

~
then the equation

has at least one root between 0 and 1

28

Unit B4: Application of Differentiation

Objective: (1) To learn and to use the L1 Hospital's Rule.
(2) To learn the applications of differentiation.
Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

4.1 The L' Hospital's Rule Limits having the following indeterminate forms should be introduced:
0. SSL O - o o , oo-oo,
0 oo
o°, 00°, r
Accompanying examples illustrating the type mentioned are highly desirable. The
L' Hospital's Rule lim = |jm for the indeterminate form and — should
x~>ag(x) x-»ag'(x) 0 oo
be taught in the first place.
The examples that follow may be considered:

o> ^nsin(x-a)
(2) lim

f'(x)
Teachers should emphasize that should be simplified before taking limit and
g'(x)
f(m)/x\
the process can be repeated until lim , .v ' is obtained in a non-indeterminate form.
x-w gCn)(X)
As for the other indeterminate forms, examples should be worked out showing that
they can be expressed in the determinate forms — or — so that the rule may be
0 oo
applied.
The following examples may be considered:
(1) lim (-i—cot x)

(2) lim x x

(3) limfsinx)*™
-f
The proof of the L' Hospital's Rule is not required,

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 Content Time on Teaching

4.2 Rate of change The meaning of -2- as the rate of change of y with respect to x should be
introduced and thoroughly discussed with reference to some common quantities like
velocity and acceleration etc.

Examples for consideration:

(1) A snowball is melting with its volume decreasing at a constant rate of x cm3/s.
When its radius is a cm, fsnd
(a) the rate of change of its radius;
(b) the rate of change of the surface area.
(2) The displacement x of a moving particle measured from a fixed point at time t is
given by
x = asint + bcost.
(a) Find its velocity and acceleration at time t and describe the motion of the
particle.
(b) Show that the velocity at time t can be expressed as v a2 + b2 - x2
4.3 Monotonic functions To begin with, teachers may state an intuitively obvious result that
if f (a) > 0 then f(x) < f(a) for values of x less than a but sufficiently close to a,
and f(x) > f(a) for values of x greater than a but sufficiently close to a.
From a geometrical point of view, the result can easily lead to the statement that
f(x) is strictly increasing at x = a. (MB. It is assumed that the function under
consideration is continuous and differentiable.) Similar description should be provided
for f(x) strictly decreasing at x = a. Following this, the idea of monotonic increasing
may be presented as follows:
if f(x) > 0 for every x of the interval, then f(x) is a monotonic increasing function
throughout the interval
Teachers should help the students to derive the following important result:
if f(x) > 0 throughout the interval, (a, b), f(x) is continuous at x = a and f(a) >
0, then f(x) is positive throughout the interval.
A parallel treatment for monotonic decreasing function is expected and this may
be done by the students.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

This result is of special relevance in proving inequalities like

(i) (1 + x)a ^ 1 + ax for 0 < a < 1 and x > -1
(ii) (1 +x) a >1 * a x f o r a < Q o r a > 1 a n d x > ~ 1
x3
(iii) sinx>x forx>0

4.4 SVIaxima and minima The geometrical interpretation of derivative as the gradient of a curve should be
explained and emphasized following the introduction of the definition of the gradient
of a curve. In this connection, the visualization of a curve being increasing or
decreasing can be once again reinforced.

Consequenting upon the mastery of this knowledge, students may then be led to
acquire the ability of identifying points of local maximum and local minimum (i.e. the
turning points of the curve.) They should be helped to appreciate the conditions for
the occurrence of local extrema, like the following version:
For a function f(x)
(a) find a such that f (a) = 0 and
o (b) test the sign of f (a) or test for change of sign of f (x) in a neighbourhood
of a.
Teachers should remind students of the following points:
(i) Local or relative extrema are not necessarily the global or absolute extrema;
(ii) turning points may occur at points where the derivatives do not exist; e.g.
y = x 2/3 andy = |x|;
(iii) Stationary points are points whose derivatives are zero;
(iv) f'(a) = 0 is NOT sufficient to conclude that at x = a there is a local extremum;

e.g.x3sin(—) andx3.
Examples illustrating the foregoing skills and remarks should be worked out and
discussed thoroughly with the students prior to the discussion on point of inflection.
The procedures commonly adopted is as follows:
(a) find a such that f "(a) = 0
(b) test f(x) for change of sign in a neighbourhood of a.

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 Detailed Content Time Ratio on Teaching

Teachers should remind students of the following points:

(i) at points of inflection, the derivative may not be equal to zero;
(ii) f*(a) = 0 is not sufficient to conclude the occurrence of an inflection point at
x = a, e.g. x4.

Hence, diagrams showing the different orientation of the inflectional tangents are
very helpful.

- inflectional
tangent

O)

7 inflectional tangent

As final touching up, teachers may elaborate briefly on the idea of absolute
extrema in relation to the domain of the function being extended or shrinked.
4.5 Curve Sketching Prior to full embarkation on this topic, students should be taught how to
determine the vertical, horizontal and oblique asymptotes to a curve whenever they
exist. It is recommended that illustrating examples should go with the explanation.
x3
For example, the curve of y = ——.
x -1

Students should be alerted to look for points of discontinuity where vertical

asymptotes are likely to exist. They should also be led to study the behaviour of the
function at infinity, viz,

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

- = x+- 2
-->x as x is sufficiently so they can that
X-*-l X -l
y = x represents an asymptote.
To accomplish this topic, teachers are advised to help students look for, extract
and organize every single bit of glue and information so as to sketch the curve in a
more systematic way. The following points are noteworthy:
(1) Symmetry about the axes: inspect the equation to detect any symmetry using
rules
(a) if no odd powers of y appear the curve is symmetrical about the x-axis.
(b) if no odd powers of x appear the curve is symmetrical about the y-axis.
2
X V
e.g. _. 1— = 1 is symmetric about both axes.
a2 b2
(2) Limitation on the range of values of x and y.
e.g. (a) For y2 = 4x, x must be non-negative whi le all values of y are
permissible.
O)
01 (W x 2 y 2 = a (x2 - y ), upon re-writing y2 = , thus all
x 2 +a 2
values of x are permissible whereas upon another presentation

as 2=
V
A
_ , it is obvious that |y| < a. Actually, the curve is
a -y 2
included between the asymptotes y = ± a.
(3) Intercepts with the axes or any obvious points on the curve.
x(x + 2)
e.g. For y = -*—-^ , the curve intercepts the x-axis at -2 and 0 and
X —• 2-
there is no intercept made with the y-axis except at the origin.
(4) Points of maximum, minimum and inflection.
(5) Asympotoes to the curve
To encompass the various facets, examples should be worked out for students'
heeding, however for trigonometric functions, the attention to the period of the curve
is desirable. Regarding curve given by parametric equations, no specific rules can be
taken heed of and it is advisable to obtain the corresponding Cartesian representation
prior to sketching it
Some typical curves illustrating the above steps should be sketched for students'
reference. The following may be considered:

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 Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

~** X

O)
o>

2. y 2 (a-x) =

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

3 *Y
-

-*• x

4. x3 - 3axy + y3 = 0

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 Content Time on Teaching

X2-l

CD
CO

20

Unit B5: Integration

Objective: (1) To understand the notion of integral as limit of a sum.
(2) To learn some properties of integrals.
(3) To understand the Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus.
(4) To apply the Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus in the evaluation of integrals.
(5) To learn the methods of integration.
1(6) to acquire the first notion of improper integral]

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

5.1 The Riemann definition of 5 The theory of the definite integral can be presented in two distinct ways,
integration according as we adopt the geometrical approach or the analytical approach. In the
former, the idea of area is presumed, while in the latter the notion of the definite
integral as the limit of an algebraic sum without any appeal to geometry is employed.
Teachers should determine their choices and sequences of teaching according to the
needs of their students. Teachers may start with a function f(x) > 0 for easy
understanding and the following simplified version of an intuitive approach is for
CO reference:

Let the function f(x) > 0 in the interval [a, b] and therein let the graph of y = f(x)
be finite and continuous.

, Y

/y * ^p^{
-p- ^j I i
S~~ i i
ii i i

—j—L_.._ i
a xi Xa Xn~i b * J ' *

-
66 { * _ jj indicates the parts deleted
 Content Time on Teaching

Partition [a, b] into n subintervals by points XQ, xi, x2,..., xn such that a=x0<x-\
< x2 < ... < xn~i < xn = b and let Axs denotes x, - x,_i and £, be an arbitrary point
in [XM, x,]. The area of the region bounded by the curve y = f(x), the ordinates x = a
and x = b and the x-axis can be approximated by the sum
n
£f(£,)Ax, . Moreover, when n increases and max (Axi)-»0,
1=1
the value of area can be found and such limit of sum is defined as the definite integral
of f(x) from x = a to x = b and it is denoted by

f f(x)dx i.e. f f(x)dx=lim

Ja Ja n~>oo
maxC-dx,)-^
In the notation,
f(x) is called the integrand; a is called the lower limit; b is called the upper limit
and the sum is called the Riemann suns.
Teachers should then generalize the discussion to obtain the definition of
Riemann sum of a general function f(x).
During the discussion with students, the following points should be highlighted:
(1) The partition of [a, b] into subintervals is arbitrary;
(2) £, e [X,.!, x,] is arbitrary
(3) The definition of the definite integral as the Sirnit of sum presupposes that a <
b. Its value when a > b is defined by

f f(x) dx = - f f (x) dx and when a = b by

Ja Jb

f f(x)dx = 0 (N.B. These results may become theorems if definite integrals

Ja
are defined by means of the function F(x); for
F(b) - F(a) = -[F(a) - F(b)]
F(a) - F(a) =0. Illustrating examples embellishing the verbal presentation of the
teachers should be worked out to help students substantiate their understanding. The
following examples are for reference.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

Example 1:

f exdx
Ja

Consider equal intervals Axi = —- = h (say), then x0 = a, x1 = a + h, . .., XM =

a + (i ~l)h. Choose^, be xM i.e. §, = a + (i~l)h. As max Ax,=Ax, = h,

ex dx = lim £e ft h = lim h
lX"Kl~I)h = h!^0*^1"1^
ab-a i\
= lim hea w *' - !;~ h-a ~ - lln

Example 2:

Consider n intervals such that x0 =a , xl = ar x, =ar l , xn = arn =b , When

1
n - » o o , we have b = arn or = [-] n so that r-»l , and max Ax,=Ax n = x n ^

xn^ = arn -ar"-1 = ar^l-r1) = IKl-r1) -+ 0

Choose §i = x1_1=ar'-1

= HmYam+1r<m+1)(|-1)(r-1)

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 Detailed Content Time on Teaching
1
= lima-V- '"-1)-^

lim-

m+1
Last but not least, teachers should also elaborate on
(i) if f(x) is continuous on [a, b], then f(x) is integrabie over [a, b]
(ii) If f(x) is bounded and monotonic in [a, b], then f(x) is integrabSe over [a, b].
5.2 Simple properties of Teachers may help their students derive the following results from the definition.
definite integrals
(1) f kf(x) dx = k f f (x) dx , k being a constant
Ja Ja

ro (2) ff(x) dx + fg(x) dx = f [f(x) + g(x)] dx

Ja Ja Ja

(3) f f(x)dx= f f(x)dx + f f(x)dx where c is any point inside or outside

Ja Ja Jc
the interval [a, b].
(4) if f(x) >g(x) for all values of x in [a, b], then f f (x) dx > I g(x) dx
Ja Ja

(5) If | f (x) |< ^(x) for all values of x in [a, b], then ff(x)dx < #x)dx.
Ja

In particular, (a) if <Kx) =| f(x) |, then

I ff(x)dx < f|f(x)|dx

I Ja Ja

(b) if </>(x) = M, M being constant, then

f(x)dx

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

Simple and straightforward applications like the following may be discussed with
the students:
(1 ) If f(x) is positive and monotonic increasing for x > 0, prove that
f(n-1) < f f(x)dx <; f(n)

( 1 fsinnx ^ n
\£-l 1 UA ^ ""
n Jo 1 + x2
0
4n

5.3 The Mean Value Theorem 2 A simplified version of the theorem is advisable, viz
for Integrals If f(x) is continuous on [a, b], then there exists a number 5 in (a,b) such that
f(x) dx = f(t?) (b~a)
_
The idea conveyed can easily be visualized through the accompanying diagram.
Students should find no difficulty to understand the intrinsic meaning of f(£) (b - a)
being the area of the rectangle ABCD.
CO
.y
-i
y-IW

HS)
D
^t<t>^y
^S
/
-—• "• v*
-^"^ J
»^**
s**^*^ t
' 1
A ' B
0 a \ b *""

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 Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

If a more formal proof is desirable, it can be furnished by using the properties

mentioned in 5.2 together with the properties of continuous function and in particular
the Intermediate Value Theorem.

5.4 Fundamental Theorem of The First Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus, viz
Integral Calculus and its Let f(x) be continuous on [a, b] and
application to the
evaluation of integrals let F(x) be defined by F(x) = f f (t) dt, a < x < b
then (i) F(x) is continuous in [a, b]
(ii) F(x) is differentiate in (a, b) and — F(x) = f(x)
or the simplified version
If f(x) is continuous, then the function
fx
F(x)= J f(t)dt is differentiate and its derivative is equal to the value
of the integrand at the upper limit of integration i.e. F'(x) = f(x). This should be
discussed thoroughly with the students and students may be, under the supervision of
their teachers, led to prove the Theorem using the Mean Value Theorem for Integral
Calculus.
(N.B. Teachers should, immediately following this theorem, elaborate on the results
follow:
(1) the function F(x) whose derivative is equal to the integrand f(x) is called a
primitive of f(x).
(2) for two such primitives F(x) and G(x) of the same integrand, the derivative of
F(x) - G(x) is identically zero, so F(x) - G(x) is constant)
Regarding The Second Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus, teachers may again
assist their students in the derivation. The version that follows is for consideration:
Let f(x), and F(x) be continuous in [a, b];

jf —F(x) = f(x) for a < x < b, then for a < x £ b, f X f(t)dt = F(x)-F(a) and,
dx Ja

in particular f f (x) dx = F(b) - F(a).

Ja

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

Some enlightening examples in evaluating definite integrals by taking it as an

infinite sum in the first place and then by finding its primitive as an alternative solution
should be worked out so that students' overall understanding on the theorems taught
can be strengthened and hence their awareness of the alternative approach in
evaluating integrals through the reverse process of differentiation can be promoted.
Teachers may start with simpler ones like the following

r A
dx =
3 3
and end up with other interesting applications like
1
(1) By considering f(x) = — in interval [1,2], the result that +-
x n "f" i n "f" 2

+ *(ir\2 as n -»oo) can be established.

2n
(2) By considering f(x) = over (0,1), one can show that as n -»

en 1
"Z:
r=2 r

5.5 indefinite integration As a continuation, this section is devoted to focus students' attention to the
mechanical process of finding .primitive as an alternative approach to evaluate definite
integrals. The notation Jf(x)dx representing the indefinite integral of f(x) should be
introduced in the sense that
If jLF(x) = f(x) holds, then F(x) is said to be an Indefinite Integral of f(x) and is
dx
denoted by F(x) = J f (x) dx.
Teachers should also point out that indefinite integral of f(x) is not unique and
that if F(x) is an indefinite integral of f(x), then F(x) +c where c is a constant, is
another, treating Jf(x)dx as a primitive of f(x).
Students are expected to be able to apply the following formulae for evaluating
indefinite integrals. As a matter of fact, they can be encouraged to derive some or all of
them.

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 Content Time on Teaching

(1) j>dx=—+c ' n * -1

J n+1
(2) J

(3) (Vdx=^+c

(4) Ja x dx =

(5) Jssnxdx = -cosx + c

(6) Jcosxdx = sinx + c

(7) f sec x tan x dx = sec x + c
(8) J sec 2 xdx = tanx + c
(9) J cos ecx cot x dx = - cos ecx -f c
CD
(10) Jcosec 2 xdx = -cotx + c

(11) I

(12)

(13)

(14) J. dx

Teachers may also remind the students of the following properties

(1) J kf(x) dx = k ff(x) dx , k is a constant

(2) | [f(x)+g(x)]dx = Jf(x) dx4- |g(x)dx

Students should be encouraged to have adequate practices on a sufficient variety
of indefinite integrals in order to testify their mastery of the elementary manipulation to
facilitate smoother acquisition of the forthcoming techniques.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

5.6 Method of integration 8 It is suggested that the substitution formula Jf(u)du = Jf[g(x)]gf(x)dx need not
(A) Method of Substitution
be proved rigorously, however teachers are advised to start with simpler and obvious
ones like
dx 10 cosv
Jf x + 1 . Jf(x!D
( x i 1 ) dx
dx,Jf j. ^dx
dx,

f ^in v iwsY rfv f *>tr»

J
Jx^nx
In some integrals when g'(x) does not readily appe<ar, g(x) has to be guessed such

have to develop the technique

J 1-ex J

through a lot of relevant practices like the following

enl2 HY
(1)
X1/ I
^o 2 + sinx
dx
D f
J cot x+ cos ecx
(3) l^— (Jet u = ex)
J
Ve x -1
f P2xrlv
(4) f ^ (jet u = ex + l)
J
$te* +1
dx
(s) f where b>a
J
V(x»a)(b-x) (Ietx = acos20+bsln20)

(6) f1 £n(1+x)dx flct x tanO^

JO 1+x^
The following useful results should also be discussed with students with
supporting examples for illustration:
(1) f b f(x)dx= f b f(a + b-x)dx and, in particular
«>a Ja

|oaf(x)dx=:|oaf(a^x)dx

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 Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

(2) If f(x)=f(a-x) , then fxfMdx-jL fV)dx and in particular

JO 2, JO

J*xf (sinx) dx =£ p(sinx) dx

(3) If f(x) is periodic with period w then
+w
f
fW
f(x)dx= J f(x)dx
(4) Sf f(x) Is an even function, then
ff(x)dx = 2Pf(x)dx
J-a Jo

(5) If f(x) is an odd function, then f f(x) dx = 0

J-a

(6) f f (cos x) dx = r f (sin x) dx = ~ f f (sin x) dx

•>o Jo 2 Jo
00
Related examples suggested for consideration are as follows:
(1) f cos3 * dx
Jo sinx + cosx
(o} f xsinx
J
o 1 + cos x

(3) Showthat f xm (a - x)n dx = [V (a ~x) m dx, and hence evaluate

Jo Jo
f x 2 ^ 8 - x dx

fn 4
(4) x^sinxdx
J~x
?nl2 m<SY fjrt2 cinv
(5) Showthif \ ujbx , 5inx HvinHhrnr^
Jo cosx+sinx Jo cosx+smx
evaluate the integral.
rn 12 rn<5n y
/«\ Showthnt ^^ - dx ?r/4
Jo sin x+ cos x

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

(B) Integration by Parts The integration by parts formula Jf(x)g'(x)dx = f(x)g(x)-Jg(x)f (x)dx or
Judv = uv-Jvdu
can readily be proved using the intuitive geometrical approach, like
L V

(u,v)

CD
The diagram suggests an informal geometrical interpretation of the formula:
Area of region A can be represented by J vdu ;

Area of region B by Judv ;

Area of OPQR by uv and hence the formula is readily depicted.
Typical examples for illustration include J xexdx, J x sin xdx and | ^n x dx
With the combination of the method of substitution and integration by parts
formula, students are able to handle many different kinds of integrals like
(1) Je ax cosbxdx

(2) Jtan-1

(3)

(4) j%irr' xdx

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(5) [ xtan~ 1 xdx

f* / 2 xcosxssnxdx
()
Jo (a 2 cos 2 x + b 2 sm 2 x) 2
(C) Reduction Formula 5 Reduction formula ss used to express the integral of the general member of a class
of functions in terms of simpler member(s) of the class The reduction formula is
generally obtained by applying the method of integration by parts It is quite
extensively used in the integration of trigonometric functions Typical examples for
consideration are as follows
(1) Let ln denote J* tan n xdx , show that ln = l n _ 2 »n>2 hence

Evaluate I4
(2) Lot I I •^' obtain a reduction formula for I and then evaluste
,n j^ 2 +g2 jn

dx
CO
o f (x 2 +a 2 ) 3
(3) If ln = Jxnex2 dx , show that

i ' x ^ e * 2 - ! ^ - ! ) ! ^ forn>2
2, 2m

(D) Integration by Partial 4 Integration of rational algebraic functions may be achieved by splitting the
Fractions expressions into partial fractions There are four types of fractions in general
fLdx f Ldx f Lx + M dxand f Lx + Mdx
J ax + b ' J (ax + b)r ' J (ax2 + bx + c) J (ax2 + bx + c)r
Students should be able to handle the first three types without significant
difficulty while for the last type, the application of reduction formula is required
Some examples suggested for discussion are
m
(1) f F^dx
d
Mx+i
x
n
* ' 1
ff 9 « ^
Tdx
J U -3x + 2j

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

0) Let show that 4nln+1 = (4n -1)ln + 3—, n > 1
-X 4 )" (1-x4)n
8
f V
and evaluate I—£— dx
(l-x 44))4
J(l-x
However, it is worthwhile for students to note that some integrals cannot be
expressed in elementary terms, like Je~ x2 dx,

jsm(x2)dx, fllM ,. etc

5.7 Improper integrals The first notion of improper integral is to be introduced and students are expected
to be able to recognize improper integral of the first type viz,
rb
f
f (x) dx or lim
a •->•>•«> Ja
f(x) dx which may be simply denoted

fb f(x)dx
by JtQf°°f(x)dxor J-»00
oo
and improper integral of the second type, viz
when lim f (x) « oo
x->s

f f(x)dx= hm f f(x)dx and

4 hv»o* Ja-f h
fb-h
f
f(x)dx= lim
Typical examples of the first type
h->0*Ja
f(x)dx,

--
Hx

«
m gcfvl^ecj tq put forft fee example and pinpoint thiat this is
riol^n Improper irte^aj as trie KtoA cfoe^ not exist

72 indicates the parts deleted

 Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

and
Typical examples of the second type f -~r f •;dX.-
Jo Vx J-1 Vl-x

Likewise, teachers may use f ~ as illustration that this again is not ar

J
o Vx
improper integral as the limit does not exist either
4§
41

00
ro

Unit B6: Application of integration

and
Objective: (1) To learn the application of definite integration in the evaluation of plane area), arc length] volume of solid of revolution;and)
[area of surfacei of revolution^.
(2) To apply definite integration to the evaluation of limit of sum.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

6.1 Plane area As a sequel to the definition of definite integral, the area bounded by a curve y =
f(x), the ordinates x = a and x = b and the x-axis can be evaluated in the following
ways depending on the nature of the function (being above or below the x-axis):

case (i) when y = f(x) is continuous and non-negative in [a, b], then the area so

bounded is given by \ f (x) dx

Ja
case (ii) when f(x) is continuous and non-positive in [a, b], the area is given by

- f b f(x)dx
CO
GO

y-f(x)

y-f(x)

case(ii)

73 indicates the parts deleted

 Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching
The following suggested examples are for discussion and illustration:
(1) Show that the perimeter of the closed curve (asteroid) x = acos3$; y = asin3$
is6a.
(Symmetry of the curve about the axes helps)
(2) Show that the length of 'the circumference of the cardiosd r = a(1 + cos#) is
4a.
(3) Find the length of the arc of the curve x3 = By2 from x = 1 to x ~ 3.

(N.B. In choosing curves for illustration, teachers should be well aware of the case of
an ellipse and, if deem desirable, may lead a brief discussion with students so as
to broaden their perspective on other branches of mathematics studies. A brief
account in this respect is suggested for reference as follows:
^ \2 / j_. \2 / _,._\2
For the ellipse x = asin#; y = bcos# '

CO b2 sin2 0 = a2(1 - e2 sin2 &) where e = — (commonly known as the eccentricity).

CO a
The arc s measured from an extremity of the minor axis is given by
2 2
a f Vl- e sin . This integral cannot be expressed in terms of elementary
Jo
functions in a finite form. It is called an elliptic integral of the second kind
denoted by E(e, #). For the sake of completeness, teachers may also Introduce
the elliptic integral of the first kind, viz
which is denoted by F(e,

6.3 Volume of revolution It is desirable to have some preliminary discussion with the students on the
meaning and formation of solids of revolution while the term axis of revolution should
also be introduced so that students may be able to identify solids of revolution and
visualize the solids formed when certain segment of curve or region is revolving about
certain axis. Teachers may then touch upon the two common methods in finding
volume of revolution, viz,

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

(1) The Disc Method

/T\ *"%,—«*-^ t ^
/ Y | [ i •, r
I • 1 Hf^-j b d "x

Teachers should emphasize on the expression of the volume element AV or dV

that dV = Tty2 dx which is the volume crf the disc. The volume of the solid is given by

n fb y2dx .
CO Ja
CD
Teachers are also advised to elaborate a bit more on n f x2 dy which is the case
when the curve is revolving about the y-axis.
(2) The Shell Method
Y

VxH is. %r^

^p^^ ^^^

76 indicates the parts deleted

 Detailed Content Time on Teaching

In this case the volume element is 27txydx and the volume is given by 2x f xydx .
There are cases in which the solid is formed by revolving about certain lines other
than the axes or formed by revolving a region bounded by two curves Thus teachers
should elaborate on these cases with the so-called formulae like n f [ [f(x)f -
Ja

[g(x)f] dx or K \ [f(y)f - [g(y)f] dy

derived for students reference. Adequate Illustration is highly recommended. The

following are some for reference:
(1) Show that the volume generated by rotating the ellipse x = aco$6;y = bsine

about the x-axis is —rcab2.

(N.B. Teachers may request the students to deduce the volume of a sphere of
radius r from the given result)
CD
O (2) Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving about t h e line x = 2 the
region which is Pounded by the curve y = x3, the line x = 2 and the x-axis.
(N.B. Teachers are advised to solve this problem using the disc approach as
well as the shell approach.)
6.4 Area of surface of The surface area generated by revolving about the x-axis the arc of the curve y -
revolution
f(x) between x = a and x = b is given by 2n f yds where ds is the element arc length
Ja
and so the formula usually appears as

If the said arc length is revolved about the y-axts, the surface area is given by
I t \2
2n I xds or 2n } xJ1+ —I <ty
*»c Jc I l^dyj
where c, and d are respectively the ordinate's of the end points of the arc.

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

If the curve is given in polar form with 8 as the independent variable, the area
generated is given by

f y—d<9 where y=rsin^and

60'
Similarly, when in parametric form with the curve given by x = x(t); y = y (t) from
t - to to t = ti, the area of the surface generated is given by

*> dt

The following examples are suggested for class discussion:

(1) Show that the area of the surface generated by revolving about the x-axis
an arc of the parabola y2 = 4x between the origin and the point (4, 4) is

CD
(2) Show that the surface area generated by revolving the cardioid r * a(*M
32 o
cosQ) about the initial line is —rca*.
(3) Show that the surface area generated by revolving the cycloid x = a(1 - sine)
64 ?
y = a(1 - cosO) about the x-axis is given by —rcaz.
(4) Prove that the area of the surface formed by revolving the asteroid x = acos3t;
y = asin3t about the x-axis is ^-%a2 .

6.5 Limit of Sum In teaching this interesting application of definite integral, it is advisable to start
with some simple and obvious series like —+—+... r -+— , and students
^ ^
should be provided with adequate hints so that they manage to associate the limit of
sum of the series with the limit of sum leading to the relevant definite integral in a
suitable interval and with pertinent partition and most important of all with the
appropriate integrand, viz
f (x) = x in [0, 1] with partition 0, I, -2., .... &=1 , 1 .

77 [ | indicates the parts deleted

 Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching
It would not be a difficult task for students to establish the result that

n n-»ool=1n n

=1
2
Other examples of great mathematical insight like
1 1 1 vv = f1 d x = t
(1)
2n-1 Jo1 + x
**\ •• i n n n
(2) lim _- + __ + ...+ 2 2
n z +(n-1) 2

- f1 dx _n
— I 5" — ~T
JO 1 + X 4
CD
ro
(3) Sim (+* r + ... + -

1 1 1
= rlim — IV -1+—===•+ ...+-

dx

may be provided to further their understanding and manipulative technique. The

following example is worth discussing as it brings exhilarating result:

To find lim - by transforming it into

n~»o> n

lim
y = lim j / n - V = n—>oo —
n-j-ooj...! n \r\ n

= ~l thfus

Detailed Content Time Ratio Notes on Teaching

1
obtain y = e" (N.B. Teachers may relate this part to Unit B5 in which the idea of
Riemann sum expressed as a limit of sum of a series is touched
upon.)
However, students should be reminded that not all limits of sum can be dealt with
using this approach, the harmonic series, £— , is an example.

20
13

CO
CO

78 indicates the parts deleted

This is a blank page

82
 Appendix 3

for and
L Reference

Title Author Piiblisher Year

An English-Chinese Glossary of Curriculum Government Printer 1991
Terms Commonly Used in the Development
Teaching of Mathematics in Council
Secondary Schools
Report on Holistic Review of the Curriculum Government Printer 2000
Mathematics Curriculum Development
Council
Learning to Learn: Key Learning Curriculum Government Printer 2000
Area Mathematics Education - Development
Consultation Document Council
Learning to Learn -The Way Curriculum Government Printer 2001
Forward in Curriculum Development
Development Council
Mathematics Education Key Curriculum Government Printer 2002
Learning Area Curriculum Guide Development
(Primary 1 - Secondary 3) Council

A Century of Calculus Part I 1894- T. M. Apostol, The Mathematical 1992

1968 (The Raymond W. Brink etal. Association of
Selected Mathematical Papers) America
A Century of Calculus Part II1969- T. M. Apostol, The Mathematical 1992
1991 etal. Association of
America
A Course in Pure Mathematics Margaret M. Hodder 1990
Gow
A Course of Pure Mathematics G.H.Hardy Cambridge Uni. Press 1993
A History of Mathematics C. B. Boyer U. John Wiley & Sons 1991
Merzbach
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics S.L. Green UTP 1989
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics C. J. Tranter The English 1975
Universities Press Ltd.

Elementary Calculus F. Bowman Longman 1977

Further Pure Mathematics L. Bostock, S. Trans-Atlantic 1994

Chandler & C. Publications
Rourke

83
 Title Author Publisher Year
Improving Mathematics Teaching B. Kutzler Chartwell-Bratt 1996
with DERIVE
Introduction to Elementary Calculus S. R. Hsieh Luen Shing Printing 1991
Co.
Mathematics — The Core Course for LBostock & ELBS 1992
A-Level S.Chandler
Schaum's Outline of College P.Schmidt & McGraw-Hill 2003
Mathematics F.Ayres
Schaum's Outline Series: Theory and S.Lipschutz &J. McGraw-Hill 1994
Problems of Finite Mathematics Schiller
Symbolic Manipulation by A. Oldknow & The Mathematical 1996
Computers and Calculators - J. Flower Association of
Information, Ideas and Implications America
for Mathematics Teaching 14-21
Techniques of Mathematical C. J. Tranter Hodder 1990
Analysis
The Tutorial Algebra (Vol. 1 & 2) Briggs & Bryan University Tutorial 1960
Press
(± - T) 1982
1976
1988
1987

1989
1989
T) 1995

1986
(1-7) 1978-
1997
1995
1989
1978
1976
 214

II.

1 Cabrl Geometry ( Texas Instruments)

2 Calculus 1.0 (Ashay Dharwadker)

3 Derive ( Texas Instruments )

4 FXDraw ( Efofex Software )

5 Geometer's Sketchpad (Key Curriculum Press)

6 Graphmatica (KSoftlnc.)

I Journey Through Calculus (Brooks/Cole Group)

8 Maple ( Waterloo Maple )

9 Mathematica ( Wolfram Research)

10 Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Corporation )

I1 Scientific Notebook ( TCI Software Research )

12 Winplot ( Peanut Software )

85
TOG