17.

5 SHOCK WAVES AND EXPANSION WAVES

For some back pressure values, abrupt changes in fluid properties occur in a very thin section of a
converging–diverging nozzle under supersonic flow conditions, creating a shock wave.

We study the conditions under which shock waves develop and how they affect the flow.

Normal Shocks

Normal shock waves: The shock waves that occur in a plane normal to the direction of flow. The
flow process through the shock wave is highly irreversible.

Conservation of mass

Conservation of energy

Conservation of momentum

Increase of entropy

Fanno line: Combining the conservation of mass and energy relations into a single equation and
plotting it on an h-s diagram yield a curve. It is the locus of states that have the same value of
stagnation enthalpy and mass flux.

Rayleigh line: Combining the conservation of mass and momentum equations into a single equation
and plotting it on the h-s diagram yield a curve.

The relations between various properties before and after the shock for an ideal gas with constant
specific heats.

Various flow property ratios across the shock are listed in Table A–33.

This represents the intersections of the Fanno and Rayleigh lines.

 Since the flow across the shock is adiabatic and irreversible, the second law
requires that the entropy increase across the shock wave.

Thus, a shock wave cannot exist for values of Ma1 less than unity where the entropy change would
be negative.

For adiabatic flows, shock waves can exist only for supersonic flows, Ma1 > 1.

EXAMPLE 17–8 The Point of Maximum Entropy on the Fanno Line

Show that the point of maximum entropy on the Fanno line (point a of Fig. 17–31) for the adiabatic steady flow of a fluid in
a duct corresponds to the sonic velocity, Ma = 1.

EXAMPLE 17–9 Shock Wave in a Converging–Diverging Nozzle

If the air flowing through the converging–diverging nozzle of Example 17–7 experiences a normal shock wave at the nozzle
exit plane (Fig. 17–36), determine the following after the shock: (a) the stagnation pressure, static
pressure, static temperature, and static density; (b) the entropy change across the shock; (c) the exit velocity; and (d ) the
mass flow rate through the nozzle. Approximate the flow as steady, one-dimensional, and isentropic with k = 1.4 from the
nozzle inlet to the shock location.

a.
c.
d.

Oblique Shocks

When the space shuttle travels at supersonic speeds through the atmosphere, it produces a
complicated shock pattern consisting of inclined shock waves called oblique shocks.

Some portions of an oblique shock are curved, while other portions are straight.

An oblique shock of shock angle (wave angle)  formed by a slender, two-dimensional wedge of
half-angle . The flow is turned by deflection angle (turning angle)  downstream of the shock, and
the Mach number decreases.

Velocity vectors through an oblique shock of shock angle  and deflection angle .

Unlike normal shocks, in which the downstream Mach number is always subsonic, Ma2 downstream
of an oblique shock can be subsonic, sonic, or supersonic, depending on the upstream Mach number
Ma1 and the turning angle.

A detached oblique shock occurs upstream of a two-

dimensional wedge of half-angle  when  is greater
than the maximum possible deflection angle . A shock of
this kind is called a bow wave because of its resemblance
to the water wave that forms at the bow of a ship.

Still frames from schlieren videography illustrating the

detachment of an oblique shock from a cone with
increasing cone half-angle 

in air at Mach 3. At (a)  =20 and (b)  =40, the oblique

shock remains attached, but by (c)  =60, the oblique
shock has detached, forming a bow wave.

Mach angle

Shadowgram of a one-half-in diameter sphere in free flight through air at Ma = 1.53. The flow is
subsonic behind the part of the bow wave that is ahead of the sphere and over its surface back to
about 45. At about 90 the laminar boundary layer separates through an oblique shock wave and
quickly becomes turbulent. The fluctuating wake generates a system of weak disturbances that
merge into the second “recompression” shock wave.

Prandtl–Meyer Expansion Waves

We now address situations where supersonic flow is turned in the opposite direction, such as in the
upper portion of a two-dimensional wedge at an angle of attack greater than its half-angle .

We refer to this type of flow as an expanding flow, whereas a flow that produces an oblique shock
may be called a compressing flow.

As previously, the flow changes direction to conserve mass. However, unlike a compressing flow, an
expanding flow does not result in a shock wave.

Rather, a continuous expanding region called an expansion fan appears, composed of an infinite
number of Mach waves called Prandtl–Meyer expansion waves.

An expansion fan in the upper portion of the flow formed by a two-dimensional wedge at the angle
of attack in a supersonic flow. The flow is turned by angle u, and the Mach number increases across
the expansion fan. Mach angles upstream and downstream of the expansion fan are indicated. Only
three expansion waves are shown for simplicity, but in fact, there are an infinite number of them.
(An oblique shock is present in the bottom portion of this flow.)

Prandtl–Meyer function

EXAMPLE 17–10 Estimation of the Mach Number from Mach Lines

Estimate the Mach number of the free-stream flow upstream of the space shuttle in Fig. 17–38 from the figure alone.
Compare with the known value of Mach number provided in the figure caption.

EXAMPLE 17–11 Oblique Shock Calculations

Supersonic air at Ma1 = 2.0 and 75.0 kPa impinges on a two-dimensional wedge of half-angle d = 10° (Fig. 17–50). Calculate
the two possible oblique shock angles, bweak and bstrong, that could be formed by this wedge. For each case, calculate the
pressure and Mach number downstream of the oblique shock, compare, and discuss.
EXAMPLE 17–12 Prandtl–Meyer Expansion Wave Calculations
Supersonic air at Ma1 = 2.0 and 230 kPa flows parallel to a flat wall that suddenly expands by d = 10° (Fig. 17–51). Ignoring
any effects caused by the boundary layer along the wall, calculate downstream Mach number Ma2
and pressure P2.
17. 6 DUCT FLOW WITH HEAT TRANSFER AND NEGLIGIBLE FRICTION (RAYLEIGH FLOW)
So far we have limited our consideration mostly to isentropic flow (no heat transfer and no
irreversibilities such as friction).
Many compressible flow problems encountered in practice involve chemical reactions such as
combustion, nuclear reactions, evaporation, and condensation as well as heat gain or heat loss
through the duct wall.
Such problems are difficult to analyze exactly since they may involve significant changes in chemical
composition during flow, and the conversion of latent, chemical, and nuclear energies to thermal
energy.
A simplified model is Rayleigh flow.
Rayleigh flows: Steady one-dimensional flow of an ideal gas with constant specific heats through a
constant-area duct with heat transfer, but with negligible friction.

Consider a gas with known properties R, k, and cp. For a specified inlet
state 1, the inlet properties P1, T1, 1, V1, and s1 are known. The five exit properties P2, T2, 2, V2, and
s2 can be determined from the above equations for any specified value of heat transfer q.

From the Rayleigh line and the equations

1. All the states that satisfy the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy equations as
well as the property relations are on the Rayleigh line.
2. Entropy increases with heat gain, and thus we proceed to the right on the Rayleigh line as
heat is transferred to the fluid.
3. Heating increases the Mach number for subsonic flow, but decreases it for supersonic flow.
4. Heating increases the stagnation temperature T0 for both subsonic and supersonic flows,
and cooling decreases it.
5. Velocity and static pressure have opposite trends.
6. Density and velocity are inversely proportional.
7. The entropy change corresponding to a specified temperature change (and thus a given
amount of heat transfer) is larger in supersonic flow.

Heating or cooling has opposite effects on most properties. Also, the stagnation pressure decreases
during heating and increases during cooling regardless of whether the flow is subsonic or supersonic.

EXAMPLE 17–13 Extrema of Rayleigh Line

Consider the T-s diagram of Rayleigh flow, as shown in Fig. 17–56. Using the differential forms of the conservation
equations and property relations, show that the Mach number is Maa = 1 at the point of maximum entropy (point a), and
Mab = 1!k at the point of maximum temperature (point b).
EXAMPLE 17–14 Effect of Heat Transfer on Flow Velocity
Starting with the differential form of the energy equation, show that the flow velocity increases with heat addition in
subsonic Rayleigh flow, but decreases in supersonic Rayleigh flow.
As a result, heating the fluid (dq > 0) decreases the flow velocity while cooling increases it

Property Relations for Rayleigh Flow

Choked Rayleigh Flow

The fluid at the critical state of Ma =1 cannot be accelerated to supersonic velocities by heating.
Therefore, the flow is choked.
For a given inlet state, the corresponding critical state fixes the maximum possible heat transfer for
steady flow:

EXAMPLE 17–15 Rayleigh Flow in a Tubular Combustor

A combustion chamber consists of tubular combustors of 15-cm diameter. Compressed air enters the tubes at 550 K, 480
kPa, and 80 m/s (Fig. 17–60). Fuel with a heating value of 42,000 kJ/kg is injected into the air and is
burned with an air–fuel mass ratio of 40. Approximating combustion as a heat transfer process to air, determine the
temperature, pressure, velocity, and Mach number at the exit of the combustion chamber.
17.7 STEAM NOZZLES
Water vapor at moderate or high pressures deviates considerably from ideal-gas behavior, and thus
most of the relations developed in this chapter are not applicable to the flow of steam through the
nozzles or blade passages encountered in steam turbines.
Supersaturated steam: The steam that exists in the wet region without containing any liquid.
Supersaturation states are nonequilibrium (or metastable) states.
Wilson line: The locus of points where condensation takes place regardless of the initial
temperatureand pressure at the nozzle entrance.

When steam is assumed ideal gas with k = 1.3

EXAMPLE 17–16 Steam Flow through a Converging–Diverging Nozzle

Steam enters a converging–diverging nozzle at 2 MPa and 400°C with a negligible velocity and a mass flow rate of 2.5 kg/s,
and it exits at a pressure of 300 kPa. The flow is isentropic between the nozzle entrance and throat, and the overall nozzle
efficiency is 93 percent. Determine (a) the throat and exit areas and (b) the Mach number at the throat and the nozzle exit.