MANUEL S.

ENVERGA UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION

LUCENA CITY

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

LABORATORY MANUAL

Prepared by:

Engr. Brenda G. De Vega Engr. Maria Elaine P. Pardilla

Engr. Lorella Joy P. Marino Engr. Zahra Monique A. Laudez

NAME:________________________________________________________________

COURSE: _____________________ SCHEDULE:_____________________________

PROFESSOR/ INSTRUCTOR:_____________________________________________
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ii

General Laboratory Instruction iii

General Safety Rules for Surveying Laboratory iv

Summary of Grades per Exercise v

Introductory Discussions vi

Exercise No. Title Page

0 Common Surveying Apparatus and Equipment

and Their Uses 14

1 Pacing 18

2 Taping Over Smooth and Level Ground 21

3 Taping Over Uneven and Sloping Ground 24

4 Determining Area of a Rectilinear Field By Tape 28

Definition of Terms 32

References 33
 PREFACE

The exercises contained in this laboratory manual are compiled from different

surveying manuals following the standard requirements for Surveying subjects as

prescribed under the Circular Memorandum Order (CMO) released by the Commission

on Higher Education (CHED).

Special gratitude is extended to the authors of the consulted manuals and

guides.

Each exercise gives an introduction with its objectives and is simplified to help

the students understand the theories, concepts and applications of the subject.

Students are expected to utilize their skills and knowledge in performing the activities

listed herein.

Recognition and thanks to all those who helped in the completion of this manual.

College of Engineering Faculty

Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation

 GENERAL LABORATORY INSTRUCTIONS

Most of the laboratory techniques are learned in the conduct of the exercises

within the course. It is best to familiarize yourself with the different equipment and

apparatus as well as their respective uses and functions as to utilize them effectively

and efficiently. Below are some general instructions that should be observed in conduct

of the exercises.

1. Read carefully the entire discussions and exercise ahead of its performance.

Prepare yourself to be knowledgeable on the theories and concepts involved.

It is expected that you are aware of the flow of the exercise.

2. Work on the activities only under the supervision and instruction of the

instructor or professor. Do not overstep any procedure or perform any

additional process that was not listed.

3. Be sure that your working areas are safe and that your equipment are clean

and calibrated. Optimal results can only be achieved when procedures are

followed with utmost care and accuracy.

4. Always know the precautions to be observed for each exercise.

5. Always handle your equipment with care.

 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

1. Do not operate the apparatus of equipment if you are not knowledgeable on

its operation.

2. Know the entire procedure and step by step process before starting a job.

3. Do nut rush or take a chance.

4. Use only calibrated and functional equipment.

5. Ask for assistance when necessary.

6. Do not engage in any kind of plays within the vicinity of the activity area.

7. Check the set up of the instrument before operating.

8. Observe utmost care in handling the equipment and performing the activities.
NAME:________________________________ SCHEDULE:________________

EXERCISE NO. TITLE GRADE

Common Surveying Apparatus and Equipment and

0
Their Uses

1 Pacing

2 Taping Over Smooth and Level Ground

3 Taping Over Uneven and Sloping Ground

4 Determining Area of a Rectilinear Field By Tape

AVERAGE
 INTRODUCTORY DISCUSSIONS

A. DEFINITION OF SURVEYING

In general, surveying is performed to determine the relative location or

positioning of points on or near the earth's surface. More specifically, surveying is the

science of making measurements, relative to known or assumed datum’s and

standards, and applying the principles of mathematics to such measurements to

determine existing or future horizontal and vertical position, from area, magnitude,

boundaries, and extent of land parcels and topographical features.

Surveying encompasses the following categories:

1. Geodetic Surveys - Surveys, which establish control networks on a mathematical

datum so that measurements will reflect the curved (ellipsoidal) shape of the earth.

2. Land Surveys - Surveys which include retracement of existing land ownership

boundaries or the creation of new boundaries.

3. Engineering Surveys - Surveys performed for the location, design, construction,

maintenance and operation of engineering projects.

4. Construction Surveys - Surveys which establish stakes in the ground, and other like

reference points, at known horizontal and vertical positions to define location and size of

each component of the facility to be constructed, enable inspection of contract items,

and serve as a basis of payment for work.

5. Cartographic Surveys - Map making from original surveys.

B. IMPORTANCE OF SURVEYING

Surveying is one of the world’s oldest and most important arts because from the

earliest times it has been necessary to mark boundaries and divide land. Surveying has

now become indispensable to our modern way of life. The results of today’s surveys are

used to (1) map the Earth above and below sea level; (2) prepare navigational charts for

use in the air, on land, and at sea; (3) establish property boundaries of private and

public lands; (4) develop data banks of land-use and natural resource information that

aid in managing our environment; (5) determine facts on the size, shape, gravity, and

magnetic fields of the earth; and (6) prepare charts of our moon and planets.

Surveying continues to play an extremely important role in many branches of

engineering. For example, surveys are required to plan, construct, and maintain

highways, railroads, rapid-transit systems, buildings, bridges, missile ranges, launching

sites, tracking stations, tunnels, canals, irrigation ditches, dams, drainage works, urban

land subdivisions, water supply and sewage systems, pipelines, and mine shafts.

Surveying methods are commonly employed in laying out industrial assembly lines and

jigs.3 These methods are also used for guiding the fabrication of large equipment, such

as airplanes and ships, where separate pieces that have been assembled at different

locations must ultimately be connected as a unit. Surveying is important in many related

tasks in agronomy, archeology, astronomy, forestry, geography, geology, geophysics,

landscape architecture, meteorology, paleontology, and seismology, but particularly in

military and civil engineering.

 All engineers must know the limits of accuracy possible in construction, plant

design and layout, and manufacturing processes, even though someone else may do

the actual surveying. In particular, surveyors and civil engineers who are called on to

design and plan surveys must have a thorough understanding of the methods and

instruments used, including their capabilities and limitations.

This knowledge is best obtained by making observations with the kinds of

equipment used in practice to get a true concept of the theory of errors and the small

but recognizable differences that occur in observed quantities.

In addition to stressing the need for reasonable limits of accuracy, surveying

emphasizes the value of significant figures. Surveyors and engineers must know when

to work to hundredths of a foot instead of to tenths or thousandths, or perhaps the

nearest foot, and what precision in field data is necessary to justify carrying out

computations to the desired number of decimal places. With experience, they learn

how available equipment and personnel govern procedures and results.

Neat sketches and computations are the mark of an orderly mind, which in turn is

an index of sound engineering background and competence. Taking field notes under

all sorts of conditions is excellent preparation for the kind of recording and sketching

expected of all engineers. Performing later office computations based on the notes

underscores their importance. Additional training that has a carryover value is obtained

in arranging computations in an organized manner.

Engineers who design buildings, bridges, equipment, and so on are fortunate if

their estimates of loads to be carried are correct within 5%. Then a factor of safety of 2

or more is often applied. But except for some topographic work, only exceedingly small
errors can be tolerated in surveying, and there is no factor of safety. Traditionally,

therefore, both manual and computational precision are stressed in surveying.

TYPES OF SURVEYS

Control surveys establish a network of horizontal and vertical monuments that

serve as a reference framework for initiating other surveys. Many control surveys

performed today are done using techniques with GNSS instruments.

Topographic surveys determine locations of natural and artificial features and

elevations used in map making.

Land, boundary, and cadastral surveys establish property lines and property

corner markers. The term cadastral is now generally applied to surveys of the public

lands systems. There are three major categories: original surveys to establish new

section corners in unsurveyed areas; relocation surveys to recover previously

established boundary lines; and subdivision surveys to establish monuments and

delineate new parcels of ownership.

Hydrographic surveys define shorelines and depths of lakes, streams, oceans,

reservoirs, and other bodies of water. Sea surveying is associated with port and

offshore industries and the marine environment, including measurements and marine

investigations made by shipborne personnel.

Alignment surveys are made to plan, design, and construct highways, railroads,

pipelines, and other linear projects. They normally begin at one control point and

progress to another in the most direct manner permitted by field conditions.

 Construction surveys provide line, grade, control elevations, horizontal positions,

dimensions, and configurations for construction operations. They also secure essential

data for computing construction pay quantities.

As-built surveys document the precise final locations and layouts of engineering

works and record any design changes that may have been incorporated into the

construction. These are particularly important when underground facilities are

constructed, so their locations are accurately known for maintenance purposes, and so

that unexpected damage to them can be avoided during later installation of other

underground utilities.

Mine surveys are performed above and below ground to guide tunneling and

other operations associated with mining. This classification also includes geophysical

surveys for mineral and energy resource exploration.

Solar surveys map property boundaries, solar easements, obstructions according

to sun angles, and meet other requirements of zoning boards and title insurance

companies.

Optical tooling (also referred to as industrial surveying or optical alignment) is a

method of making extremely accurate measurements for manufacturing processes

where small tolerances are required.

Except for control surveys, most other types described are usually performed

using plane-surveying procedures, but geodetic methods may be employed on the

others if a survey covers an extensive area or requires extreme accuracy.

Ground, aerial, and satellite surveys are broad classifications sometimes used.

Ground surveys utilize measurements made with ground-based equipment such as

automatic levels and total station instruments. Aerial surveys are accomplished using

either photogrammetry or remote sensing. Photogrammetry uses cameras that are

carried usually in airplanes to obtain images, whereas remote sensing employs

cameras and other types of sensors that can be transported in either aircraft or

satellites. Aerial methods have been used in all the specialized types of surveys listed,

except for optical tooling, and in this area terrestrial (ground-based) photographs are

often used. Satellite surveys include the determination of ground locations from

measurements made to satellites using GNSS receivers, or the use of satellite images

for mapping and monitoring large regions of the Earth.

SURVEYING FIELD NOTES

Surveying field notes constitute the reliable and permanent record of actual work

done in the field. If the notes are incorrect or incompletely done, or are obliterated,

much or all of the time, money, and effort in the gathering of survey data are wasted.

Furthermore, no matter how carefully the field measurements are made, the survey as a

whole may be useless if some of the measurements are not recorded or if the meaning

of any recorded data is misinterpreted or misunderstood. There is no phase in a

surveyor’s work which is of greater importance, or which requires more careful attention,

than the keeping of field notes. From the beginning of his studies, the student of

surveying should realize that the quality of his field work is reflected directly in the

manner he keeps his field record.

 Before any survey is made, the necessary data to be collected should be

considered carefully and in the field all such required data should be obtained. The field

notes become the official record of the survey. It is for this reason that notes must be

complete, legible, concise and comprehensive, and logically arranged according to

recognized practice.

The notes should be recorded in the conventional and generally used format and

not according to whims of the field surveyor. The arrangement of notes usually depends

upon departmental or office standards, and preferences. There are different forms of

field notes in use, but in practice these must be adapted or new forms devised to meet

unusual situations.

It is desirable for students to have an expertly designed set of note forms

covering their first field work, to set high standards and save time. The student should

strive to improve each set of notes over the preceding one. He should avail himself of

this opportunity to develop note keeping techniques, since it will greatly help him not

only in surveying but also in other engineering work, such as recording laboratory

experiments and tests as well as in drafting and in the preparation of memoranda used

in executive or professional duties.

Name:____________________________ Date Performed:_____________

Course:___________________________ Date Submitted: _____________

Group Number:_____________________ Instructor:__________________

LAB EXERCISE NO. 0

Common Surveying Apparatus and Equipment and Their Uses

OBJECTIVES: To be acquainted with the common apparatus and equipment used in

surveying and to be able to handle them properly.

EQUIPMENT: Common Surveying Equipment and Apparatus Used

THEORY: Surveying is the process of determining relative positions of different objects

on the surface of the earth by measuring horizontal distances between them and
preparing a map to any suitable scale.

PROCEDURE:

1. The common apparatus and equipment will be shown to you at the surveying
laboratory. The uses of each of them will be discussed. Make sure you draw
them neatly and properly on the following report sheet.
Tripod – a portable three-legged frame or Prism - In surveying, a prism is a corner cube
stand, used as a platform for supporting the or retroreflector, normally attached on a
weight and maintaining the of the instrument surveying pole, used as a target for distance
to be mounted. measurement.

Prism Pole - Sometimes known as a ranging Total Station - Instrument is used to measure
pole, a prism pole includes alternating bands sloping distance of object to the instrument,
of red and white for distance measuring and horizontal angles and vertical angles.
accurate data collection.
Levelling Rod – This is a graduated wooden Engineers Level - Is an optical instrument
or aluminum rod, used with a levelling used to establish or verify points in the same
instrument to determine the difference in horizontal plane in a process known as
height between points or heights of points levelling, and is used in conjunction with a
above a vertical datum. levelling staff to establish the relative heights
levels of objects or marks.

Hand Held GPS - is a device that uses the Meter Tape/Steel Tape - used for the
Global Positioning System, combining measurement of distances, usually are
modern geographic technology with a accurately graduated in meters, and inches.
portable, user-friendly device for everyday These vary in length.
use.
Plumb Bob - or plummet, is a weight, usually
with a pointed tip on the bottom, suspended Chaining Pins - are used when measuring a
from a string and used as a vertical reference distance with a survey chain
line, or plumb-line
Name:____________________________ Date Performed:_____________

Course:___________________________ Date Submitted: _____________

Group Number:_____________________ Instructor:__________________

LAB EXERCISE NO. 1

PACING

OBJECTIVES:

a. To determine individual pace factor.

b. To measure distance by pacing.

EQUIPMENT: Range Poles, Steel Tape, Markers (hubs, paint, chalk, or crayons)

PROCEDURE:

1. Determining Pace Factor

a. Select a straight and level course and on both ends establish markers at least

90 meters apart. Designate these end points as A and B.

b. Walk over the course at a natural pace or gait starting with either heel or toe

over point A and count the number of paces to reach point B.

c. For succeeding trials, walk from B to A, then A to B, until 5 trials are

completed, and the number of paces recorded accordingly.

TRIAL LINE TAPED MEAN NO. OF PACE

DISTANCE (m) PACES FACTOR

(m/pace)

1 AB

2 BA
 3 AB

4 BA

5 AB

2. Measuring Distance by Pacing

a. Define or establish the end points of another level course whose length is to be

determined by pacing. Designate these end points as C and D.

b. For the first trial, walk over the course from C to D at a natural pace and record

the number of paces. Then, walk from D to C and again record the number of

paces.

c. Repeat the above procedure until all five trials are completed.

d. After the field data is recorded, make an actual taping of the course CD to

determine the taped distance.

TRIAL LINE TAPED MEAN NO. OF PACE

DISTANCE (m) PACES FACTOR

(m/pace)

1 CD

2 DC

3 CD

4 DC

5 CD
COMPUTATIIONS

1. Computing Pace Factor

a. Get the sum of the number of paces for the five trials performed on course

AB then compute the mean number of paces.

b. Divide the known or taped length of course AB by the mean number of

paces for AB to determine the pace factor.

2. Computing Paced Distance

a. Get the sum of the number of paces for the five trials performed on course

CD and compute the mean number of paces.

b. Multiply the mean number of paces for CD by the pace factor to obtain the

paced distance.

3. Computing Relative Precision

a. Determine the difference between the taped distance of CD and the paced

distance of CD.

b. Divide the difference by the taped distance of CD and reduce the

numerator to unity to determine the relative precision.

Name:____________________________ Date Performed:_____________

Course:___________________________ Date Submitted: _____________

Group Number:_____________________ Instructor:__________________

LAB EXERCISE NO. 2

TAPING OVER SMOOTH AND LEVEL GROUND

OBJECTIVE: To determine the horizontal length of a line over smooth and level ground

with the tape supported throughout its length.

EQUIPMENT: 30-m or 100-ft Steel Tape, Chaining Pins, Range Poles, Pegs or

Hubs, Chalk or Marking Crayons, and Spring Scale

PROCEDURE:

1. Using hubs, mark both ends of the line (150 to 300 m long) to be measured.

Place a range pole behind each point and also establish intermediate points

along the line to ensure unobstructed sight lines. If the point to be marked is on a

pavement, use chalk or marking crayons. Designate these end points as A and

B.

2. The rear tapeman with one pin stations himself at the point of beginning and the

head tapeman takes the zero end of the tape and advances toward the other end

of the line to be measured.

3. When the head tapeman has gone nearly a full tape length, the rear tapeman

calls “tape” to stop the head tapeman. The rear tapeman then holds the 30-m (or

100-ft) mark at the starting point and aligns the other end of the tape held by the
 head tapeman on the range pole set behind the end point or on any of the

intermediate points earlier established along the line.

4. With the 30-m mark at the starting point, and the head tapeman aligned, the rear

tapeman calls “all right”. The head tapeman then pulls the tape taut and sticks a

chaining pin in the ground to mark the 0-m end of the tape. If the measurement is

done on pavement, a chalk or marking crayon is used to mark the end of the

tape.

5. The rear tapeman picks up his chaining pin and the head tapeman pulls the tape

forward and the process is repeated for the next full tape length.

6. When the end of the line is almost reached and the last full tape length has been

measured, the remaining partial length is then measured. The rear tapeman

holds the tape until he has a full meter (or foot) mark at his chaining pin while the

head tapeman pulls the tape taut and takes note of the fractional measurement

read from the tape end.

7. After the measurement of the whole line is completed, a second measurement

should be made along the opposite direction. The mean of the two

measurements is taken as the most probable value of the length of the line.

8. Tabulate observed and computed values accordingly.

TRIAL LINE LENGTH DIFFERENCE MEAN RELATIVE

POSITION

1 AB

2 BA
COMPUTATIONS

1. The mean length of the measured line is determined by adding the two

measurements and dividing the sum by two.

2. The discrepancy for the measurement is the difference between the first

measurement and the second measurement.

3. The relative precision of the measurement is determined by dividing the

discrepancy by the mean length, where the numerator is reduced to unity or 1.

Relative precision is expressed in fractional form and the denominator is rounded

to the nearest hundredth.

Name:____________________________ Date Performed:_____________

Course:___________________________ Date Submitted: _____________

Group Number:_____________________ Instructor:__________________

LAB EXERCISE NO. 3

TAPING OVER UNEVEN AND SLOPING GROUND

OBJECTIVE: To determine the horizontal length of a line over uneven and sloping

ground by the method of breaking tape.

EQUIPMENT: 30-m or 100-ft Steel Tape, Chaining Pins, Range Poles, Pegs or

Hubs, Spring Scale, and Plumb Bobs

PROCEDURE:

1. Measuring Uphill

a. On a designated uneven and sloping terrain, mark the ends of a line

(about 90 m long) to be measured. Designate the hub at the bottom of the

slope as point A and the hub at the upper portion of the slope as point B.

Range poles are held or set behind each point to serve as markers, or are

set at intermediate points along the line to insure better alignment during

taping.

b. Head tapeman unreels and spreads out the tape and pulls the zero mark

uphill along the line from point A. The rear tapeman raises the 30-m (or

100-ft) end of the tape breast high while the head tapeman moves back to

a place on the line near a full meter (or foot) mark where the ground
 surface is as high as the other raised end of the tape. The head tapeman

stays by the side of the line measured and holds a chaining pin on the

ground.

c. The rear tapeman temporarily releases end of the tape and signals head

tapeman to either move to the right or to the left in order to align him.

When the pin of the head tapeman is in line with the range pole held over

point B, the head tapeman is then signaled to stick the pin vertically into

the ground.

d. Rear tapeman plumbs from point A to the terminal mark of the tape with a

plumb bob and maintains this plumb bob steadily over A while head

tapeman pulls the tape taut, and making sure that the tape is on line by

bringing one of its edges in contact with the previously aligned pin. The

head tapeman then moves the pin opposite the nearest full meter or foot

mark of the tape and he sticks it firmly into the ground.

e. The rear tapeman leaves his end of the tape, moves up the slope and gets

hold of the tape at the point previously held by the head tapeman. The

next measurement is made horizontally from the pin stuck in the ground

by the head tapeman as done at point A.

f. The process is repeated until the whole tape length is used up thus

finishing the measurement of one tape length of horizontal distance.

g. From the pin marking the end of one tape length measurement, the

horizontal measurement is continued until point B is reached. The last

partial tape length is measured with the rear tapeman holding the tape
 until he has a full meter (or foot) mark at his end while the head tapeman

pulls the tape taut and takes note of the fractional measurement. Then the

number of tape lengths and the last partial measurement are totaled to

determine the horizontal length of the line measured.

2. Measuring Downhill

a. In measuring down the slope, the tape is reversed to bring its zero end

forward in the direction of point A along the line. Horizontal measurement

starts from B with the rear tapeman holding his terminal meter (or foot)

mark of tape in level with B.

b. After the plumb bob of the head tapemen has been aligned with the range

pole held at A, the head tapeman drops the plumb bob causing it to leave

a mark on the ground. He then sticks a pin at the ground mark left by the

plumb bob.

c. The next horizontal measurement starts from the pin until one whole tape

length is measured. As in measuring up the slope, the number of tape

lengths plus the partial tape length at the end of the line determines the

total horizontal length of the line.

d. Tabulate observed and computed values accordingly. Refer to the

accompanying sample format for the tabulation of data.

 TRIAL LINE LENGTH DIFFERENCE MEAN RELATIVE

POSITION

1 AB

2 BA

COMPUTATIONS

1. The mean length of the measured line is determined by adding the two

measurements and dividing the sum by two. This is also known as the most

probable value of the length of the line.

2. The discrepancy for the measurement is the difference between the first

measurement and the second measurement.

3. The relative precision of the measurement is determined by dividing the

discrepancy by the mean length, where the numerator is reduced to unity or 1.

Relative precision is expressed in fractional form and the denominator is rounded

to the nearest hundredth.

Name:____________________________ Date Performed:_____________

Course:___________________________ Date Submitted: _____________

Group Number:_____________________ Instructor:__________________

LAB EXERCISE NO. 4

DETERMINING AREA OF A RECTILINEAR FIELD BY TAPE

OBJECTIVES:

a. To learn how to measure horizontal angles with tape.

b. To determine the area of a rectilinear field with tape.

EQUIPMENT: Steel Tape, Chaining Pins, Range Poles, and Pegs or Hubs

PROCEDURE:

1. Establish the corners of the assigned field and also establish within the field a

centrally-located point.

2. Subdivide the field into a convenient series of connected triangles (refer to

accompanying figure). Use pegs, hubs, or pins to mark the vertices of each

triangle. Call these points A, B, C, and etc.

3. From the centrally-located point, measure distances to each point defining the

corners or vertices of each triangle. Call these distances d1, d2, and etc.

4. Using the chord method of measuring angles by tape, determine all the angles

about the central point, i.e., θ1, θ2, and etc

5. Refer to the accompanying sample tabulation for the recording of observed field

data.
COMPUTATIONS:

1. Determining Values of Included Angles.

With the use of a tape the chord method of measuring angles may be

applied to determine the value of an angle. The following formula is used.

𝜃 𝑑⁄2
sin =
2 𝐿

Where 𝜃 = angle whose value is desired

d = measured chord distance

L = any convenient length of tape swung through an arc

INCLUDED CHORD LENGTH COMPUTED ADJUSTED
CORR
ANGLE DISTANCE OF SIDE ANGLE ANGLE

𝜃1

𝜃2

𝜃3

𝜃4

𝜃5

2. Determining Area of Each Triangle

In each triangle, since the length of the two sides and the included angle

can be determined, the area of the triangle may be calculated by the following

formula.

A = (1/2)(a)(b) Sin C Where:

A = area of the triangle

a, b = the two measured sides of the

triangle(or d1, d2, etc)

C = included angle (𝜃1, 𝜃2 , 𝜃3 , 𝑒𝑡𝑐)

 Sides Included
Triangle Area
1st 2nd Angle

ABF

BCF

CDF

DEF

AEF

3. Calculating the Total Area

The total area of the field is the sum of the calculated areas of the series

of connected triangles into which the field is subdivided, or

At = A 1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5 Where :

At = total area of the field, and A1,

A2, and etc. are areas of

individual triangles.
 Definition of Terms

Accuracy - The accuracy of a measurement is how close a result comes to the true value.

Boundaries – These are lines that mark the limits of an area

Control Networks - control networks or survey stations along a line or path of travel.

The previously surveyed points are then used as a reference to survey the next control

along the line of travel.

Ellipsoid – Is a closed surface of which all plane cross sections are either ellipses or
circles. An ellipsoid is symmetrical about three mutually perpendicular axes that
intersect at the center.

Mathematical datum - is a reference system or an approximation of the Earth's surface

against which positional measurements are made for computing locations.

Pacing - is a reasonably easy and quick method of measuring distance in the field. It is

used to measure a distance and is often used with a sighting or a hand compass. Most

commonly, pacing is split up into segments, such as chains, which are set measures of

distance. By determining one's own pace, distance can easily be estimated.

Precision - refers to how closely a measurement or observation comes to measuring a

"true value," since measurements and observations are always subject to error.

Surveying - is the process of determining relative positions of different objects on the

surface of the earth by measuring horizontal distances between them and preparing a

map to any suitable scale.

 References

Duggal, S.K. (2013). Surveying Volume 1. New Delhi: McGraw-Hill Education (India)

Private Ltd

Duggal, S. K. (2013). Surveying Volume 2. New Delhi: McGraw-Hill Education (India)

Private Ltd

La Putt, J. P. (2007). Elementary Surveying 3rd Edition. Baguio City Philippines:

Baguio Research and Publishing Center.

La Putt, J.P. (2007). Higher Surveying 3rd Edition. Baguio City Philippines: Baguio

Research and Publishing Center.

Narayan, G. (2014). Surveying. New Delhi: Venus Books

Besavilla, V.I. (2005). Theory and Practice in Surveying for Geodetic Engineers. Cebu

City: VIB Publishing.