Fiaa!

l}', a sp eci al wo
efficient. co m~ ten t ~i
Every effo rt ha.1 ~~n_
rd of 1hank.s to the
fto na an d ent hus ias
ma de to avo id pri nti
ent ire sta ff of M<Uim
tic cooperation.
ng e"o rs tho ug h som
cv: Pu bli sh ing Ho use
for th eir ----------Qin~• ia:1b'.).- - - - - - - - 4
I shall be hig My obl e mig ht ha ve crept in
ige d if suc h errors are inad1·er1 cn tly.
criticism fro m studen bro ugh t to my not ice
ts an d teacher.s so tha . I loo k f orward to con
t the presen t book can s.tructive
furth er be imp rov ed
ed-irlor.S. in fi,rure ✓ LJl\llTS 1 - 38 1
1.1 Limit : An ln fo nn
al App roa ch
Mo bil e; 98 10 58 76 DR . J .K. THUKRA l.2 Computing Limits :I
61 L
E-mail: jtendraJJ1.1.1.kra 1.3 Precise Defini tio n of B
.J€Ilrnnilcom a Limit
1.4 One-S ided Limits 17 ,:\
'l
I .S LimiL~ at Infini ty
/- '3t 1.6 Infinity Limits
and Horizontal As ym
and Vertic al As ympto
ptotes
tes
20
29
f.
';lo -- ::;g I ND ET ER MI NA TE
FOR!\JS AND L'H ()P J? - SI

lo 1--- 11 8
Y 2. 1 Ind eterminate For
IT1\L'S RULE'.
39 {.
/ 2 L"l-lopital"s Rule
ms
40
J ~p pU C,\T W NS Of
DI FF E~ EN TL \T IO
N
53 - 7 8
f
1. 1Increasing and Decre 53
asing l· unc 11ons 1'
3.2 Co ncavity and
Points of lnt kc tio n S6 s
1.J Loca l Ma., ima 60
and Local Minima
~'\
J.-t Curve Ske tching 67
3.S Lincariz.ation and 70
D11Tcrcntials
4 ,\VPLICAflONS OF (
OEFI N l'TE INTf.GRA 79 - }08
LS
4. l Volumes Ely Sli cing 79
4.2 So lids of Revolution 81
~
: Th e Dis k Method
4.3 So lids uf Revoluti on &6
. Th e Wa sh.:r lsk tho d
4.4 Vo lum es by Cy lindrical 92
~
Sh dls
4 .S Length s of Plane Curve 98
s
4.6 ,\J.:as of Surfacc.:s of
R.:vo lut ion 104 ~
/ ~ IMPROf 109 - ns
f-it-"lN ( E,GRACS 'I
i.\
5. 1 lmpro p.:r Integr \()9
als
5.2 T..:sts for Co nv. \T l
.:rgc nc.:c of IJ11 proper lntq_~rals

J6 POLAR COOIUJIN
6. I
ATfS
Polar Coo rdina tes
\19 - 1'\'i\
\29
6.2 Co nvers ion Uetwc cn rn
Pol ar m<l Ca rte sian Coord
inates
6 3 Graphing in Pol3r \ 37
Coord in1 tc<;
t
t (~ . . . .. .

• j_/v Ecro R-VAL UED FUNCTIONS 149 - 194

7.1 Vector-Valued Functions 149
t .7.2 · Graphs of Vector.a.Valued Functions 150
· 7.3 . Limits and Continuity . 152
I 7.4 Derivative of a Vector-Valued Function 154
7.5 Motion in Space 161
t · 7.6 Integrals ofVector:-Valued functions · 165
7. 7 Arc Length . . 172
D 7.8 . Curvature and the Principal Unit Normal Vector 177
7.9 The Unit Binormal Vector 184
I 7.10 Torsiori 188
7.11 Tangential and Normal Components of Acceleration 190
8 · PARTIAL DERIVATIVES 195 - 243
8.1 Functions of Two or More Variables 195
8.2 Limits and Continuity 197
8.3 Partial Derivatives 207
8.4 Differentiability 217
8.5 The Chain Rule 220
· 8:6 Directional Derivatives and Gradients 226
8.7 Tangent Planes and Normal Lines 235
D. 8.8 Extreme Values and Saddle Points 239

Delhi University GE-1 Examination Papers . E.1-E.4

2015 E.l
2016 E.3
 -----------<➔ 1&1Ri3;~11-----------
1
Limits

1.1 LIMI T: AN INFORMAL APPROACH

from the other mathematical
The concept of limit is the concept that distinguishes calculus
is often called the glue that
disciplines. In a real sense, calculus is the study of limits. The limit
limit, from an intitutive, non-
holds all of the calculus together. In this section we shall introduce
of "closeness". We begin the
formal point of view. The idea of limit is centered about the notion
development of the limit by the consideration,of specific example.
E ~ E 1 Consider the funct ion/ defined by
f (x) = 2-c + 1
3. Some values of/ {.t) for x
Let us examine this function when x is near "3" but not equal to
less than 3 and then for,x grea~er than 3 are given in Table I. I.
TABLE 1.1
x<3 x>3
/(2.7) = 6.4 /(33) =7.6
/(2.8) = 6.6 /(32) = 7.4
/(2.9) =6.8 /(3.1) ""' 72
/(2.99) = 6.98 /(3.01) :: J.02
:.:'.: ~ _ _ _ _ __ -.!.(l.. !.:(3. ..00 7._00_~_ _ __ _ _ ___
) _""_
. .: . . .1:.!.-
L - ---- =/1~(2~'.999~)_=~6'. .~~8
 Ca/cu/tis
·2
It is dear from Table I; I and also frorn
: ·y ·:' ,·, ~
the graph off iri Figure 1.1 that as ;r gets· .fp_.1)== 7.2 ~ ...- ,-' Ir
closer and closer to 3, regardless of lim/(x)=7 ➔
- -- - --- ,,
whetner x approaches 3 from_the left x➔ 3 ~
(x < 3) or from the right (x > 3}, the · /(2.9)=6.8 ,,,
III

,,,,,,
III
corresponding values -off (x) get closer
and closer to 7. We express this sL1tement
by saying that the limit off (.x) as x ,,,
II I

approaches (or, tends to) 3 is 7 a_nd we II I

\\Tite \ ,,,
II I

II I J• :
lim (2x + l) = 7
I

.r ➔ 3 ,,,
II I

II I
11 I
11 I
11 I
--+-_,__ _ _ ___.._....____ _ _ _ _,t
~ 3" .
29 6.1
FIGURE1.1

Remark In Example I, we found that Jim f (x) = Jim (2x + l) = 7.

·
x➔l x➔J

Also f (3) = 7. Thus_we may conclude that !he limit of a function as x approaches some
n.umher a can be found by simply evaluating the function when x = a. However, this is_not
always true. For instance, consider·the following example. ··· ·

/ . j 2x + }, if X "# 3
EXAJlrfPµ-12 Let a function/be defined by f(x) = t ,4- ,- •.if~~ = 3
y
Let us find · lmi f (x"). From the graph off in Figure J.2, '
.....
.J ➔ J
7 ----- -- ,,
-------
'we see that as .r gets closer and closer to 3 (but not ----- -- ,,,
equal to 3), then/ (x) gets closer and closer to 7. Thus ,,,.
Jim f(x) = 1 ,,,,,,,,,
.r ➔ 3
,,,
= 4. ,,.
,,,...
which is not the same as f (3) 4 I

·1
II I
ti I
11 I
11 I
11 I
11 I
II I
Ill
,l
3
FIGURE 1.2'
f
I,
J
limit.i.
Function
An informal Definition of the limi t of a
__ _ _
DEFINITION Limit: An lnfon1rnlA ppr~ cl1
rval containing a, except possibly at a. We
Ltt the function .f be defined for nil x in nn open j11tc
the number L, and writ e
say that thr limit of /(x ) a~ x approaches a i~
I lim /(x) = L
.t ➔ a
I
to L as we please) for all x sufficiently close
I if f(x) can be made arbitrarily close to L (as close
to the number a but not equal to a.
lI s that the distance between/(x) and L can be . ~
Thus, the stateme~,t Jim /(x) = L infonnally mean
; X ➔O ofx sufficiently close but not equal to a.
~tt
made as small as we please by making the value
what .-:-i
Note 1 We are not concerned with
what happens to/ (x) when x equals a, but only
hasize that the limit must be the same as ·x
~{
happ ens to it whe n x is close to a. We emp
approaches a from the left or from the right. .r,t"

sufficiently close will be mad e precise whe n rego rous ;It

•
Note 2 The ternis _arbitrarily close and
definitions of limits are given in Section 1.3.

1.2 COMPUTING LIMITS

puting limits of many functions. The following
tf['
In this section we discuss techniques for com
y limits. These properties are based on the infonnal
properties greatly simplify the evaluation of man
the preceding _section.
· development of the limit concept discussed in
(fl_ I
~'
. THEOREM 1.1 Properties of Limits
c be any real number. Then the following
f~
Assume that Jim f (x) and Jim g (xtexist. Let x ➔ a
x ➔a

are true :
J. lim C = C.
I ➔ a
tant.
That is, the limit of a constant function is a cons
2. Jim x = a. That is, the limit of an iden
tity function is its actual value.
J ➔ Q

3. Jim [c/(x)} = lim f (x)

x-.a x ➔ a

is the constant times th t? limit.

That is, the limit of a constant times a function
lim /(x) ± Jim g (x)
4. lim l/ (x) ± g (x)J = x--ta ~
i--.u
., . .. 0

sum or differenc e of the limits.

That is, the limit of a sum or difference is the
5. Jim [l(x) g (;c)) = .llim f (x) . lim g (x)
• •II J - tQ
J - •11

of /imils. ________ _
l . __ 171111 is. the limit of a prod11ct is the l!..roducl
,
,-f ~
-~

~I I
I 3D 4

}~f (x)
I ~I 6.
.
hm - (
l' ➔ •
X
)
f (x)
g
= run g (X ) , prov ided
X ➔ •
lim g (x)
r-► a
"# 0.

' ~~
of the limits, prov ided the denominator d9es
Thar is, the limit of a quot ient is the quot ient
not have a limit of 0. ·

'o
I•®
. 7. .rlim

Rem ark
➔a
~/ (x) = " l'lim
➔a
f (x), for any positive integer n .

In Prop erty 7, we requ ire that Iim _f (x) be posit

ive, if n is even .
.r ➔ a

I•• The abov e_?perti es of limits are best illust

rated with the help of following examples :
·

' ••
EXAMPLE 3 Find the following limits :
(,) (i,) lim 5x1 (ii,) lim (3r + 2l" + 4)
iim 8 l' ➔ I
.r ➔ 2 1' ➔ 3

lim [(x1 + 4) (3x - 2)1 (vi) lim J3x -7

~ !~ (iv) lim (3x + 10) (v) .r ➔ 3

I ..~
~ i>;l\
, llil1
3Y X ➔ -2

2
2x + X - J. (viii)
r ➔ I

liril vx2 _+ 2 (ix) lim x 2 + ?x- 6

I
(vii) lim 3 x ➔ S
.r ➔ 2
x+ I
.r ➔ I x +4

1w1
,. ,
SOL UTI ON (i) lim 8 = 8
.r ➔ 2

2
Jim 5x
2
=5 lim x = 5(3)2 = 45

,~D
(ii)
.r ➔ 3 .r ➔ 3

2 Zx+ lim 4
lim (3x + 2x + 4) = Jim (3x ) + ·Jim
2
(iii) .r ➔ I .r ➔ I -

,.~~
.r ➔ I .r ➔ l .

= 3 Jim x 2 + 2 .rI~
➔ I
x +4
.r ➔ I

r r
= 3 (1)2 + 2 (I) + 4 = 9
1
- (iv) Jim (3x + J0) = ·lim 3x + lim JO =3 lim x + 10 = 3 (-2) + 10 = 4
.r ➔ -2 x ➔ -2 x ➔ -2

I: :
x ➔ -2 ·

2 (3x - 2)
lim f(x + 4) (3x - 2)) = Jim (x + 4) xlim
2
(v} .r-•1 - •l
.r➔I .

I = [ Jim .x
2
+ lim 4] x [ liml 3x - ilim 2]
I f ~ .i ➔ I i ➔ I .r ➔ ➔I

I = [l + 4] x (3 - 2] = 5
·.-;1
 5
Limits

lim JJ.t - 7 :::: lim (3x -, 7) = ✓2

(vi) x➔ 3 · :c ➔ 3

. 2
Jim (2x + x - 3)
2
lim _2x__+_x_-_3 = _.r_--+_I_ _ _ _ _ = (2 + I - 3) =~ =0
(l'ii) 3 3 +4) {1+ 4) 5
x ➔ l x +4 lim (x
x ➔ l

(Vlll
2 2
lim (.x. +
···) Jim ~x + 2 · ~- 3 x--+5 i).= VI.
3'fi = .3
I
x➔5

2 2
lim (x 2 +7x-6)
X +7 x-6 . X +7 x-6 X ➔ 2
(fr) lim = I1 m - - - - = (x + I)
x➔2 . X +I x➔2 x+l · lim
x➔2

function. lim/
Compute .r➔ (x).
Let/(x) = aryn + a 1x'- + ... +an be a polynomial
1 a
-4
EXA l\1P LF. .
-~

SOLUTION . ·/( x ) = 1·1m ( a0 x n + a 1x ~

I1m
- I + ... +an )
x ➔ a x➔a

n-1 + ... + 1•1m an

•
= a0 l1m x II .+ a 1 1•1m x x➔a
x➔ a x➔a

= aoa n + a,an - I + ... + an = f(a)

Thus if/is a polynomial function, then lim / (x)

= / (a) .
.x ➔ a

2
. x -1
~ ·s Find hm - - .
.x-+I x-1
' .

minator approach zero. Since the limit of the

SOLUTION As x ·➔ 1, both numerator and deno
ever, since w~ are not concerned with what
denominator is 0, we can not use property 3. How
assume that x -:t- 1 and write
happens to the quotient when ~-equals I, we can

x2 - J (x + I)(x - I)
- - - = - - - - - =x+ l
x-1 x-l

2 .
X. - )
Hence - -- = x + 1. for x :t- I
x- I
2
x - I
Thu.s lim = lim (x + l) = 2.
.r ➔ I .r-1 .r ➔ I
 Calculus-
6
Note . Notice that; although the original function in Example 5 is not defined at x = I, it does
have a limit as x➔ l . .
Remark If/and g are two functions such that Jim "f (:r) = lim g (x} = 0 and we are asked
· · x ➔a x➔a

to fmd lim f (x}., th':n ·we obtain a meaningless "0/0" form. -Such limjts arc usually evaluated
x ➔ o g(x) · . _ ·
by an appropriate factoring, as in Example _5. When the 0/0 form arises in a limit, it is referred
to as an. indeterminate f-Orm. Forms~ like ± oo / ± oo are also called . indeterminate.
. . . These

7E
forms will be discussed in Chapter 2.

2
6 Evaluate the following limits:
\

(z) Lim x - 3x - JO (iz) Jim[~ - 2 I ·] ·

2 · x➔2 x - 2 x - 3x + 2
x--+5 x - 6x + 5

SOLUTION (z) Since lim (x 2 - 3.T - l 0) = O and Jim · (x 2 - 6x + 5) = 0, we have an

x➔ 5 x➔5

indeterminate fonn. By factoring, we see that

. x 2 - 3x - Id . (x + 2) (x - 5) . x +2 7
I1m = . hm --'--~_;__...:.. = hm - - - - .
x--+5 x 2 - 6x + S. x ➔ S (x - I} (x - 5)' x ➔ 5 x ,_ l 4

(ilJ lim
. x--+2
[-1- -. I ]
x-2 x 2 -3x+2
= . lim [
x--+2 x-2
I -- 1
(x ·-I)(x-2) .
]·

- = Jim [. (x - 2) J~: = Jim _I_ = I

. x--+ 2 (x - I}{x.:... 2} : x ➔ 2 x .- l ·
We now give a different kind of example of limit, one involving roots.

~,_yf Evaluate . ]if;'. F;I 4

-
3
•

S~LUTION Rationalizing .the nµmerator, we obtain

F"+s-3 = F --3 F+s+J

X - 4 X - 4 . ✓x + 5 + J
= (x + 5) - 9
(x - 4) (Jx + 5 + 3)
=-------
(x - 4) (✓x + 5 + 3)
1
= (J X +5+3
) for .r "F- 4
 7
lr'mi ts

. J;+ 5 - 3 1 I {~
= ---; === -- - -- = -
Thu s Iun - - - - = lim ---;= ==: ---
) + ) 6
x
4 4 X - 4 -' -• 4 .J
X + 5 + ) J4 + 5 + J
%.,~
The Squeeze The orem
The Sque eze Th eorem, also calle d the Saiid
wich
ating y
Theorem, prov ides another useful tool for evalu
ra
lilll1ts. The Squeeze Theorem says that wheneve · g(x) -5.f(x) ~ h(x)
h y=h (x)
func tion / is trapped between two functions g and
in some open interyal ·containing the num ber a
such
at a,
that the functions g and h have the same limit L L
re
then /must also have the same limit Lat a (see Figu
I.J ). .
y= g(x)
X
0 a

FIGURE 1.3

THEOREM 1.2 The Squeeze The orem

Let/ , g, and h be functions satis fyin gg(x ) 5,/(x
) 5, h(x) for all x in som e open interval containing

Jf Jim g(x) = lim h(x) = L, then Jim f(x) == L.

a, exce pt poss ibly at a. x➔a
x➔ a
x➔a

Rem ark The Sque eze Theorem also hold

s for one-sided limits and limits at co and -co.

Use the Squeeze Theorem to show that xHm xsin.!. =Q

~EX AMP LE2 ➔O X
-1 and 1, we have
SOL UTI ON Since the sine function takes on values between

l I~sin~ I fo, all x a< 0

I
I
x sin.!_ = ix sin_!_
.T
III X
I~ I I
x

I .
-I.xi S: xsin - ~ jxj
X

Th us, by Jetting g(x ) =:t -I.xi, f(x) = xsin !, and h(x) = Ix j, we see that
X

g(x) 5 f( x) 5 h(x ) for all x -t: 0.

y th e Squ eeze Theorem to conc lude that

He c:ws c> li m g (x) ::; Jim0 h( x) :::: 0, we can appl
x -. 0 .1 --.

J
l11n ..rsjn -;; 0.
J .o X
a,wr~.------~---------◄
~. 8 Calculu.r
8.
~l.l?~
. ~Eva luate the following li~its : ·

(a) Jim 12 (b) Jim 7x (c) Jim (2x-3)

X-~2 Z➔ 4
X➔ J

. 5x + 2
(d) liin (x3- 5.r2 - J.x +2) (e) Jim J1x + 2 (f) I1m - -
:r ➔ -1 x ➔ 2 :r ➔ 2 x-1

~ Show that
2 2 x-2
x -16
(a) lim · x + 6· = - 2 (b) lim =8 (c) lim - -- -
:r ➔ 2 x 2 -4 - 4
. .r ➔ -6 x-6 2 .r ➔ 4 x-4
2
2
x -9x + 20 I 4x+ 2x
51x 2 +7x+ 2 =2 (e) Jim =-- (j) lim 2 =2
(d) .rlim
➔J V .r ➔ 4 x2 - 3x.:.. 4 5 .r ➔ o 2x- 3x

J Evaluate the following limits :

Jx + 2 -2 Fx -Fx ✓2 + 3x - ✓2 - 5.r
(a) Jim (b) lim (c) lim
x-2 x ➔ O X x➔ 0 4x
.r ➔ 2

G) 2
Use the Squeeze Theorem to Show that lim x sin _I_
· X
= 0.
x➔O

(b) 14 (c) 5 (d) - I (e) 4 (j) 12

I. (a) 12
3. (a) 1/4 (b) I (c) 11Ji
1.3 PRECISE DEFINITION OF A LIMIT .
_understinding,
The d~finition of the limit already discussed in this chapter is appropriate for an intuitive
. Our goal in this
but for ~eeper understanding and rigorous proofs we need to be more precise
like .. as close as
section is to define the notion of a limit precisely. We will replace vague phrases
conditi ons tha t
we like to be" a,d "SJffide1Uy dooo to a" in the informal definition with specific
e to est~blisb m:1ny
can be applied to any p~rticuJar example. With a precise ddinition, it is possibl
important limits and to prove theorems about them.
.l that contains a,
To do this, consider the functi on/ that is defined for all x on some op~n intcrv:i.
lly means that Ult'
except possibly at a itse lf. Recall that the statement Jim / (x) == l infomu x- ; a
\'aluc of.r sutlic1cntly
di stance bctwee n/(x) and L can be maJ e as small as we plcJSI! by.making the
by observing tJ1a1
close (but not eq ual) to a. This infom1al defin ition of limit can be nu de precise
ond a is Ix - a j. Th us
the distance betwee n f (x ) and/, is I/ (.r) - LI and that the di~tancc bt.' I\W <.' 11 t
 ,
lie ' wilhin any preassigned dist.1 nce from L
we write lim /(x) = L if /(:r) can be made to
epsilon) by requiring that .x be within a
(traditionally denoted by t, tJ1c lowercase Greek letter
That is,1/ (x) - ll < c whe neve rtx-a l < o
spcc ified dista ncc6 (thcG rcek )ettc rde/t a)fro ma.
of a limit.
and x ~ a . This leads us to the precise definition
DEFINITION Limit of a function
containing the number a, except possibly at a
Let/ be a function defined on some open interval
itself. We say iliat the liit}!t of f(x) as x approach
a
es is the number L, and write

Jim f(x) = L,
x➔a

number 6 > 0 such that

if for every number E > 0, there is a corresponding
1/(x )-LI < E whenever O < Ix - al < 8
The above definition is illustrated in Figure 1.4. ·
y

L+£ ····-··· -··-···· -····: ··--·-· ··· 1,.--•--··

f (x) .........·-···· ..·····-+····. ;

L-&
L, _ _ _ l! I
·1·-;···-·- -··-· ·-
: i

! i
0 a-o xaa +o

FIGURE 1.4

Note 1 The fonnal definition of a limit is comm

only called the "t ~ 6" definition.
are given :m arb itrary
Note 2 When using o definition, begin each proof by assuming that we
£-
E to find a condition of the fonn Ix - a I<
S,
positive number E. Then use the _inequality lf(x )- LI<
this value of o to prove that
where o depends only on the value of E. Finally, use
1/(x) - LI < E whenever O< l·x - a I < o.
a given E. Once we fmJ a value of 8 that
Note 3 TI1cre are many values of 8 which can work for
.
works then all
- other smaller values of o also work.
.

a limit.
The following examples help you develop a bette
r understandi ng of the c - & definition L)f

(De/I ii Uni~~ GE• l, 2016I

(3x - 7) ;:: 2.
.:, 9 Use c. o
EXAM r>Y[ definition 10 prove that .1lirn
7"1
·i;._ 4 }
 ' '
.10 Calculus
SOl..U TION : Let ~ > 0 be given. We need to find a number 6 > 0
suck that

t(l:c - 7) - 21 <& Ix - 31 < 6

whene ver O<
We find 6 by workin g bac.k ward from the £-inequality : I (3x - 7J - 21 < £.

I Thus,
i.e.,
l(3x - 7) - 2 l < E if I3x - 9 I < & .
if 3lx-3 -I< E
i. e., if lx-3~ < t/3
Th~ we can take B = t/3. If we assum e th~t O <lx.:.. JI< B = ~/3,
then
~(3x - 7}- 21 = I3x - 9 t = 3. l:c - 3 t < )(s/3 ) = E
which proves that lim (3x - 7) = 2.
.x➔3

LXM.tPLF....r'O Prove that lim (1- 4x}= 3.

J . .x➔ -1/2
SOLUTION Let & > 0 be given. We need to find a number o> 0 such that

f(I - 4x)- 3 I < E whene ver O <fx-(- ~)I< 0

I-- 2 - 4.rl < E · whene ver O< lx+½l < 0. l

l lI
I•
We find o by worki ng backw ard from the inequa lity: I (l - 4x}- 3
t< &. Thus, I
I
.1
l(l - 4x}- 3 ~ < & if l-2-4 xl < E
!

i.e., if (-4{½ +x)I < E

i .t ., if l-4llx+½l<E
i.e .. if lx+½l<E/4
Thus, we can choose & = E/4. This choice works becaus e if we
assum e that

O< Ix+ ½I <O = 1• then

;! l(l - 4x) - 31 = l- 2-4x l = l(-4{½u)l=++½l<W=• 4

' i
l
I
I
l
lim (1-4.1 ) = 3
I
'
i ➔ -11 2

;t
l
 Lim'its 11.
./ '

E ~ E 11_ Give~ E = 0 .02, a == -2,f(x} = 2x - 2, L = -6.-Find o> 0 such that ,

1/(x) - l I < 0.02 whenever Ix - a I< o. . {Delhi Univ. B.Sc. (JI) Allied Courses 2015-J

s·OLlITION We find o_by working backward from the inequality : lf(.x}- LI< 0.02 .
lf(.r) - L l < - 0.02
i.e., l(2T - 2)- (-6)1 < 0.02
i.e.. 12.r + 41 < 0.02 if 2lx + 21 < 0.02 ⇒ Ix+ 21 < 0.02/2 = 0.01
Thus. we can choose o = 0.01. This choice works because if
lx-al < 0.01, i.e., if l~-(-2)1 < 0.01 or lx+21-< 0.01,
then lf(x) - L J = l(2x - 2) - (-6) I= I 2x + 41 = 2 Ix+ 21 < 2(0.01) ~ 0.02.

TE~PLE 12 Prove that lim (x 2 + 3) = 4.

x➔I

SOLUTION Let -E > 0 be given. \Ve need to find a number 6 > O such that

I (x 2 + 3) --4 I < Ix - l l < o

E whenever O <
\Ve find o > 0 by working backward from the inequality: I (x 2 + 3) - 4 l < E, i.e., I x 2 - I I < t .
\Ve have
Ix2 - I I < E - iff I(x - I )(x + I) I <
iff IX - 111 X + l I < E E

\Ve will now replace the term Ix + 11 with an appropriate constant and keep the term ! x - l I as it
is, since this is the term we wish to solve for. To do this, we will arbitrarily assume that 8 ~ I .
. (This is a valid assumption to make since, in general, once we fincf o> 0 that works, all smaller a
valnes of cS also work). Then the condition Ix - I I < o ~ l implies that
-1 < x - 1 < 1 or 0 < x < 2 or I< x+l < 3 ⇒ I x _+ 1 I < 3
It follows that
!x- Ill.r+ II< lx-113 < E if Ix- II< E/3
Now choose 6 = min { l. f; / 3}, Thus, if O < Ix - I I < 8

then !(x2+3)-41=1x2-ll = !(x_:l)(x+ 1)1< 3!x-1I< 30$ {j)=•

i.e., J(x2+3)-4l <E whenever O <Ix-II< 8 6
2
This proves that lim (x + 3)- = 4.
.:r ➔ I

· 1·ty o < Ix a I < 8 means that x lies between a - o and a + S with x;;:. a. \\.'e
Note Tb e mequa 1 h ,.
- • -
th.at the interval (a _&,a+&) is symmetric about a or centered at a becau~e a IS e center l
::7'lhe interval Notice that~ Examples 9 and IO. the interval of values about a for which V(x)- LI was
· ;:v-mmetric about a and we could take 8 to be half lhe length of that mterval. ln the
1
-~ss man £f was Sre-,-rv-· \"C take s: to be the distance from a to the nearer end point of the interval.
ausence O SVJTUU ~J, ..- · v .
This is iUust~ted i1i the following examples.

t1
' ~ - - - - - -- -- --. - ---- - -
'1
. Ca_/0!/~

•
I
.
12

'L"'V
~u
f>" .
/ ~L E 13 For the limit xLim

6 > 0 such that for all x,

-+5
M = 2, find 3 6 > 0 that works for C = I. That is. find a

0< lx-5 1< 5 ⇒ JM - 2f<1

e SOLUTION We have

•
i

f Jx-1-2/ < _I

iff -1 < Jx 1-2 < I

7

iff l< M <3

iff I< x-1 < 9
jff 2 < X < 10
y I'M -2 f < I holds
In other words, / M -2 j < I iff x e_(2, 10). In particul~, the inequalit
the interval (2, I 0) is not symmetric about x =
5.
for all x ~ 5 in the interval (2, I 0). Notice that
interval (5 - 8, 5 + ci) (centered at a= 5) inside
We now find a value of 8 that places the centered
to sit inside the interval (2, 10), we need
i:"Gi
the interval (2, 10). In order for (5 - &, 5 + ci)
~ta:
& <'5 s 5
ci s 3. and
2 s 5 - cS and 5 + ci s IO or equivalently,
ci = min{3, 5} ..
so the biggest value of 8 that would work is:
the inequality O< Ix - 51 < owill automatically
If we take 8 = 3 or any smaller positive value, then
place x between 2 and IO to make . /M -
2/ < I. In .~ther words, for all x,

0< Ix - 5 I< 6 ⇒ /Jx- l - 2/ < I

This proves that Jim M = 2.
.r ➔ J

if X ~ I
· EXA y4'L E 14 Prove that .rJim /(x) = I if f(x) = {;" if X =)
➔l
,

a 8 > 0 such that for all x

SOLUTION Let £> 0 be given. We must find
0< jx- 1 _i <8 ⇒ lf(x ) -ll< E
1
begi n with lf(x ) - 1I< E and 'solv e for.' Ix - 11. For x "F- a = I, we have f (x) ; x . Th us, we
We
2
n~ed to solve the inequality Ix ) JI < c : •
[ _l.x2 - lj < £ lll x + II < c
iff Ix-
priate constan t and keep the term I.x - l !,_sinc e
We wilt now replace the term Ix + 11 with an-appro
( 1his is the term we wish to 'solv e for' . To do this,
valid assumpti on to male since, in genera l, once
W\! will arbitraril y assume that S
~ I (This is a

we find a orhat works, all sma ller values of oatso

work ). Thu s
,T ~ l impl ies 1h;i t - J < x - I < I :::;, 0 < x ~ 2 ⇒ 1· <- l.r ➔· 11 < J
Ix - 11 < cS
Ix - JI I.:c + Jl < ) I r - 1j < c if j .t - 11 c.:: l I 3
~-
! ·, .
r
,
13
Limtti
condition O < f.r - I I< 6 implies that
Thus, if we choose o= min {I, E/3 }, then the

fx2-II = l(x -l)( x+ l)I< 31x -lf< J6, ;J( f)= •

In other words. lf(x) ..:.. 11 < E whenever O < I:r - 11 < 6

Thus, Jim f (x) =I

x➔I

This completes the proof.

orems
Using the De~nition to Prove Limit .The
those in
In practice, the fonnal definition of the limi
t is rarely.used to verify specific limit:5 such as
uated using the properties ofliinits discussed in
the preceding examples. Rather most limits are eval
nition allows us to prove these properties in a
rigorous
· Theorem I.I of Section 1.2. The fonnal defi
in the next example for ready reference. .
way. To illustrate, we reproduce Theorem 1.1
g (x) exist Let c be any real number. Then the
EXAMPLE t"S Assume that lim f(x) and lim .r ➔ a .r ➔ a

following are true :

J. Jjm C = C•
.r ➔ a

tant.
That is, the limit of a cans/ant function is a cons
'
functio~ is its actual value.
2. lim x = a. That is, the limit of an identity
.r ➔ a

3. Jim [cf (x)] = lim f (x)

.r ➔ a

is the consJanJ times the limit.

That is, the limit of a constant times a function
lim g (x)
4. lim [f (x) ± g (x)] = Jim f (x) ± .r-+a .r ➔ a
.r ➔ a

sum or difference of the limits.

That is, the limit of a sum or difference is ,the
5. lim [f (x) g .(x)] = Jim f (x) lim g (x)
.r ➔ a .r ➔ a
.r ➔ a

of limits.
That is, the limit of a product is the product

f(:,;) . J~ f(x ) . .
. ( ) , provided ltm g-(x) t-: 0.
6. Jim -(- ) = Ism g .r ➔ a
i ➔a g X X
i ➔ a

t of the limits, provided the denominator does

Thal is, the limit.of a quotient is the quotien.
no/ have a limit of 0.

7. lim ~f (x) = ,. }~ f (x), for any positive integer n.

z ➔ a
 rl
i
'
' I

'" i '' ' .}

Ca,cuiu.r
•i
i• Proof of J. To make the notation a little clearer, let's define the function/(x) = c V x. Then what
we are being asked to prove is that lim /(x) = c. Let£> 0 be given. We need to find a o> 0 such
x➔a

that
L/{x) - cl < £ whenever O< Ix - al< o
. i.e. le - cl<£ whenever O< Ix - al< o
The.left inequality is trivially satisfied for any x, so we can use any positive .number for o. This
proves that lim c = c. \ .
x➔ a

Proof of 2. Let's define /(x) = x. Then we are being asked to prove that · lim /(x) = x. Let
. x➔a

!, t > 0 be given. We need to find a o> 0 such that

lf(x) - ai < t whenever O< Ix - al< 8
i.e.• Ix - al< t whenever . 0 < Ix - al< &
The above implication will hold if we take 8 = t. This proves that lim x = a.
x➔a

Proof of3. Assume lim/(x) = L. Then we need to prove that Jim cf(x) = c Jim f(x) =cl.The
x➔a x➔a

above result is triviatly true if c =· 0, because cf(x). = 0 and so

lim cf(x). = lim O = 0 =O·L

x➔a x➔a

Thus we can assume that c ~ 0. Since lim f(x) = L, we can find a o > 0 such that
x➔a

E
f/(x)-Ll<~ whenever _O<lx-al<o

Assume that O < Ix - ai < o. We then have

. E
lcf(x) - ell = · lcU(x) - L)I = lcllf(x) - LI < lcl- = t
lcl
In other words, we have s~own that given any£ > 0, there exists a o > 0 such that
if O<lx-al < o then lcf(x)-cLl<t

which implies that lim cf(x) = cl = c Jim f(x)

.x ➔ a x➔ a

Proof of 4. Let £ > O be given. We must find a number o > 0 such that
lf(x} + g(x}-(L -- M)I < £ whenever O<l x - aj < o
Since Jim /(x) = l, there exists a number
,. . . .
o1 > 0 such that
 r
l -# "
I
15 Pl
t

I I.fix) - LI < r./2 when ever 0 < Jx - oJ < ~. G• If

I
I
&imifarly, since tim g(x)::::: M . there cxis ~ a num

l'-+41
ber 62 > 0 such that

lg(.r) - Ml < r,/2 when ever O< Jx - al < 62

~
~~ I
Leto= min{o., o2 } Ix - al< o. .
and supp ose O < .
o • so l/{x )- LI< tli. "~i- .~- I
Be-cause o ~ 6 1• it futlo ws that O < Ix - al< 1
,1e I~
Simi lar ly, Beca use 6 $ 62' it follo ws that O
< j.r- al-< 62, so lg(x )-M J < £12 . Ther efore ,

l[f(x ) + g(x )}- (L + M)I = l(Jtx)...: L) + (g(x

)- M) I (Reg roup ing terms) I
5 lf(x )- LI+ lg(x) - Ml .

2
£
< -+ -=
2
£ .
f,
(Triangieinequality)

~~ ,,
f}C

limf (x) = L and limg

Pro of of 5. Assu m~ i-+a
·
i➔a
(x)

lim (f(x )-L ) = Jim f(x) - xlim

= M. Then

L = L-L = 0
@~ I
and
x➔ a

Jim (g(x )-M )

x➔a

= Jim g(x )-
➔a

fun M = Iv/ -M = 0 Qe l
~~ 1
x➔a x➔a
x➔a

Now, let t > 0 be give n.

Sinc e lim
x ➔a
(f (x)- L) = 0, there exist s a 8 1 > 0 such that
·
<Ix -al o1
e~ I
l(f(x } - L) - 0 I < .J;,
a~ I
when ever 0 <

exist s a 6 2 > 0 such that

Simi larly, since Jim (g(x )-M ) = 0, there
x➔a

tt~ II
Ii ~,
l.(g(x) - M) - Ot < Ji. when ever O <Ix -al < 62

Let 6 = min{o 1, o2 } and supp ose O <Ix - a I< 6. Then it follo ws that

lf(x) - LI< Ji and lg(.T }-M J < J;.

1(/( x) - L)(g (x}- M) - OJ= 1/(x ) - LI lg(x ) ~ Ml< J;, • -k = E ~ ~,

i. e.,
whic h implies that .
1(/(.r) - L)(g (x) - M) - 01 < E when ever O< lx-a l < 6
e~ .IIi
#.IS
Jtm (/(x) - l)(g (x) -ti) ~ 0 ~ ~ i
x~ _o .
ac1ually want to prov e , but as we 'll see in a
bit i~,. I
!°is appa ren tly ha s n_othing to do with wha t w e
~ ~ J
ss needed. No w con s ide r
( J(x) - L)(g (.r) - M) ~ /(x) g(.,) - M/( , ) - l g
(<) + LM fli .,l ,
-J
 ·~ /(x)g(x) = (/(x) - L)(g(x) - M) + Mf(x) + Lg(x) - · LM
Cal~lus
r
⇒
!~a {/(x)g(x)] = !~a [/(xf-L}[g(x)-M] + lim Mf(x)+ lim lg(x)- lim LM x➔a x➔a x➔a

= O+Aflim f{x)+Llim g(x)-LM

.r ➔ a x➔ a .

=ML+ LA1-LM
= LM = lim /(x)lim g(x)
x➔a · x ➔a _-
This completes the proof.·
Proof ~f 6. Left as an exercise for ilie readers.
Proof of 7. Left as an exercise for the readers ..

I l
'
Givenf(.x) = x + I°, a = 4, L = 5 and & = 0.0 l. Find. 8 > 0 such that
1/(x) - 11 < 0.01 whenever O <Ix-al < 8
Given f(x) = 2x + 1, a = 3, L = 7 and t = 0.02. Find 8 > 0 such that
/
IJ(x)-11 <0.01 whenever O<lx-al < 8

y Given the limit lim (3x + 2) = 8. Find 8 > 0 such that

.x ➔ 2

1(3.x + 2)-81 < 0.01 whenever O< Ix - 21 < 8

tiD Given the limit Jim (3- 2x) = - 3. Find 8 > 0 such that
.r ➔ 3

D - I (3 - 2x) + 31 < 0.02 whenever O< Ix - 31 < 8

-
I

',·
· I}
. . . / . Given the limit Jim (x 2

Use the E -
.x ➔ 2

l(x2-3)-
- 3)

ll
= J.
<0.01
Find 8 > 0 such that

whenever
6 definition to prove the limit statements in Problems 6 - I 7.
O < Ix- 21 < 8

lim (x + 3) =5 ,._;,. lim (5.x-3) = 2 _i<" lim (2x - 5) =1

x➔2 x➔I .x ➔ 3

~
9/ li.m(Sx - 4) =6 ~ lim (2x + 5)
.x ➔ -3
=-1 ~ x-➔
lim
l
(i l)
2
X - = _!_
2

Ji..1
x➔2 .

lim (l-4x) ~ 7 _ 1~
'-7'
lim ( 4x - 15) =1 (!;) -lim .Ji - 5 = •
.r ➔ 9
'l.
x ➔ -3/2 .X 4 4

j. \im (x 2 + 1) :;::: 2
.r ➔ I .
cQ "-.....,,
lim (x 2 + x - 11)
.x ➔ 4
=9 @ Lim
.x ➔ 8
if;= 2

t ~f~tt~~~~~A~!~Y•~~:e.~~7'~.r~
1. & = 0 .0 \ 2. 8 = O.•)l 3. 6 = 0.0033 4. o == 0 ..01 5. o =.c 0.002
Limits 17

1.4 · ONE-SIDED LIMITS

sided limit because the function/
The limit lim / (x) = L discussed so far is referred t~ as a two- · ·
x➔a

ed on both sides of a and its values f(x) approach Las x approaches a from either side. For ·
is defin nd
one-sided limits called left-hand and right-ba
seme functions, it makes sense to examine ·
· limits.

Informal Definitions of .One-Sided Limits

DEFINITIONS One-Sided limits
x near a with x >a. We say that the right-band
Right-hand limit Suppos_ef is defined for all is
t of f(x) as x approaches a-from the right]
limit of /(x) as x approaches a [ or the limi
to L (as close to Las
equal to Land write lim f (x) = L if f(x) can be. made arbitrarily close
.r, ➔ a• . .
x > a (see Figure l.5(a)).
we please)for all x sufficiently close to a with
values of x that are greater than a.
The symbol x ➔ a+ means that we consider only
near a with X <a.We say that the left-hand limit
Left-hand limit Suppose [is defined for all X
as x apppro·aches a from the left] ·is equal to
L
off(x) as x approaches a [or the limit off(x)
e arbitrarily close to L (as -close to L as \Ve
and write lim f(x) = L if f(x) can be mad .
.r ➔ a-
a (see Figure l.5(b)).
please)for all x sufficiently close to a wit~ x_<
values of x that are less than a.
The symbol x ➔ a- means that we consider only

y
y

f(:c) l
L f(x)

X
0
X -a
li1u {(.(} "' L
Jim /(x) :: l ,_..,-
,..,.a• (b)
(a)
FIGURE 1.5

EXAI\IPLE 16 Let /(x) ::: _!_. Find Jim /(x) and lim _ /(x} .
xI I
.t _. O• c -► 0

i
I~
0. For x < O. we have Ix I = - x, aad ;tJJU
S
de-fined ot .t
O

SO t\rr fON Ob ~n~ that f( \) is not

for J < 0,
X X
.f(., ) .. - :c:: ·- c. - I
lxl - .t

lim /(x ) = -1 .
1nus ss l aprn.)3ch~o;; 0 fr\)H \ the left,j{.r} npproachcs - 1. Hence, .r ➔ O-

x > 0,
.Rv .l > 0. w·e h:wc 1., 1~ .T. anJ tlms for
. X X
· .l{x} -= L- = - = l
lxl x
/ ( x) = I.
the right .f(x ) approaches I. Hence, x I➔imO ..
Thus. on the other hM d, as x

The foUcwing theorem says that a

appronchcs Ofrom
two-sided limit e.xists if and only if both
of the one-sided limits I
I
i
c.~ist :ind arc equ!ll.
I
THEOREM 1..3 Exi sten ce of A Lim it l

except possibly at a. ·Then,

_A~"""WllC f is defined for all x nea r a t

/(x} , = l if and only if Jim / (x)

= lim f (x) =L
lim x ➔ a- x ➔ a•
.x_. o

d Limits
Precise Definitions of One-Side
n in Section 1.3 can be easily mod
ified for one-sided limits.
The precise definiti on of the limi t give

its
DE .FlN ITlO NS One --Si ded Lim
that the lim it
and Lim it Le t/ be a function defi ned for all x near a with x > a. We say
Right-b
righ t of a is L, and ,nit e
or/(x ) a_s x approaches a from the
lim /(x ) = L
♦
.x ➔ a

if, for eve ry t: > 0, the-re exists a 5 >

0 such that

1/(.r) - LI < t: whe nev er a< .r< a+ o

< a.W e say that the limit of

Ldt -band Lim it Let/ be a function defined for all .x nea r a with x
of a is L, and write
/(x. ) as x approaches a from the left
Lim /( x ) =L

if. foe eve ry t > O. there exis ts a 6

> 0 suc h that

If (.r} - L I < t whenever a - S <x <a

lim .[; == 0.
EX~AMPLE J7 Pro ve thzi t I-+ 0•
 '
c• 1
19
" I
·t imits
· ''SOLUTION Let E > Obe given. We
if O<x<o
must find a 6 > 0 such that ·

then
~
,~, ~
O<x<o then Fx <t
!I~ I
or, if
if and only if X < r,2
But
Thus, if we choose o= r,
'
2
2 and assume that O < x < 6 = E , then Fx < £
I~
In other wor~,

This shows that lim

f£ - 0 /·<·E whenever O.< x <.o
£ = 0. ·
,l-i.t;1. ~-._ IH
~

I~ )

_j {3-x, if x< 2 1)i~ II

II
Let f(x) = ~+ I, if x > 2 tfi ~
Evaluate Jim
2
f(x ) and lim f(x) . Does Jim
.
f(x } exist? If so, what
. .
IS it? Ifnot, why IJ
. x➔2
x ➔ 2-
~
x ➔ 2•
~ b

Iu
.

not? .

£11, ~

J1 Let /(x ) =
) - x, if x < 2
2, if x = 2
~t ,._

~
I ,
,

Evaluate Jim
_:

)(: }
ifx >2

and Jim _l(x}. Does Jim /(x ) exist? If so, what is

x➔2
it? Ifno~ whv!il' ,-':..."\
. J -
-'\ll
d I
x➔2 .r ➔ 2
not?
a ~ f11-,
d
. 3 Let f(x) = {x3,
0,
if x ~ 1
if x = l
lim _ f(x ) . Does lim /(x ) exist? If so, what is it? lfno
' <)1~1~.:
~ why '_
,.
Evaluate lim J(x ) and .r ➔ l
.r ➔ t • .r ➔ I
. · ~
~?

{ fl ·~~. IE/ jJ
!- 2

ij ,
· -
4. Let /(x) == J-. r ' '.f x ,t l
) 2, tf x == I
_/( x). Doc.-.-s Ilim /(x ) -exist? lfso,whatisit ? Ifno~ wt,l ,~, l~;
Evalwt.e lim. f(x ) and i lim
I➔l ➔I ➔ I
not ?
• • ::"j,'lf
AD, ..... ~,1.
-. , t _... ,
 I. lim /(x) = 2, · Lim /(x) = l; No, because lim f(x) :1" lirn f(x) ·
.x➔ 2· , x➔r x ➔ 2· x➔r

2. lirn f(x) = 1, lim /(x) = I; yes, lim f(x) =I

x➔ 2• .r ➔ r . x-► 2

3. fun /(x) = l, lim / (x} = 1; yes, lim J(x) = I

x➔ I• .r ➔ i- .r ➔ I

4. Jim / (x) = 0, Jim f(x) = O; yes, lim f(x) =0

x ➔ t• x ➔ I- x➔I

1.5 LIMITS AT INFINITY AND HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES

So far we have considered limits as x approaches a finite number a. In this section we consider
limits where_x approaches oo or -oo. Such limits are referred tq as limits at infinity. These limits
determine what is called the end behaviour of a function. For example, consider the beh_aviour of .I
I
the function f(x) = - as x gets "larger and larger".
X .
If we investigate the graph of/ (see Figure. I
_1.6), we see that as x increases without bound through positive values, the val~es off(x) approach I
0. This statement is expres.sed symboli~l y as Jim _!_ = 0. _Similarly, as x decreases without bound I

through negative values, the values of j{x)

x ➔ oo X

approach 0. This statement is expressed symbolically as I

I
lim _!_ = 0. I
w .r ➔ -oo X
y I
-i
w I
y=-
:r

FIGURE 1.6
In general, we use the notation

lim f( x ) == L
X --t OO
to indicate tha t a.s x increases without bound through positjvc .values, tJ1c values of /(:c) get
arbitrarily close to the number L. In this case, the line y = L is ca lled a horizontal asymptor~ of
the graph of / (figure 1.7).
 2J

Lim f(x)= L
➔_
L1----:r- «> -::::==·
f (x)+ - - -..--

--; =~ --~ --- J:5 ,-- -__ .x

00

..
-:;.;> ¥'--- +-/(i ).
-------+M
lim f(:r)= M
.r ➔ -ao

FIGURE 1.7
Similarly, we use the notation

lim f(i) = M
x ➔ -a:>

gh negative values, the values of f(x) get

to indicate that as .x decre ases without bound throu
line y = Mis the horizontal asymptote of the
arbitrarily close to the numb er M. In this case, the
graph off (Figure 1.7).

DEFINITION Hori zonta l asym ptote

the graph of a function y = f(x) if either
_A line y = b is caIIed a horiz ontal asym ptote of
· lim f (x) = b or Jim f (x) = b
x ➔ oo , . x ➔ -oo

s that the graph of a function can have at most

Note Note that from the above definition, it follow
two horiz ontal asym ptote s - one to the right
and one to the left.
namely,
EXAMPLE 18 The curve y =f(x) shown in Figure 1.8 has two horizontal asymptotes,
y = 2 and y = - 3 because
Jim f (x) = 2 and Jim f (x) = - 3
x ➔ -a:> x➔ ex>
y

y= f(x)

y=2 .

---- --··-- ------··· ---·-- ··-- ---- - y-=- 3

FIGURE 1.8
r
22
Precise Definitions of Limit as x Approaches oo or - oo
DEFINITION Limit as_ x approaches oo
Let f be a function defined on an interval (a, oo),. We say that f(x) has th~ limit L as x
approaches co, and write

lim f(x)·= L

if, for every E> 0, there exists a corresponding number M > 0 such that
1/(:r) .:.. LI < E whenever x > M

The definition of a limit as x . ➔ oo is sho~ in Figure -1.9. In this figure, note that for a given
po~itive number &, there _exists a positive number M such that, for x > M, the graph off lies
between the horizontal lines given by y = L - E and y = L + E.
y

l+t .·····-··. ........ ______________ _

L ···············-···-···1··· ··-··········-··········-···-
L- & .--·-·········-··r··-··········-

----+-----.,.__- ---.--~.x
0 M

FIGURE · 1.9

DEFINITION Limit as x approaches -:- oo

Let f be a function defined on an interval (- oo, a). We say that /(x) has the limit L as "x'
approaches - oo, and· write
Jim J(x) =L
X-+ -oo

if, for every E > 0, there exists a corresponding number N < 0 such that
1/(.:c) - LI < E whenever x < N

The definition of a limit as x ➔ - oo is shown in Figure l. l 0. ln this figure, note that fo r a given
positive number c, there exists a negative number N such that, for x < N, the graph of/ hes
between the horizontal lines given by y = L - E and y = L + £ .

lnluiti vely, the &tatemenl Jim / {x) = L means that as x moves increasingly far from the origin in
.I ..... <X)

the positive direction,/(x) gets arbitr.tri ly close to L. Similarly, the statement lim /(x) ,:;;; l means
.r - • -oo
that as X moves increasmgly far fro,n the origin in 1J1e negative direction,[(,') gets arbitrarily close lo / ..
 Limits
y

l+r.

·.-..-··-·· . ·- L

- ·,--..--..--..-·..- ·-·--·- L ~ c

· o
N
· y=f(x).

FI_GURE 1.10 .
EXAMPLE 19 Prove that
. . l
(a) lim l =O (b) hm - = 0
.x ➔ ex> X .x ➔ -ex> X

SOLUTION (a} Let E > 0 be given. We must find a number M > 0 such that for all-x,

if x > M then 1;-+ Il E

We may assume that x > 0. Then

J
ifT X > -
. E

. I.
Thus, if we choose M = - , then f!)r aH x
E

X > M ⇒

. I
ll_o,=.!.
.
X X
<E

It follows that hm -=0

.x ➔ co X· .
(b)·Let E > 0 be given. We must find a number N < 0 such that for all.x,
I
II
if x < N then H-+ 1;1 <E

. We may assume tbat·x < 0. Then

I
I
I
jf[ X < -- !
E
J

Thus, if we choose N = _!, then for all x

E
 Calculus
54
that the slope of the tangent line at any point
decreasing function (sec Figure 3.3 (b)), we see

on the curve is negative.

b
0

FIGURE 3.1:fisincreasing on (a, b) 3.2:fis decreasing on (a, b)

FIGURE
the slope of the tangent line lead
These observations together with the fact the derivative gives
to determine when a function
is
to the following test which allows us to use the derivative
increasing or decreasing.

S)<0
Sx)>0

0
0 ()
()
FIGURE 3.3
and Decreasing Functions
THEOREM 3.1 Test for Increasing

function that is differentiable on an open interval (a, b).

Letf be a
1. ff) > 0 for all x in (a, b), then fis increasing on (a, b).
b).
for allx in (a, b), then fis decreasing (a,
on
2. f S'x) <0
or decreasing, we look
for those
determine the intervals where the function is increasing
Thus, to When we
Such points are called critical points.
values of wheref"(r) 0 or/"c) is undefined. the
smaller intervals and deter1nine
bave detemined these points, we divide the domain offinto
sign off' on each of these smaller intervals.
Increasing or Decreasing
Protedure for Intervals on which a Function is
Finding does
offwhere f)-0orf()
Fundall critical points off in (a, b)ie, findall
values
Ep
not exist
 Applications of Differentiation
to divide the domain of finto smaller intervals.
Step 2. Use the eritical points obtained in Step I
Detemine the sign off' on each of these smaller intervals.
Step 3.
intervals.
Step 4. Apply Theorem 3.1 to find behaviour of fon each of these smaller
Let us consider few examples.
which the function f(x)
= 2r-9x + 12x is increasing or
EXAMPLE 1 Find the intervals on

decreasing.
f(r) 2x' 9x + 12x gives
sOLUTION Differentiating the function
-
=

18x +12 =6 (x -1) (x

-

2)
s'(x) =
6x -

points. Since
increase or decrease, we first determine the critical
To determine the intervals of
critical points are given by
Sx) exists for all x, the
1, x=2
f ' ) =0 x =

into three intervals:

points
=
1 and r = 2. These points divide the real line
Thus, the critical are x

- , 1), (, 2), and (2,)

these intervals, we evaluate f'(x)
at a test point inside each
To determine the sign (x) of f' on
determines the sign off"() oa that
at test point of each interval
interval. The sign S') a
of 0. Since
test point x
=

example, in (-o, 1), we choose

interval. For
1).
the entire interval (-o, 1), and hencef is increasing on (-,
S' 0)=12>0, S)>0 on
test point x = 3/2 inside the interval (1, 2). we see that
Similarly, by choosing a on (1, 2).
the interval (1, 2), and hence fis decreasing
S(3/2)= -3/2 <0 S)<0 on obtain
inside the interval (2, co) to
choose x =3 as a test point
Finally, we
and hence fis increasing ón (2, o).
0 on the interval (2, co),
S(3) 12 >0= f()>
2x is
which the function f(r)
= 6+ 12x +
3x -

EXAMPLE 2 Find the intervals on

increasing or decreasing.

We have f(x) = 6+ 12x + 3x 2x

SOLUTION

-6 (x + 1) (r
-

2)
12 +6x 6x = -
6 (r* -

x-2) =

s'(x) =
-

points. Since
first detemine the critical
of increase or decrease,
we

To detemine the intervals

are given by
fx) exists for all x, the critical points
x - 1, x = 2
S't) =0 the real line into threeintervals:
2. These points divide
Thus, the critical points
are x -I and x =

(-1, 2), and (2,o)

(-,-1).
shown in the following
these intervals. The sign analysis offis
We determine the sign off'(x) on
table.
S6 Calculus
Interval Test Value Sign of f '(r) Conclusion

-1) fis decreasing on (-o, -1)

s'E=-24
,2) S 0 ) = 12 fis increasing on (-1, 2)
(2, ) S'(3)=-24 fis decreasing on (2, o)

3.2 CONCAVITY AND POINTS OF INFLECTION

in the preceding section we have seen that the first derivative can be used to determine when a
function is ncreasing and when it is decreasing. However, a function can be increasing (or,
respecivety,decreasing) and be concave up (Sce Figure 3.4) or it can be increasing (or,
respectvely, decreasing) and be concave down (See Figure 3.5), but the first derivative cannot
distinguish between these possibilities. As we shall see the second derivative can.

Increasing, concave up/ Decreasing, concave up

S"x) > 0
S")>0

FIGURE 3.4

Increasing, concave down Decreasing, concave down

S)<0
S")<0
X

FIGURE 3.5
 57
Applications of Differentiation
on an interval if its curve bends upward
Gcometrically, function is said to be concave up
a
if its bends downward (Figure 3.3).
(igure .4) and concave down on an interval
curve

Figure 3.5, each

curve.
that each lies above the tangent lines whercas in
n igure 3.4 note curve

lies below the tangent lines.

functionf to find intervals
theorem shows how to use the second derivative of
a
The following
on which the graph off is concave up or concave down.

THEOREM 3.2 Second Derivative Test for Concaviy

Letf be a function such that f"(x) exists for all x in (a, b).
Iff"x)> 0 for all x in (a, b), then fis concaveup on (a, b).
Iff"x) < 0 for all x in (a, b), then fis concave down on (a, 6).
does not exist. WNe
To apply Theorem 3.2, we first find the values ofx at which f"(x) =0 off"(x)
in each of the
then use these values to determine test intervals. Finally, we test the sign off"(T)
test intervals.

DEFINITION Point of Inflection

from up to down or from
A point on the graph of y=f(x) at which f changes concavity
down to up is called a point of inflection (See Figure 3.6).
y

Point ofinflection
Point of inflection

O FIGURE 36
to Theorem 3.2, the concavity offis
determined by the sign off"(x). Therefore, a
According
point ofintlection isa point where "(x) changes.sign.
THEOREM 3.3 for Point
Necessary Conditionof Infection
a

then eitherf"(c)= 0 orf"(c) does not exist.

If (c.s(c)) is a point of inflection of the graph off,
points of infBection of the graph of a function fcan occur only
The above theorem states that the
0 orf"(x) does not exist. In other words, it gives
us a means
of x for whichf"(x)
=

at those values
of generating possible points of inflection.
mean that the function has
Note 1 It is important to note that iff"(c)-0, it does not necessarily
then
For example, if we consider the function f(r) x*,
=

an inflection point at x =
c.

S"(0) =
0
S') =
4x, S"a)= 122
But the functionfhas no inflection point at x
=
0 because f"(x) does not change sign(Figure 3.7).
Thus, we see that zero second derivative does not always produce a point of inflection.
 58 Calculus

So)=*

S)=0
FIGURE 3.7
Note 2 Note that an inflection point may occur where the second derivatives"(¢) fails to exist.
For example, if we consider the function f ( ) = r " , then

S')- 2/3 and S ) - -

It follows that/"(r) does not exist atr =0. However, fom the graph ofy=x", we see that it has
a point of inflection atx =
0 (see Figure 3.8).

S"CO) does not exist

FIGURE 3.8
EXAMPLE3 Find theintervals on which the function fx) = x3 - 3x2 +3x -3 is concave
up or concave down. ldentify any inflection points.

sOLUTION We have flt) = 3x - 6x +3 and S ) = 6x 6 6(x - 1)

Setting f"(a) = 0 givesx = 1. Sincef"x) exists for all real x, we see that x =l is the only
candidate for a point of inflection. This point divides the real line into two intervals :(-co, 1) and
(1, co). We determine the concavity offby finding the sign of S" (x) within each interval.
Ifr< 1, then f" (x) < 0, so fis concave down on ( - , 1).
Ifx> 1, thenf" ()> 0, so fis concave up on (1, o).
We see that the sign o f f " changes at x = 1, therefore f h a s a point of inflection at x = l.

EXAMPLE 4 Find the points of inflection and the intervals on which s) =

3r3- 5x+ I is
concave up and concave down.

SOLUTION We have '(x) =

15x 20x
-
 Apptications of Differentiation
59
S" () =
60r3- 60x2 =
60x2(x -1).
Setting f"(x) 0 yiclds
=
x =
0 or x= 1. Since"(x) exists for all real that x =0 and x
x, we see
the only 1 =
are
possible candidates for points of inflection. These points divide the real line into three
intervals:
(-o, 0). (0, 1), and (1, )
We find theconcavity offby detcrmining the sign of f" () in each of these intervals.
Ifx <0, then f"(x) < 0,
sof is concave down on (-, 0).
If0 <1, then f"x) < 0, sofis concave down on (0, 1).
<x

Ifr> 1, then"x)
>0, sofis concave up on (1, o).
We see thatf"(x) does not
change sign at x 0, so fdoes not have a point of inflection at x
=
=
0.
However, S changes concavity at x = 1, sofhas a point of inflection at x = 1.
EXAMPLE5 For the function : fx) =x+ 2x3
(i) Find the intervals over whichfis increasing and the intervals over which fis decreasing.
i) Also find points of inflexion, if any. Delhi Univ. GE-1, 2015]
SOLUTION We have S ) = x4 +2x3
S')=4x3 +6x2 2xr(2r + 3)
)We first determine the critical points. Sincef"() exists for allx, the critical points are given by
S't) =0 0 or x =-3/2

Thus, the critical points are x =0 andr=-3/2. These points divide the real line into three intervals

. and (0, co)

We determine the sign off'c) on these intervals. The sign analysisof "is shown in the following table:
Interval Test Value Sign off' Conclusion

S'-2) = - 8 fis decreasing on

S)- 2 Sis increasing on

(0, co) S0)= 10 fis increasing on (0, o)

(ii) s"(a) = 12x + 1 2 = 12x(r +1)

Sincef"(x) exists for all x, the possible candidates for points of inflection are given by
0 --1
S"(a) =0 or x=

into three
These two points are the only candidates for points of inflection. They divide the real line
ntervals:
-,-1),. -1,0). and (0, )
 60 Calculus
Tbe sign analysis off " is shown in the following table.

Interval Test Value Sign of fr Conclusion

S 2 ) = 24 fis concave up on (-o, -1)

-1)
(-1, 0) Sis concave down on (-1, 0)
S')-3
Sis concave up on (0, o)
(0, co) S)=24
The above table shows that fchanges concavity at both points x =- 1 and x = 0. Therefore, the
function has points of inflection at x =- 1 and x = 0.

3.3 LOCAL MAXIMA AND LOCAL MINIMA

In this section we shaBH be concerned with the most important application of the deriva ive in
determining the "high points" and "low points" on a curve technically known as maximum and
minimum values.

DEFINFTION Local Extrema

Local Marimum. Let y = f(x} be a real-valued function that is defined in some interval
containing a point x = . T h e n s ( ) is said to have a local maxinmum at x = i f f r ) 2 f )

for al values of x sufficiently close to x The local maximum value isf , ) .

Local Minimum. Let y =f) be a real-valued function that is defined in some interval
containing a point x = Then f(r) is said to have a local minimum at * = iff)sf)

for all values of r sufficiently close to zo The local minimum value is f ) .

The term relative is also sometimes used instead of local.
Note While ascertaining whether or not a point r is a local extremum, we compare the
function vallue at to those of neighbouring points, so that the values of the function outside the
neighbourhood do not come into picture at all. Thus a function defined in a given domain can
have several local maximum and minimum values. For example, in Figure 3.9, the function f lhas
a local maximum at x,X and x, and a local minimum at I, and x

FIGURE 3.9
 61

Applications of Diferentiation on a n
that is continuous
be a function
Local Extrema. Lety =f(x)
maximum
A Necessay Condition for condition for f1o havea local does
Xp Anecessary orf'C)
=
a pointx
.

open intenvaB containing eitherf)=0

is a criticalpoint offi.e.,
or a
local minimum a t r =x, is that x
not exist.
local extremum at a point
a
condition states that iffhas line
interpreted, the necessary (r), then the tangent at
line to the graph of fat (ro, s
Geometrcally
x and if there is a tangent function graphed in Figure 3.10.
must be horizontal. See,
for example, the
o S())
AY S't) does not exist
..

Sa)-0

FIGURE 3.10
or a local
minimum
continuous function, a local maximum
that for a local
Note It may be noted be a local maximum nor a
but a critical point may neither
point is always a
critical point derivative f' (r) 3x. Consequently,
=

function f (x) * has as its

=

minimum. For example,

the a local
given function. However, it is neither
0. Thus x =0 is a critical point of the
f' (0)=
maximum nor a local
minimum (See Figure 3.11).

SO)=0

FIGURE 3.11

conditions for the continuous

function to have a local extremum at a

We dext obtain sufficient It is clear that there

3.12which has a local maximum at
x
=

Xp
point. Let us investigate Figure where the function is increasing
and so f° () > 0, and a
exists a left handed necighbourhood
of ,
and sof" (r) <0
where the function is decreasing
ripht handed neighbourbood of ,
 Calculus
62
'
T

Local maximum
S)<0 S)>0/

f)>0st)<0\
Local minimum
x
0

FIGURE 3.12 FIGURE 3.13

a local o minimum at x =
To the
In a similar fashion, let us investigate Figure 3.13 which has the
and so f' (r) 0;
< to
left of x. there is a neighbourhood where the function is decreasing
and so f"(x)>0.
right of , there is a neighbourhood where the function is increasing
and local
the following sufficient criteria for local maximum
These investigations suggest
minimum.

THEOREM 3.4 First Derivative Test for Local Extrema

a critical point x
function that is continuous on an open interval I containing
Let y=fx) be a at itself.
and assume that fis differentiable on I except possibly i

I f f ) changes sign from to negative as x increases through ro,

positive thenfhas a local
maximum at x = Xo*

has a local
Iffx) changes sign from negative positive
to as
x increases through r, thenf
minimum atx =Xo

I f f ' ) does not change sign,

there is no local extremum at r
=o
Extrema on an Open Interval
Procedure for Finding Local
defined open interval, we use the
of a continuous function that is
on an
To find the local extema

following steps.
Step 1. Find 'a).
y=f (x). ie, find all values ofr wberef"(?)= 0 or

Step 2. Findall critical points of the function

S) does not exist.
to the left but
For each critical point x, determine
the sign of the first derivative slightly
Step 3. the next critical
not beyond the next critical point
and slighthly to the right but not beyond

point.
positive
from to negative, and
local maximum at x, iff' (x) changes sign
=

Step 4. There is a x
If s'(t) docs not
changes sign from negative positive.
to
a local minimum if.f"(x)
change sign, therc is no bcal extremum at r
*
 Applications of Diferentiation 63
The following examples ilustrate this test.

Find all the points of local maxima and minima of the function:
EXAMPLEG
Stx) x* -3r2 -9x+15
=

SOLUTION We have S(x) = 3xr - 6x -9 = 3(x + 1) (a-3)

Sx) = 0 when x =
-1 or x = 3

Thus x= - 1 and x = 3 are critical points.

Ifx<-1, then S"(x) - 3 ( ) ) > 0 ;

(+) (H<0; and

If- I <x < 3, then S' () =
3

=3 (+) (+)> 0.
Ifx>3, then f"(x)
increases through -1, therefore r =-1is
a point
Since f' () changes sign from + to asx

from to + as x increases through 3,

Similarly, f' (x) changes sign
-

of local maximum.
therefore x =3 is a point of local minimum.
local minima well as the
Find all the points of local maxima and
as
EXAMPtE 7
minimum values of the function:
coresponding local maximum and
8x + 22x 2 4 x + 1.
f(x) =
r -

We have S ) = 4x -
24x' + 44x 2 4 4 (x- 1) (x -2) (r -3)
SOLUTION
local
0 when =
1, x =
2 or x = values of x are the candidates for
3. These
Thus f' (x) = x
first-derivative test
find the naturé of each point, we apply
maximum and local minimum. To
4(-)((-)=(9;
Ifx<1,then f'(x)
=

then f'(x) = 4(+)(-)()=(+);

If 1 <x< 2,
f'(t) 4(+)(+)()=(; and
If2<x<3, then
=

then f'(x) = 4(+)(+)(+) =

(+);
Ifx> 3, therefore =
1
from to + as x increases through 1, x

Nature ofx Since f"(x) changes sign minimum value isf(1) = 1 -8 +

=
1. 22 24 +1 =-
8.
The coresponding
is a point oflocal minimum. =2 is
therefore r
changes sign from + to as x increases through 2, -

Nature ofx 2. Since

=
f"(x) 16- 64 +88-48 + I
=-
7.
rnaxinum. The coresponding maximum value is f(2) =

a point of local 3, thereforex =3

is
sign from to + as x increases through
Nature ofx 3. Sincef"(x) changes +1=-8.
81-216+ 198 -72
=

minimum value is f(3)

=

minimum. The corresponding

a point of local
Second-Derivative Test for Local Extrema
local
test for detemining
called first derivative
have discussed the so
coaveniently by
So far in this section we
be done very
can sometimes
of a function. However,
the same thing
extrema

the use of second derivative.

 64 Calculus
THEOREM 3.5 Second Derivative Test for Local Extrema
Letfbe a function such thatf'r)= 0 and the second derivative offcxists on an open intervál
containing o
Ifs")< 0, then fhas a local maximum at x =Io
s " ) > 0, then fhas a local minimum at x = xo

Iff"=0, the test fails. That is,fmay have a local maximum, a local minimum, or neither. In
such cases, we either use the First Derivative Test or employ the following general tes
makes use of higher order detrivatives.
General Criteria for Local Extrema
Let Sr)=/"«) =. =f-Vr,)=0, but ma)+0. Then
1. Ifn is odd, fhas neithera locaB maximum nor a locaB minimum atx Xo =

2. fns even.,fhas a local maximum iff)<0,and has a local minimum iffr)> o

This methodis illustrated in the following examples.
EXAMPLE 8 Use the second derivative test to find the local maxima and minima of
St) 2x3 - 15x2+ 36x + 18.
SOLUTION Differentiating the given function with respet to x, we obtain
f'x) = 6x - 30x+ 36 = 6 (x -2) (x- 3)

Now S(x) = 0 when x = 2 and x = 3

Also S"(x) = 12x - 30

S"(2) = 12 (2) - 30 = -6 < 0 ,

hence there is a local maximum at r = 2.

Further S"(3) = 12 (3)-30 6> 0,

hence there is a local minimum at x=3.
EXAMPEE 9 Find all the points of local maxima and minima of the function
S) = - 5s +5r -1
SOLUTION We have
S) Sx -203+15 = S2 ( - 4x + 3) =5x (x - 1) (x - 3)
Solving S'(a) =0 for r gives x = 0, x = I and x = 3. Further

S"(x) = 204 - 60x + 30x

If = 1, f"(x) = - 10 <.0, so there is a local maximum at x = 1.

Ifr = 3, f"(a) = 90 >0, so there is a local minimum at x = 3

 65
Apphications of Differentiation
first
second-derivative test fails. We now turn either the to
=
0, f" (x) = 0 and the us
at 0. Let
to analyse what is happening
derivative general criteria for local
test or to extrema

apply the generaB criteria. We have

S"(0) = 30
S"() =
60x 120xr +30
Thus 0, but s" (0) * 0
S0) =
S" (0) =

value =0.
Since n 3 is odd, thereforefhas neither a maximum nor'a minimum at x
EXAMPLE 10 Find the local maxima and minima of the function:

fx) = x -8x+22r -24x +1

SOLUTION We have " ) = 4x3 24x? + 44x -24 4 (x - 1) ( -2) (r- 3)

Thus f'(x) =
0 when x =1, x =
2 and x =
3.

Further f"() = 127 - 48x + 44

Ifx = 1, S " ( ) = 8 > 0 , hence f has a local minimum at x = 1. The corresponding

minimum value is f(1) = -8.

If x = 2, s " ) = - 4 < 0, hence f has a local maximum at x = 2. The corresponding *

maximum value is f(2) =-7.

Ifx = 3, f " ) = 8> 0, hencef has a local minimum at x =3.The coresponding mini-mum
value is f(3) = - 8.

EXERCISE3.1
1. Find the intervals on which the following functions are increasing or decreasing.
(i) Sr) = 2x 15x +36x + 1
( S() =x - 6x2-36x 2
8 36x 3x2 2x3 (iv) f ( ) = -2x - 9x - 12x +1
(inf(x) = + +

2. Find the intervals on which the following functions are increasing or decreasing.

9 Sx) =x -8 +22x 24x +1 (in S(x) = x

3. Find the intervals on which the following functions are concave up or concave down. Identify
any inflection points.
S)= r -6x +12x (i) S(x)=r-4x
(iin f(x)= 3x -4x-6x+12x+1 (iv) flr)= x(r-4)"
. Find all points of local maxima or minima, if any, of the following functions. Find also the
coresponding local maximuin or local minimum values, as the case may be.
) S() = r - 6 x +9x+15 (i) f(x) = 2x 3 x - 36r + I0
(in f(x) = 2 - 9x + 12x + 25 (iv) f(x) =
(r -

1) (r +2)
 Calculus
66
5. Examine for maximum and minimum values the following functions.

S x ) = 3x - 4x+1 (i) fx) = +2x- 32 4x +4

6. Investigate the maximum and minimum values of the function.
s(x) = 12x 45 + 40x+6.

ANSWERSANSWERS
1. () Increasing on (-o, -2) and (6, »); Decreasing on (-2, 6).

(i) Increasing on (o, 2) and (3, co); Decreasing on (2, 3).

(iii) Increasing on (-2, 3);- Decreasing on (-o, -2) and (3, »).
and (-1, o).
(iv) Increasing on (-2, -1); Decreasing on (-o, -2)
and (2, 3).
2. () Increasing on (1, 2) and (3, o); Decreasing on (-, 1)
ii) Increasing on (4, ) ; Decreasing on (-, 1/4).
=2.
on (2, o); Point of inflection
at x
3. () Concave up on (-o, 2); Concave down
(-o, 0) and (2, o); Concave down on (0, 2);
(i) Concave up on
Points of inflection atx
=
0 andx =2.

(-1/3, 1);
-1/3) and (1, oo); Concave down
on
(ii) Concave up on(o,

Points of inflection atx =-1/3 and x = 1.

Concave up on (-, 2) and (4, co); Concave down on (2, 4);

(iv)
=4.
Points of inflection at x =2 and x
3, value =
15.
local minimum at x
=

Local maximum at x
=
1, value =
19;
4. (i)
=
-3, value =
91; locaB minimum at x=2, value =-34.
(ii) Local maximum atr
atx= 2, value
=
29.
30; local minimum
1, value
=

Local maximurm at x
=

(ii)
local minimum at x
=
0, value =-4.
Local maximum at x
=
-2, value =
0;
(iv) =
0.
Local maxinum atr =
1, value
=
0; point of inflection at x
5. (i)
81
local minimum atr
=
2, value=0; and local
Local maximun at x
= -
value ;
(ii) 16

minimum atx
=
l, valuc =
0.
valuc =
-10;
=
1, value = 13; local minimum at x= 2,
6. Local maximum at x

0.
point ofinflection at x
 67
Applications of Diferentiation
,

3.4 CURVE SKETCHING

the information provided by the first two

In this section we how to sketch graph using
will see
we focus on the transition points, where the
derivativcs ' and *. In sketching the graph,
in either S" (local max or min) or f" (point of
basic shape changes due to a sign change behaviour
attention to asymptotic behaviour, that is, to the
inflection). Moreover, we must pay
t o or a vertical asymptote.
offr) as r approches

Procedure for Graphing the Function y =

f(x)
Step 1 Find the domain off.
Step 2 Find f"t) and f").
3 Find critical points. These are the points at which f"(x)
=
0 orf' is not defined.
Step the intervals of
decrease. The first derivative determines
Step 4 Find intervals of increase or

increase and decrease.

Step 5 ldentfiy any points of inflection. down.

or concave
Find intervals which the function is concave up
Step 6 on

Derivative Test or the Second Derivative Test to

Step 7 Find extreme values. Use either the First
determine the extreme values.
at zeros of denominator.
8 any asymptotes.
Vertical asymptotes usually occur
Step ldentify too.
limits as x - >
Horizontal asymptotes.requireexamining
coordinate axes. They-intercept is obtained by setting x =
0;
Step 9 Find the intercepts with the
of the equation flx)= 0.
and r-intercepts are the real roots (if any)
to sketch the graph.
Step 10 Use the results of the above steps
=r*- 4x3+ 10.
EXAMPLE 11 Sketch the graph ofthe function f(x)
Domain off The domain offis (-o, o).
SOLUTION
S¢)= 4x 12x =
4x (x-3), which exists for all real x.
Finding f'c)
-

Since s() exists for all real x, critical points

are given by
Finding critical points

S')=0 ie, 4x (r-3) 0 =0 or x =3

=

=
0 andx =
3.
Thus, critical points are x
and decrease
Finding intervals of increase
(0, 3) (3, o)
Interval - , 0) f'(4) = 64
S'(1) = -88
Test value SH)--16 +

Sign off'a Increasing

Decreasng
Behaviour off_ Decreasing and the table above,
for local extuema,
the First Derivative Test
Finding Extreme Values Using atx =
3. The local minimum
value
extremum at x 0 and a local minimum =

we see that there is no

isf(3)-17. 12r(x 2), which exists for all real

.

S"x) =12r- 24x

-
=

Finding f")
 Calculus
68 points of
exists for all real x, therefore possible
Sinces"(x)
Finding possiblepoints ofinflection
inflection are given by
2
S)=0 ie., 12rx - 2)=
0 or x*= 0 =

arer=0 and x 2. =

Thus, the only possibBe points of inflection

concave down
intervals on which fis concave up or
Finding
-oo, 0) (0, 2) (2, o)
Interval
S"-I)-24 s"(1)= -12 S"(3) =36
Test value
Sign off" Concave downConcaveup
Concave up
Behaviour off
2. Therefore, the
at both points x =0 and
=
r
The above table shows that fchanges concavity
=0 and x 2. Evaluating/fatx = 0 andr=2,
we see that 10) (0,
of
function has points inflection atx =

and (2,-16) are points of inflection on the graph off.

tables above, have
Summarizing the infomation in the two
we

-,0) 0 , 2) (2, 3) (3, co)

Interval
Decreasing Decreasing IncreasinS
Behaviour off Decreasing
Concave up Concave down Concave up Concave up

Graph off
Find the intercepts
The curve intercepts y-axis at (0, 10).

Sketch the graph.

Use the results of the above steps, we sketch the graph as shown in Figure 3.14

y=r-4r+ 10
20

Inflection 0, 10)
point

(2,-6
- 10
Inlection
- 15 point
- 20 (3,-17)
Local minimum

FIGURE 3.14
 69
Applications of Diferentiation

EXANPEE 12 Sketch the graph ofthe function ) 2 4 2-9)

SOLUTION Domain off The domain offis all real numbers except x =+2.
Finding f ' ) and f"() A simple calculation shows that

Stx)=20r
+4)
and
-42 4
0 = 0 or/(x) is not defined.
Finding critical points Critical points are the x-values where f'(x)
=

critical points becausex =+2 are not

Although s ) is not defined at x=+2, we do not call them
in the domain off. However, we see that
S ' ) -0 when=0
Thus, the only critical point offis x =0.
Finding Extreme Values The critical pointx =
0 divides the reat line into two test intervals:
- o , 0) and (0, - o).

For r * 2, the denominator off) is always positive. Therefore, the sign of f is determined by
the sign of numerator off"(r). We see that
S(x) <0 for x <0, and fr) >0 for x >>0
0, conclude that
f"() changes sign from negative to positive as x passes through
« =
we
Since
x = 0 is point of local minimum. The local minimum value isf(0) = 9/2.

Fínding intervals on which fis concave up or concave down, and identifying points of inflection
Points of inflection can occur only at those x-values where " ( ) = 0 or s"(r) is not defined.

Although x) is not defined atx =+2, we do not call them inflection points because they are not
in the domain off. Since the numerator/") is always negative, the sig of f"c) is determined by
the sign of (r - 4¥. We see that
if x<-2, then f"c) < 0, s o f i s concave down o n ( - o , - 2)

if -2<x< 2, then S"(x)> 0, so fis concave up on (-2, 2)

if x> 2, then "(x) < 0, so fis concave down on (2, co).

Finding intercepts
x-intercepts:(-3, 0), (3, 0)
y-intercepts: (0, 9/2)
Finding asymptotes
Horizontal asymptotes: The line y =2 is a horizontal asymptote because

I
lim 20-9-2 and lim
x-4 I x -4
24-9-2
Vertical asymptotes: The line x = - 2 and x = 2 are vertical asymptotes because

lin
lim 20x9) -coand fim 2r-9)_
-2 -4 -2 -4
 Calculus
70

lim 2(r-9)_ im2-)--

r2*2-4
x 2 r-4
Sketch the graph. 3.15.
sketch the graph as show in Figure
Use the results of the above steps,
we

Local minimum

(0,9/2)
Horizontal
asymptote 2

-8 0
-4/1
-3,09 (3.0)

FIGURE 3.15

3.5 LINEARIZATION ANDDIFFERENTIALS

function can be approximated by
the situation in which a nonlinear
In this section we will consider and are based on
function. Such approximating linear functions are called linearization
a linear define
d and dy, called differentials and
lines. We will also introduce two new var+ables,
tangent
Leibniz's notation
dy a true ratio.
them in such a way that makes dx

Linearization
is differentiable at a point a. As can be seen in Figure
We begin by considering a function fthat of tangency.
lies close to the curve near the point
3.16, the tangent to the curve y=f(x)
that the
and its tangent line, we can see
In fact, by 20oming in on the graph of the curve y =f(x) fact is the key to
curve looks more and more like its tangent
line at the point of tangency. This
line at (a,fa)) as an approximation
understanding linear approximation. The idea is to use the tangent
to the curve y = f(x) near a.
Applications of Differentiation 71

S)

L(r)-f(a)+S'@Xt-a)

Tangcnt
Line

FIGURE 3.16
The slope of the line tangent to the curve y =ft) at the point (a. fla)) is f'(a). So, the equation
of the tangent line is

y- S) = Sl)r-a) r fa)+laa-a)
L)
Thus, for values of x near a, we can approximate values off(r) by the linear function
Lr) = fla) +f(a)(r - a)

The function L(x) is called the linearization offat a.

Thus, Sa) L) =f(a) +f()*-a) near a

DEFINITION Linearization
Ifa function is differentiable at x =a, then the linear function
L ) = Sa) +Sl)% - a

that approximates the function y =f) near a is called the linearization of f at a. The
approximation

offby L is called the standard linear approximation of fat a. The point z =a is called the
center of the approximation.
EXAMPLE 13 Find the linearization off(r)= yr atx = 4 and use it to approximate 4.01.

$OLUTION To find the linearization off at 4, we need to find f4) and f"(4). We have

S4) 2, s)-2 so s'(4)=

Thus, the linearization offx) = at x= 4 is:

LO) - S(4) +S4%* - 4)- 2+(x-4)=r+

 Calculus
72

FIGURE 3.17

In other words, vz =
L{x) x+l
=
near 4.

and its linearization L(x) =

x+l are shown in Figure 3.17.
The graphs offt)=
Using this linearization, we obtain
V4.01 L(4.01) =" + l =2.02
4

at x=2.
EXAMPLE 14 Find the inearization of S(t}=

SOLUTION S)= x

S2)-5 and S2)=-

The linearization offlr) = atx=2 is:

L ) = S(2)+/2)(x - 2)

-1 FIGURE 3.18

The graphs offt) =

1 and its linearization L(r) = -X+1 are shown in Figure 3.18.

EXAMPLE 15 Find the linearization off(r) = sinx atr = a.

Delhi Unix. GE-I, 2016
S) = sinx S ' a ) = cos.r
SOLUTION
S r ) = sinn = 0 and S''r) cosn= -1

Thus, the lincarization off(x) sin r at x

= =
n is:

f(«) +S°(7)(r-n)= 0+(-1)(r n)= - t

-

Lx)
 73
Applications of Differentiation
In other words,
sinx=L(x) = -x +T near x =t
The graphs ofS(x) = sin x and its linearization L{r) = -x+ r are shown in Figure 3.19.

L(x)=-x +T

0 72
y= sin x

FIGURE 3.19
EXAMPLE 16 Show that the linearization of ftr)- (1 +)* atx =0 is L() = I + kx, k being any

number.

SOLUTION So) = (1 +1) S')= k(1+ x)-

f(0) =
(1 +0)= 1 and S0) =
k(1 +0-I =
k

Thus, the linearization off(¢)

=

(1 +)*atx =0 is
L) =SO) +S'0)r-0)= I + kr

Differentials

dy used to mean the derivative ofy with respect to x. It may

As we know the Leibniz's notationis
dx

be remarked here that the notation is a single entity and does not represent any ratio. Our
dy be treated
is to define the symbols "dx" and "dy" in such a way that can ass a
objective now d
true ratio.
DEFINITION Differentials

is defined to be
|Lety=f()be differentiable function. The differential ofx, denoted by dx,
a

an independent variable that can have any

real value. The differential of y, denoted by dy, is
defined by the formula
dy f'r)dr (1)

A
 Calculus
74
on bothx
dependent variable depending
-

variable dr, the variable dy is a

Unlike the independent domain of the function f,
and dx. If dr is given a specific valuc and x is a particular valuc in the
* 0, then we can
divide both sides of (1) by
then the numerical value of dy can be obtained. Ifdx
dr to obtain

dx
or as the
Thus, the symbol dx
dy interpreted either as a single symbol
can now be
denotingf"(r)

fraction (the differential ofy divided by the differential of x).

EXAMPLE 17 (a) Find the differential dy ify= 4x3 -7x

1 and dx 0.1.
Find the value of dy if x *
=

(b)
SOLUTION (a) The differential dy is given by
dy f ' a ) d x = (12x2 14x)dr

0.1 in the above expression, we obtain

(6) Substituting r =1 and dx =

dy [12(1)? -14(1)](0.1)= -0.2.

Geometric Meaning of Differentials

AL in the linearization offwhen x =a changes

Geometrically, the differential dy is the change
by an amount dx
=
Ax.

function y=f) that is differentiable on an intervalcontaining the point a,

To see this, consider a
to + Axr. Then Ay is given by
Let Ay denote the actual change in y as x changes from a a

Ay Sla + Ax) - s )

the corresponding change in the tangent

Using the linearization L{x) =f(a) +S'(a)r-a) offat
a,

line L is given by
AL =L{a +Ax) - L(a)

Ar a)] Sla) +f'la)(a -

a)]
Ua) +f)a t
-
-

fla)Ax

i.e AL =fla)Ar
w e agree to write dx =
Ax, then we can rewrite this as

AL = Sla)dx

= dy (definition of diferential dy)

value of the differential dy when x a
=

change in the linearization offis precisely the

That is, the
or falls when x changes by
and dx Ax. Therefore, dy represents the anount the tangent line rises
=

anmount dr 3.20 shows that if Ax dx is small, then the

actual change inf, Ay, is
=

a Az. Figure
=

a, that is,
well approximated by the differential dy, which is the change in the lincarization offat
=
r
Applications of Differentiation 75

Ay dy =f(x)dr
when dx = Ar is small and the approximation becomes better as dx becomes smaller.

=f(),

Ay s(a+ dr)-f(a)

a.fla))
AL Sladr
dx Ar

Tangent
Line

a a dr

FIGURE3.20
1 to 1.1.
EXAMPLE 18 Approximate the change iny=f() =x+2x when x changes from
We have =l and a + dx =
1.1
SOLUTION .
a

dx = (a + dr) - a = 1.1 - 1 = 0.

The change Ay in y can be approximated by the differential dy, where

dy f')dr
Now S') 2x +2 =
S(1) =2(1) + 2 =
4

dy f(l)dr 4(0.1),= 0,4

=

0.4
Ay dy
=

Estimating with Differentials

see this, consider a
function
Differentials can be used approximate function values. To
to
in the
differentiable on an interval containing
the point a. IfAy denotes the change
y=f(x) that is
x changes from a to a t dx,
then Ay is given by
function as
AyS(a +dx) -fla)
..(1)
Sla +dx) Sla)+ Ay
=

the differential dy:

However, if dx is small, Ay can be approximated by
Ay = dy =fla)dx

Thus, it follows from (1) that

 Calcuus
76
Sa + dx) fla) + A*

Thercfore, thé.approximation Ay sdy enables us to calculate f(a + dx) when f(a) is known and
dx is smaH.
to 2.02
EXAMPLE 19 The radius of a circle is increased from 2 m m:

)Estimate the resulting change in using differentials.

area

(i) Express the estimate as a percentage of the circle's original area.

(Delhi Unin GE-1, 2015}

SOLUTION ()Letr be the radius and A be the area of the circle. Then

A =A()=nr?
the radius. We are asked to
Let AA denote the change in the area corresponding to a change dr in
estimate AA ifr = 2 andr + dr = 2.02, and so

dr =(r+ dr)-r= 2.02 2 0.02

Now AA can be approximated by the differential dA, where.

dA A'(2)dr
We have A'T) = 2
A'(2) 2n(2) =
47
dA = A'(2)xdr = 47(0.02) = 0.08T
Thus,
AA dA = 0.08T
(in Original area of the circle=A(2)= «{2¥ = 4

is
Thus, the estimate change in the area expressed as a percentage of the original area

00 = 0.087Tx 100 = 2%.

A(2) 4T

EXAMPLE 20 The radius of a circle increases from a 10 m to 10.1 m. Use dA to estimate the
=

and compare your estimate to the

increase in the circle's area A. Estimate the area of the enlarged circle
true area.

SOLUTION The area of the circle with radius r is: A =A()=xr2

A ) =2nr A'(a) = 2na

The estimated increase in the circle's area is

dA = A'(a)dr = 2ma dr

10 and dr = 10.1 10 0.1, we have

Substiuting = -

dA = 2a(10X0.1) = 2nm*

A(10 +0.1) A(10)+2m = n(10)2 + 21= 1027

Thus,
The area ofthe circle of radius 10.Jm is approximately 102nm

The true arca is : A(10.1) =

n(10.1)2 =
102.01n m2
Error in the estimate = 0.01 m.
 77

Applications of Diferentiation

Differential Formulas lhe

function to produce
that acts on a
can be
treated as an operator
"d"
Tbe differential symbol
differential. For example,
coresponding and so on
=-sinx dx,
d(e") =
e'dx, d(cosx)
differentials.
differentiation have analogs for
All the nules of

Differential Rules
Then
Letfand g differentiable function ofr.

1. d(c) =0
2. d(ef) = cdf

3. df+g)=df+ dg
4. df-g)=df-dg
5. dUs)=fdg + gdf

6. dlg)= 8=fde

For example, ex 2x dx
d(e) + e* d(r) =
x' e dx +
dr e] =r
EXERCISE3:2

atx= 1.
1. Find the linearizationof Sa)=vx
0.
Find the linearization of Sr)=vx+1
=
atr
2.
Delhi Unin GE-1, 2015)
of St)=atx -
0.
linearization
3. Find the

of S(x)=xt atx= 1.
inearization
4. Find the
atz=-8.
f()=Jr
5. Find the linearization of
of fx)=sinx atx=0.
6. Fidthe linearization
cosr atx=n/2.
. Find the linearization of f{x)=

8. Find the diferential dy if y=r-3/x.

2x
9. Find the differential dy i
the value of dy ifr =I and dx =0.1.
10. Find the differential dy ify=r-x. Hence find
 Calculus
78 0.1.
ifx 1 and dr =

of dy
=

x?+ 2x. Hcnce find thc value

differential dy ify
=
11. Find the
0.5 and dx =
0.1.
of dy ifx
=

Hence find the value

12. Find the differential dy if y =.
approximate increase in
to 5.1 cm, find the
radius ofa circle is increased from 5
cm
13. If the
its area.
increases by 2%. Find the
under heating so that its radius
14. A circular metal plate expands before heating is 10 cm.
in the area of the plate if the radius of the plate
approximate increase
the approximate decrease in
its
shrinks from 10 cm to 9.8 cm, find
15. If the radius of a sphere
volume.

ANSWERS
4. Lx) = 2
1. L)=x+; 2. L(r)=1+5 3. Lx)=x+ 1|

. 6. Lx)=x 7. L)--*+ 2x

2)dr; 0.4 12.

9. 21-x)-dx 10. (3r- 1Jdx; 0.2 11. (2x +

(1+
14. 4T cm4 15. 80T cm
13. 1,cm

SRatch

15
OSKabRh
3

() 12+481-64

C1): 3 -5
Gv
3
 O~--t -- -- -- -- --
-- -- -- -- ---CE tM W
4
Applications of De fm ite Int eg ral s

4.1 VOLUMES BY SLICING

solid by _integrating the cross-sectional area
In this section we will see how to find the volume of a
from one end of the solid to the other

endi cula r to x-Axis

Volu me By Slicing Met hod : Cross Sect ions Perp
boun ded by two parallel planes perpendicular
-Let S be a solid that exte~ds along the .x-axis and is
to the x-axis at X = a and X = b(see Figure 4.1), If,
foreach X in [a, b1 the cross-sectional area
the volu me of the solid is
of the solid perp endi cular to the x-axis is A(x), then
b

V J
= A(x)dx,
a

provided A(x) is integrable.

. s

~ ---J F L -Q b
a x
FIGURE 4.1
A simil ar result holds for cross secti ons perp endic ular to the y-axis
 80 Calculus
l
Volume By Slking Metho d : Cross Sections .Perpendicular toy-Axis
icular
Let S be a solid that extends along the y-axis and is bounde d by two parallel planes perpend
area of the solid
to the y -axis at y = c and y =d. If,for each y in [c, d}; the cross-sectional
perpend icular to the y-axis is A(y), then the volume of the solid is

.r= f a
b
A(y)dy,

provided A(y) is integrable.

Note Th~e formulas simpJy state that 'the volume of a solid can be obtained by integrating. the
·
cross-sectional area from one end of the solid to the other.

.Procedure for Finding the Vofume of a Sotid by SJicing Metho d

Step 1. Sketch the solid and a typical cross-section.
.
Step 2. Find a formula for ~(x) (or A(y); the area of a typical cross section)
Step 3. Find the limits of integration.
Step 4. Integrate A(x} or A(y) to find the volume.
The method is best illustrated with the· help of the following example.
h a and
EXAMPLE l Find the volume ·of a pyramid whose base is a square with sides oflengt
whose altitude is h.
the origin as
SOLUTION We draw the pyramid with its altitude along the x-axis and its vertex at
shown in Figure 4.2(a).
y y
p

(b),
(a} ,
FIGURE 4.2
icu!Jr to the x-ax is is a
At any point x in the interva l [O, hJ on the x-axis, the cross-s ection perpend
s in Figure 4 .2(b), we
· square. Ifs denotes the length of a side of this square, then by similar triangle
have ·
X s/2 S (l
⇒ s :;;: - x
lz a/ 2 a h
 tfZ I
81
~t:. -
Applic ations ofDefinite Jnregrols

Thus, the area A(.r). of the cross section at xis

-~c-
~~
2
2 a 2
A(x) =s = ., 1 x
Hence the volume of the solid is
h a2 - a2 [-~] a2 h
-
. . V =
,,
JA(x) d.T
-
= 2 foh x2 dx = ,1 -3 = 3·
. o

4.2 SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION : THE DISK MET HOD _

region about a line that lies in ~e
A solid of revol ~t;n is~ solid that is fonned by re~olving a plane
Some familiar solids of revolutJOn
same plane as the region. The line is called the axis of revolu tion.
are shown in Figure 4.3. ·

righf circular cylinder

axis of revolution -<Jc

right circular cone

axis of revolutio~ ~
solid sphe re
FIGURE 4.3

Volu me By Disk Meth od Perpe ndicu tar to the x-axis

al [a, bJ. Let R be the region
(''('
Let/ be a continuous function that is nonnegative on the interv
x = b. Our objective is to find the
bounded by the graph off, the x-axis, and the lines x = a and
volume of the solid of ~~yolution that is generated by re~olving
the region R about the x-axis . ~~
••
g. For this purpose, we obser ve that
We can find the volume of this solid using the method of slicin
at the point x, where a s x s b,
the cross section of the solid taken -perpendicµlar to the x-axis
typical cross sectio n has area
is a circular disk of radius /(.r) (See Figure 4.4). Therefore, a
A(x) = nlf(.r)] 2
 . Calcul
.. . \ ..
us., __, ., .·•
~

r 82
t Y,

\ f(x )
-+- -t.+ -:-· ·- : . + '- - . X
0 X l b
i
·. i
i

(b) Sofid of revolution

(a) Plane region
FIGURE 4.4

r.
_te_gra_tin_g

This metho
_~_e

d
_c_r

of
o_s_

cal
s--s-

cul
ec_:_

atin
·0_~

g
_·1_

the
;_<_

vol
:_>:_

um e
e_:_r_:_r~_;_x_;l_:_:_d_x_=_b_g_iv_e_s_th_e_v_o

of a solid of revolution is called the disk

_lum_e_·-of_t_h_e-so-1-id-~I

me tho d because

disk.
eac h cross section is a circular
nded by the
d the vol um e of the solid tha t is formed by revolving the region bou
EXAMPLE 2 Fin xis.
lines x = I and x = 4 about the x-a
curve y = J; , the x-axis, and th~ solid of
t dra w figu res sho win g the reg ion , a typical radius and the generated
SOLUTION We firs
revolution (Figure 4.5 ). y
y

X
X 4
0
0 lj
/

(b) Solid of revolution

(a) Plane region
'
. I . · FIGURE 4.5
t Using the disk method, the required
volume of the solid of revolution is
:
f
r 2
1] = J5
(/( x) Jd r = {x.xdr =n ~
. / ·
V =
"
[n
,. [ ]"
=n[ 8- 2
1
 83
Applications of/J.:ifinitc /nteg raLf
nded by the
tha~ is obtained by revolving the regi(!n bou
EXA MP LE 3 Find the volume of the solid
t the x-axis.
· UJV eJ{x) = - x 2 + x and the x-axis abou
generated solid
ing the region, a typical radius, and the
SOL UTI ON We first draw Figures show
of revolution (Figure 4.6).
y Y .

y= -.i+ x
_...__ __ __. ~-.. x
0

(a) Plane region. (b) Solid of revolution

FIGURE.4.6
of the solid of revolution is:
Using the disk method, the required volume
1 . I
-2x +x )dx = ~
b 4 3 2
V = J1t[f (x)] 2 dx = 1tf (..:-x +x) 2dx
0.
= 1tf
0
2(x
30
.. a

me of a sphe re ofra dius r. [Delhi Univ. GE-12015)

EXA1\1PLE 4 Derive the formula for the volu
d by the upp er
generated by revolving the region bou nde
SOLUTION A sphere of radius r can be
is about the x-axis (See Figure 4.7).
half of the circle x +y2 = r2 and the x-ax
2

y y

..:- r · o :x r

(a) Upper half of the circle (b) Sphere of radius r.

FIGURE 4.7
=f(x ) =Jr 2 ~ x
2
h of y , it follows (using the disk ·
Since the upper half of the circle is the grap
:
met hod ) that the volu me of the sph ere is
J]r
V = ! b 2
n(/( x)) dx =nJ, (r
r 1
-x
1
)dx =n
[ 1
r x - x3 _, = 1nr '.

the y-axis
Volume By Disk Me tho d Perpendicular to
g a region
met hod can also be app lied to find the volu me of a soli d gen erat ed by revolvin
Tiie disk ;.. d, about the
is, and the hori zon ta l lines y = c and y
R bounded by the curv e .t = g (y), the y-ax
 Calculus ·.

84:
y-axis; In.this cas~. the ·area
of a rypi~al cross scct~o·n is :
A(y) = xlg (y) f
y = c and y . = d gives the volume of the solid :

I
· thes ectiooa l areas betw een _
Integrating e c_ross s .
2
·d
J
V = A(j,)<ry =
.
Jn(g(yi} dy ·
d

: --------------
'
_ ..!_c:_ __:. ..:_ _£c_ _ _ _ _~ - - -
L. - - - - - - - ' ~_
\ y
y

-- -- -- -- -- -x -- -- -+0-- -- -~ X
0

(b) Solid ofrevolution

(a) Plane region
tl FIGURE 4.8
between the
5 Fi-n d the vol um e of the solid generated when the region
EXAMPLE
5 4 is revolved about the y-axis. _
y-axis ~ the curve x = 2.Jy , 0. 5 y
ss sections
We first sketch the regiori and the generated solid (Figure 4.9}. The cro
.SOLlTflO N
pointy is x = 2/y.
s. The radius of the cross-section at the
taken perpendicular to the y-axis are disk

Therefore, the area of a typical cross--sc

ction at the pointy is :
A(y) = 1t(2fo)2 = 1t{4y)

Thus, the volume of the solid i~ :

4 4

V = JA(y)dy = Jn(4y)dy = n2y2 f = 321t.

0 O
0
 #- 1
85 ~
'

Applications ofDe.fin ire lntl-gralr

y
'Y fF;
!t
~
,~c
<&C I
~ I
0
· O
i[c I
(a) Plane region

FIGURE 4.9 ·.
(b) Soli~ of revolution
:C I
;~-- 1
EXAMPLE 6 Find the volume of the solid generat ed when the .region enclose d by tt.A,, 1,
y = ✓x , y = 2, and x = 0 is revolved about the y-axis.

SOLUT ION We first draw figures showing the region, a typical radius and the generate
d solid of
-.J
revolution (Figure 4.10).

y
V

• ~ -I

---- ---- -t-- ---- --_ .,x

..
~
0
0

(a) Plane region (b} Solid of revolution

FIGURE 4.10·
~.
At each pointy in the interval O ~ y ~ 2, the cross secti<>.n of the solid perpend icular t~ the y-ax
is~

is a circular disk of radius of R (y) = y. Therefore, a typical cross section has area
'~"'\.~

· A(y) = n[R(y)}2 = 1ty4

Thus, the volume of the solid is :

V = j., A(y)dy = J21ry°4dy = n(L55)2 = 321t

5
0 0 0
 86 Calculus
f

4.3 SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION : THE WASHER METHOD

Whenever the regi_on that is revolved to generate a solid does not border on or cross the axis of
revolution, the solid :will have a hole in it And, a typical cross-section perpendicular to the axis of
revolution is a circular washer.
. . . .

The method of slicing tan again be used to find the volume of such a solid of revolution

Volume By Washer Method Perpendicular to the x-axis . ·

Let/and g be-continuous arid nonnegative fun.ctions on [a, bJ such that/(x) ~ g(x) for all x in the
interval [a, b]. Let R be the region bounded by the curvesy = f(x) and y = g (x), and the lines
x = a and x ~ b (see -Figure 4.11 ). We are interested to find the volume ofthe solid of revolution that
y y
y=

f ('r:)
-g (;r)

0 a X b 0 a b
-Washer

(a) (b)
I. FIGURE 4.11
is generated by revolving the region R about the x-axis. For this purpose, observe that the cross
section of the solid taken perpendicular to the x-axis at the point x is a washer with inner radius
g (x) and outer radius f(x). Its area is ·

A(x) = ,r[/(x) f - ,r[g(x)J2 =,r([/ (x) }2 -(g(x) }2)

. Thus, using the method of slicing, the volume of the solid is
b b
V f
= A(x) dx =
2
J,r{[f(x)]2-[g(x)] )cfr
a a

EXAMPLE 7 Find the volume of the solid that is forn1ed when the region between the graphs of
..
l 2
f(x) = + x and g(x) = x over the interval [O, 2) i_s revolved about the x-axis .
'i 2
SOLUTION The region bounded by the graph of/ and g over interval (0, 2] is shown in Figure.:
4.12(a) and the resulting solid is shown in Figure 4.12(b). At each poi~t .r in rh e interva l
[O, 2). the cross section th.rough the solid perpendicular to the x-a.,is is a
 Applications ofDefinite_In.tegralr 87
. . I
.
r radius of f(x) = - + x
2
and an inne r radius of g(x) = x. The area of
circu lar was her WJth nn oute
. 2
. poin t x is:
a typic al cros s sect ion at the

2
A(x) = 1r(~f~x)] -[g( x)J
2
) = "[ (½ + x 2
)'- x
2
] = 1r(¾+ x')
·
Therefore, the volume of the sohd 1s: ·

V J dr. = J(!4+x )dr

= A(x)
0 .
1t
0
4
691t
10

J'
y

3
2
1

0 l 2

(a) Plane region (b) Solid of revolution

, FIGURE 4.12

is formed when the r~gion bounded by the graphs

E~ 1P LE 8 Find the volume of the solid.that
x = I is revolved about the x-axis.
of f(x) = J; and g(x) = x2 between x :=()and
f(x) = ✓x and g (x) = x2 between x =0 and
SOLUTION The region bounded by the graphs of about
x = J is shown in Figure 4.13(a). The solid
of revolution generated by revolving this region

the x-axis is shown in Figure 4.13(b).

d
 ~. t

Calcut~•-;
88
y
y
y=4

(a)_ Plane region. (b) Solid of revolution

· FIGURE 4.13 .
At each point x in the interval O s x s I, the cross section of the solid perpendicular to the x-ax.1s
is a circular washer with an outer radius of f(x)t= J; and an inner radius of g (x) =x2. The area
of this washer is:

A(x)
4
= 1r((f(x)}2-fg(x)f} = 1r(x-x }
Therefore, the volume of the solid is:

': y = JA(x) dx =Jx (x-x 4 }th = ,c( x' J~' = 3

7t
o o t2 s )lo 10

Volume By-Washer Method-Perpendicular to the y-axis

. .

Letp and q be continuous and nonnegative functions on [c, d} such that p (y) ~ q (y) for ally in
· the interval (c, a']. Let R be the region bounded by the curves x = p (y) and x = q (y}, and the lines
y = c and y = d (see Figure 4.14).
To fmd the volume of the solid generated when R ·is revolved about the y-axis, we us~ the method
of slicing - now with respect to the y-axis. The area of a typical cross section is · ·

A(y) = 1r([p(y)}2 -_[q(y)J)

Thus, using the method of slicing, the volume of the solid is

d d.
y = IA(y}dy = fJr{[PL~)]2 ~ (q(y))2 )dy
C C
 89 '
Applicpt~ons ofDefinite Integrals
y
y

d
X =q X = p(V)

Y ·

------------x 0
o.

(b)
(a)
~k~
FlGURE 4.14
EXAM.PLE 9 Find the vol~me of the solid generated when the. region bounded by the parabola
y = x2 and the line y~ 2x in the first quadrant is revolved about the y-axis.

SOLUTION First we determine the points where the parabola y = x2 and the line y = 2"C intersect. {j~
Eliminatingy, we obtain
x2 =
~
= 2x ⇒ x = 0 or x 2·

If x = 0, then y = O; and if x = 2, then y = 4. Thus the two curves intersect at (0, 0) and (2, 4). The
region bounded by the graphs of y = x2 and ihe line y = 2"t between x = 0 and x = 2 is shown in
Figurc4. l 5(a}.
y y

i - - - -... (2,4)

(~

?:
~
.r 1
- .[,) i
X .t
0 0
2

(a) Plune region (l>) Solid of rc,·olution

FIGURE 4.15
11\e solid of revolution generated by revolving this region about the y-axis is shown in Figure
4. I 5(b). At each pointy in the interval O ~ y ~ 4, the cross s.cction of the solid perpendicul ar to
the y-axis is a circular washer with an outer radius of p (y) :::;: Jy and an inner radius of q (y) :.: y/2 .
 Calculus
90
The area of this washer is:

A(y) = 1{(p(y)j -(q(y))

2 2
]=+-:J
~ Therefo re, the volume of the solid is :
4

V = !4
A(y) dy = !
4
n
(
y- ~
2 Jdy. = n(~i - ; ~o = 81t3
3~
2

Differe nt Axes Of Revolution

of a solid of -
The method of disks and the method of washers can also be used to find the volume
There is no
revoluti on whose axis of revoluti on is a line differen t from one of the coordina te axes.
principl e to
need to develop a new formula in such situations. In fact, we can· use the same basic
find the volume of a solid by integrating the appropri ate cross-se ctional area from one end of the
solid to the other.

AJ .. , . . . . . . ., • ....,. LE 10 Find the volume of the solid generate d when the region bounded by the -curve
and the lines y = 1, x = 4 is rotated about the line y = 1..

SOLUT ION The region bounde~ by the graph of y =✓ x and the lines y = I and x = 4 is shown -
line y = l is
in Figure 4.16(a). The solid of revoluti on generate d by rotating this region about the
shown in Figure 4.16(b).
y y

-o+-- -1---x- ---_,..; ;;:-..4'- -- ~ x

X 4
(a) Plane region (b) Solid of revolution

FIGURE 4.16
I

To find the volume of the solid generate d, we use the general slicing method - now
with respect·

to the line y = J. At each point x in the interval I ~ x ~ 4, the cr~ss section

I of the solid

perpend icular to the axis y =l is a circular disk with radius R(x) = /; - I . Therefore, a typical
\
I cross section has area
-1
-1
I
A(x) = n[ R(x)) ==
2
n( Fx - 1}2 =1r(x --2 J; + t)
'I
i
I Jenee the volume of the solid generated is :
rj
(·

II I
 91
Applications ofDefinite lntcgralr ·

V = j
I
A(x)dx = xi{x -2fx +
. I
1)dx = x[~ -jx3' +xf ~ t
2

·
2

I
7

revolving the region between the

EXAMPLE 11 Find the volume of the solid generated by
parabola x = y2 + I and the line x = 3 about tJ1e line x =3.
the line x = 3 is shown in Figure
SOLUTION The region between the parabola x = y2 + 1· and
. 4. l 7(a). The. region is bo.unded above by the line y
= Ji. and is bo~nded below by the line
3 is shown ·
y = -✓ 2. Th~ solid of revolut!on generated by revolving this region about the line; =
·in Figure 4. I 7{b). 1

y y

R(y) = 3 -(l + 1)
=2- / R(y) ==2- / .x-=3

.Ji (3, Ji) .Ji

y y
X
X
0 I ... . 3 0.
(·:

2
-✓
2
-✓
x = v· + I
~. --/2)

(a) Plane region (b) Solid ofrcvolution

FIGURE 4.17

At .each pointy in the ·interval [-Ji., fi], the cr?ss section of the solid perpendicular to the
a<l$x == 3 is a circular disk with radi~s R(y) = 3 - (y2 + I)= 2 -
y. The area of this cross section
is

A(y) = ,r[R(y)J2 = ;r( 2- y2

\

r
Therefore, the volume of the solid is
Ji Ji 2
V = f A(y)dy= J JT(2-y2) dy
-Ji -Ji

Ii . . [ .s ]fi ✓:-
,.
= ,r J (4-4y 2 + / )dy = Jt 4y-- ~ / + L : ,: 6411_ 2
_Ji 3 5 -Ji I)

6 ~Find the volume of the solid generated when U1e region under
over the interv al [0, 2) 1s rotated about the line y :.: - I.
the cum: )" "' .,
1

\
 Calculus·
~-,
92. LUT
. ION Toe ·re·gi''ort· under
the curve y = "r ovef the interval is [O, 2l is shown in
r
I·
i
So
· ·
4J 8(a). The solid of revolution generated by ,otatm
· · b t the hney =-l 1s show
g this region a ou .
Figur
nm e

Figu~e .4.18(b). ,
y
·' y

·4

X
X
0 ·2
-: t y=- 1

l
(b) SoJid of revolution
(a) Plane region

FJGURE 4.18
To find the volume of the solid, observe that the cross sectio
n of the solid perpendicular to the a.xis
y = -1 is a circular washer with outer radius "r + I and
inner radius I. The area of this cross
section is
A(x) · == 1t
[
(x 2 +1) 2 -1 ..,]
.. == 1t(x 4 +2.x2 )

Therefore, the volume of the sol·id is :

V = A(x)dx I
0
=Jlt (x 4 .+ 2x2 )dx = n(-< + hJ )
0 5 3
2

- l?Gn
-15 -
.
0

4.4 VOLUMES BY CYUNDRICAL SHELLS

.Volume By The SheU Method

Let /be continuous and nonnegative on a, bi and let R be the
i region bounded by the ~ph off.
the x-axis, and the lines x == a and x = b (see Figure 4. l 9(a).
Then the volume V of the solid of
 93
ls
· A.pplicarions ofDef init e Inte gra
ing the region R abo ut the y-a xis
is given by
n tha t is gen era ted by rev olv
rev olu tio

I . V = [2 nx f(x }d x - ·
... ( 1)
l
SheJJ radius

ShelJ hei ght

f(x }/

. 0

(b)
(a) · r~
FIGURE 4.19 . r:;"--:
reg ion ma y be an;
yli nde ric al she ll can also be app lied to situations wh ere the
Note. Th e me tho d ofc other tha n the y-a xis . 1F ~
cur ves , or the axi s of rev olu tion ma y be a line
enc los ed bet we en two y of ~ \...>,
atio n, we wil l giv e a gen era l wa
Ho we ver , ins tea d of dev elo pin
g a new for mu la for eac h situ
I
dis cri bin g for mu la (I} that can
be ada pte d to any situation.
l [ a, bJ
-~
•lb
.
h poi nt x in the inte rva
Fo r this pur pos e, Jet- us ree xam ine
the integand in formula ( l ). At eac
l line seg me nt of len gth
t
ion R per pen dic ula r to the x-a xis is a ver tica
the cross-s ecti o_n of the reg sur fac e ~~
cro ss sec tion at x sw eep s out the
f (x). Wh en the :region R is rev olv ed abo ut
and
the y-a
r~d
xis
ius
, the
x (Fi gur e 4.1 9(b )). The are
a of this sur fac e is :ftl ::, I
ind er of hei ght /(x )
of a rig ht circ ula r cyl sta ted inf orm ally as
gra nd in for mu la (I). Thu s, for mu la (1) can be (,€; I
I(. •
2rr x f(x ) wh ich is the inte · -
· -
· · ·
fol low s:

I she lf me tho d to
l
v = in (shell radius}(shell hei ght ) dx
find the vol um e of the solict generate.d wh en
the reg ion tr:,...._
EXAMPLE JJ Use the
rev olv ed abo ut the y-a xis .
' '-1- : . ~

x, the x = 4 is
bou nde d by the cur ve y = ✓
x~a xis and the line

reg ion is giv en in Y

SO LU TI ON A ske tch _of the is x ·
ius of a typical cyl ind rica l she ll
Fig ure 4.2 0. Th e rad
and its height is f(x ) = ✓ x. The ref ore , the vol um e of the ShcH radius .
tho d is : I
sol id gen era ted by the she ll me X She ll height
4
b /.
f
y = 2x xf( x)d .r = 21 txf xd x f '/ ;r.) -:,./ ;.

a 0
0 .r -1
==r 21( j dx = 27f[35..xs11 Jlof = _12_58_n
xJ/ 2
FIGURE 4.2 0
o .
 94 Calculu.r,._,,

EXAMPLE 14 Use the shell method to find the volume of the solid generated when the regionR,
in tbe first quadrant enclosed between y = x and y = x2 is.revolved about the y-axis. •

SOLUTION A sketch of the region R is shown in Figure 4.2l(a). At each point x in the interval
0 $ x $ I, the cross section of R parallel to the y-axis (i.e., axis of revolution) generates a
cylindrical surface of radius x and height x - x2 (See Figure 4.2l(b)).
y y

. (! '.1) (1, ] )

2
x-x {

X
0 0 .I

(a) (b)
FIGURE 4.21

The area of this surface is 21rx(x -x2).

Therefore, the volume of the solid generated by the shell method is :

.I 2 . I·
V= J2xx(x-x)dx = 2xf(x -x )dx=2x
2 J ·[3-44]I =2x(3-:-
XJ X I I 1t
)= (i·
O
4
0 . 0

EXAMPLE 15 Use cylindrical shells to find the volume of the solid generated when the region
bounded by the curve y
= x, the y-axis and the line y = l is revolved about the x-axis.
SOLUTION A sketch ofthe region is shown in Figure 4.22.
y y

Shell height
y== I
J .

t
Shell rn<lius ~v
------ -- - - - x
0

(a) (b)
r FIGURE 4.22
Applications ofDefinite lntcgralr
95
of integration in the shell meth od is y:Thc .
Since· the axis of revolution is the x-axis, so the variaple
limits of integration in the shell meth od are a =-0 and b =
I (alon g the y-axis). At each point y in the
interval [O, 1], the cross sectio n of R parallel to the x-axi
s (i.e., the axis of revolution) gen~ tes a
of this surfa ce is 2ny (r). There fore, the
cylindrical surface ofrad iusy and heigh ty2. The area
volum e of the solid by the shell meth od is .

solid generated when the region R

EXAMPLE 16 ·use cyli.ndrical shells to find the volum e of the
boun ded by the c~e y = J4x - x2 , the x-axis and the line x = 2 is revolved ~bout the x-axis.
e 4.23.
SOL UTIO N A sketc h of the region R is show n in Figur
y y

ShcJI hcighl

Y-Sh cll radius

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4.23
ration in the shell method is y . The
Since the axis of revolution is the x-axis, so the variable of integ
limits ofint egrat ion in the shell meth.od are a = 0 and b
= 2 (along the y-a."<.is). A typical shell runs

parallel to the x.:~ s and has radius y,. where 0 ~ y ~ 2

and height 2 - · x = .J4 ~ y_2 (This is
\

obtained as follows : y = J4x - x2 ⇒ y = 4x - x2 = - ( x2 - 4:c + 4 - 4) = 4 - (x - 2)2

⇒ (x - 2)2 = 4 - y2 )
is : .
Therefore, the volume of the solid by the shell method
b
f
V = 2n(shell radius)(shell heigh t)dy
a
2 2
=· f1xyJ4-y dy = 21t f1(- tdt)
2
[Put t2 = 4 - /- ⇒ 2tdt c:: -2yd y]
· 0 0
 Calculus
96
EX.Al\'IPLE .17 Use cylindrical shells to find-·thc volume of the solid that i~ generated when the
. d tl 1- - oand x = 2 1s revolved about the
region R bounded by the curve J' = ."2' the .r~ax1s, an ,e mes .x - . .
line y =-1.
SOLlITION We first graph the region R as shown in Figure 4.24:
}'.
y

!
,, ,

,,
4
•
J
J;i

I .
-}4---------tr:---- y=-1
.i y=-I

(a} (b)
FIGURE 4.24
At each po.int y in the interval (0, 4}, the cross section of R parallel to the axis of revolution y = ~ l
sweeps out a cylindri~I surface of height 2- f; and radius y + 1. The area of this surface is

2x(y + })( 2-.{y}

Therefore, the volume of the solid is :
4
V = J2x(y+l)(2-fr)dy
0

== 2xj (2y- y312 + 2- y"2)dy = 21t[i -~5 /'2+2y- ~3 YJ/2 ]4: : 176n
}5
. 0
0
Note Notice that the volume of the solid of revolution found in Example 17 agrees with the same
solid found earlier by the washer method in Example 12 of Section 4.3.
 - - ~ ~y~
97
:
App lic,1rioru ofD.f inirr J11rq --mb

cd wh en the region under the curve y

=J; over
sol id tha t is obt ~in
I. Find the volum e ofrJ1c
ut the x-axis.
the inte rval (0, 4J is revolved abo cur ve
sol id tlrn t is obt ain ed by rev olving the rcgjon bounded by the
l. Find the volm1~e of the .
x = 0 and x = 2 about the x-axis
y = x 2, rhe x-axis, and -the lines the curve Y = 2t ove r the
the vol um e of tl1e sol id tha t is obtained when the region und er
3. Find ,.
the x-axis.
interva'I [O, J Jis revolved about nded by the cur ve
vol um e of the sol id tl1a t is obt ained by revolving the region bou
4. Find the
xis about tlie x-axis.
y = 4 - x 2, the ~r-axis and the y-a nded by the curve
ted by revolving the region bou
1

um e oft he sol id tha t is gen era

5. Find the vol
x = 2 about the x-axis.
.Y = x 3, the x-axis and the Jines x = 0 and by the curve
the sol id tha t is gen era ted by revolving the reg ion bounded
6. Find the volume of

I
y= J9 - x 2 and the x-axis about the x-_ axis.
d by the cur ve
e of the sol id tha t is gen era ted by revolving the reg ion bou nde
7. · Find the volum
y-axis.
y = x 3 , y = 8 and ·x = 0 about the Js 2
enc los ed by x = y ,
I 8. Find the volume of the solid that
is gen era
y-axis_
ted by rev olv ing the reg ion

x = 0, y = -1 and y = 1 about the

ted by rev olv ing the reg ion bou nde d by x =
2.[; ,
id tha t is. gen era
9. Find the volume of the sol
x = 0 and y = 9 about the y-axis
.

id tha t is gen era ted by tev olving the region enc los ed. by x
Jt
~ +y ,
10. Find the volume of the sol
x = 0 and y = 3 about the y-axis.
we en y-a xis and the line
·vo Jum e of the sol id tha t is generated ,wh en the region bet
11. Fin d the
y = 3 - h, 0 ~ y ~ 2 is
revolved about the y-axis.
the lin es
sol id tha t is gen era ted by rev olv ing the reg ion bou nde d by
12. Fin d the volume of the
y = x, y = l, and x = 0 abo
ut the x-axis.
the cur ve
sol id tha t is gen era ted by rev olv ing the reg ion bou nde d by
13. Find the volwne of the fDe/hi Univ. GE -l, 2016]
xis.
y === x2 +la nd f!:ie Iin
of
ey
the
= -x
sol id
+
tha
3
t
abo
is
ut
fon
the
ned
x-a
wh en the reg ion bou nde d by
the gra phs of iff.;
14. Fin d the volume
ut the y-axis.
y =x2 and y2 =.xis revolved abo
15. Find the vol um e o(J bc sol id th-t t is fon ned wh en the reg ion bou
nde d by t11e gra phs of 'f ~
about the y-axis.
x = and x == y + 2 is revolved
y
I 6. Find tl1c volum e of the sol id tha t res ult s wh en tJ1e reg ion enc los ed by y :::: /;
, y = O, and €,;
-== 9.
x = 9 is revolv ed abo ut the line .r

8n ·,J
.'
~
I

ll
~
,.'
Calculu.t
98
whe n the regi on encl osed by .x ~ jl and x
~ y ' is
17. Find the volu me of the soli d Jhat results
revo lved abo ut the line y = - 1.
nde d by
of the soli d gen erat ed whe n the regi on bou
18. Use cyli ndri cal shells to find the volu me
the curv e Y = J; , the x-ax is, and the _lines x
= I and x = 4 is revolved abou t the y-ax is.
bou nde d by
Use cylindri cal shel ls to find the volu me of the soli d gene rate d whe n the regi on
19.
·
the curv e J' = x1, the x-axj s, and the Jines
x = l and x = 2 is revo lved abo ut the y-ax is.
d by
the soli d gene rate d whe n the regi on bou nde
20. Use cy lind rica l shel ls to find the volu me of
the curv e y = x3, the x-ax is, and the line x
= l is revo lved abo ut the y-axis.
soli d gene rate d whe n the regi on bou nde d
by
of the
21. Use cyli ndri cal shelJs to find the volu me
ut the x~axis.
the curv es y = x and y = x1 is revo lved .abo

3. 361t 4. 256 n/1 5 5. 128 n/7

1. 81t 2. 32 nl 5

8. 21t 9. 1627t 10. 81t

6. 361t 7. 96 n/5
14. 3n/ 10 15. 72 1t I 5
11. 13 rr./6 12. 2n/ 3 ~ 117 ~0

18. 124 1t/5 19. 15 n/2 20. 21t /5

16. 648 1t/5 17. 1tl2

21. 21t /15

4.5 LENGTHS OF PLANE CURVES

ing the
app lica tion of the defi nite inte gral ~ dete rmin
In this sect ion we shall be con cern ed with an given
be defi ned para met rica lly or they may be
lengths of plan e curves ·who se equa tion s may
exp licitly in the fonn y =f(x) .

Len gth of a Par ame tric ally Def ined Cur

ve
' and
lly by x ::;: f(t) and y :;;: g(t), a ~ I ::; b, whe re/
Assume that a curv e C is defin.ed parametrica e. If
on (a, b]. Such a curve is called smo oth curv
g' are continu ous and not simultaneously zero th of C
eases from I = a to I = b, then the arc leng
I the curv e is trav erse d exac tly onc e as t incr
by
! ween (f(a ), g(a) ) and (/(b ), g(b) ) is give n
b<.-t

\ l___ ~ r ; IJu·<,iJ' • rg•cnJ' d, = l( ~;)' +(:ii)' d, .. .

-----
co ]

~ EXA MP LE is--findlhe length o f a circle o f rad i~~~~kti ~; cJpa,; ml!Cric:i ll y by

'it .x ,;:; r cos I and y r.. r sin t, 0 S t 5: 2n

I
r Applirotions ofD,f ,nitc Integra
SOLUTION As r varies from
O to
ls
21t, the circle is traversed exactly once, so the length
of the
99

circle is
2
L ~ I
211
- ]2 +(d- y]
(dx
dt dt
di

dx
0
dy
- · = rc os t
= - r sin t and dt
No w dt
2 2
_z_)
-dx·) + (d = r2 (sin 2 I + cos t) = r2
2
⇒ . (dt . . dt
2rr. 2ff .

L = f [, I dt = f rdt =r[t J~n = 21tr.

0
0 ~ t ~ 2n.
0
~ 3
y = sin t,
d given by x = cos3 I,
~ 19 Find the length.of the astroi (Delhi Univ. GE-1 2016]

y
is dra wn as sho wn in
SOLUTION The Astroid
is symmetrical with
Figuren 4.25. Because the curve
length of the entire
respect to the coordinate axes, the
of the curve in the
curve is four times the length
curve in the ·first
first quadrant. Notice that the
varies from t = 0
quadrant is generated as t
7rl2 (corresponding
(corresponding to .(I, 0)) to t = --- 1... ..i E :: =- -- -+ --
-~ -- {- -+ X
to (0, ) )}. .

d is:
Thus, the length of the full astroi
2

L= 4f
· rr.
12
(d- x) +(d2dt ] d1 ·
dt
2
... (I)
-I

.
0
dy \ FIGURE 4.25
dx 2 I sin t and dt = 3 sin 2t cos t
Now, dt =- 3 cos

( : )' + (di)'
4 2
= 9 cos4 I .sin2 I + 9 sin / co s 1
= 9 cos 2 I sin 2 t (cos
2I + sin 2 1)
= 9 cos 2 I sin 2 t
2 2

..., J9cos21sin , ~ 3fcos,sin, I

dx )
(. d,-
( dy _) 2
+ d1
~ I <; ,u.1 )
--= 3 ( ·.· cos t sin , ~ 0 for O
co~ , sin t
is ~
the length of the full astroid
~llb !.. titoting thi s value: in (I) ,

\
 Calculw;
, . , .....
100 I

.12
I
I I
1I
L= 4 J 3costsintdt
l I 0
Ii ' ., 2 _ x/2 .
= 6 J 2sintcostdt = 6 Jsin2tdt
0. . . . 0 .
2
= 6[_cos2tI' = 6[_!_+_!_1=6 .
z .2 2..,. .
· ~ · . .. . · • ·y = I - ·cos t O~ t ~ 2it.
giv~n by =1- sm 1' '
·EXAMPLE20 Find the length of the cu~e
x

SOLUTION We have .
dy .
dx and - =smt
= 1 .,.. cos. { dt
dt
Thus, the length of the given curve as t varies from t = 0 to t = 21t is:

L = 'j (!)' +(!)' dt

0

_fJo- cost) + (sin t) dt = f ✓1- 2cost +cos t +sin t dt

2 ~-----
2 2
2n

0
2 2

O ·
2x . . - - - - - · 2x
=. J.Jt-2cost+ldt = J.J2-2cost dt
O 0

. = 1
0
J4sin 2 ½dt (·: I - cost= 2sin
2
½)
= Jzl•m½ld1
= 'f 2sID½dt (·: sin½~ 0 for O;; I;; 2x)

=
0

-+o•½
= -4 (-1 - l}. = 8.
r = -4[cou-cosOJ

Arc Length for y =f (x)

Suppose a smooth curve is given by y =f(x), where f is a function with continuous first derivative
on the closed interval [a, b}. By lettingx::; t as a par.!meter, the graph of/ can then be treated as
the curve C defined ·parametricaUy by ·
x =t and y = /(t), a ~ i ~ - b,
 LOI
,{rJ>licotinns ofl'kfinitc Jr,ttgrols

3 particular case of what we considered before. We then have

d.t = 1 dy = f'(t)
and
dt dt

dy = dy/ dt = f'(t}
dx dxl dt

(:r +(:r =i+[f'(t)]' =1+(tr =I+ [f'(x))l

Substituting i~to Eq. (1) gives the arc length:formula for the graph ofY = f(x) . .
Formula for the Arc length of y = f (x), a ~ x ~ b
Let f be a function with a continuous first derivative on the closed interval [a, bJ. Then the
length of the curve y = f(x) from x = a to x = b is given by·

)2
. L =!viCT,i;y(d
b
+d;J dt =! I +[/'(x)}2 dx
b
...... (2)

EXAMPLE 21 Find the length of the curve/(x) =x3n. over the interval [O, l}.

SOLUTION Given /(x) = x312 , 0 ~ x ~ l

3 1/2
f'(x) = x , which is continuous on (0, IJ
⇒
2
Using the arc length formula, we have

L = UI +[f'(x)f dx = ! +(¾x J I
112
dx

= rJ1+~x d:t
0 4
=It 0
9x dx =.!_[2 (4 + 9x)312
4_ 23 9
l 0

= _!_[(4+9}31
2
-(4)3'
2
]=..!_[(n).3
27 .
' 2 -s].
27
x3 I .
EXAMPLE 22 Find the length of the curve f(x) = + x over the interval [1, 3}.
3 4
.t3 l
SOLUTION Given f(x) = - +- ⇒ f'(x) = xi - _I_>
3 4x 4x·
1.

102 Calculu:i
Thus, the length of the curve over the interval [I, 3] is

L = IJ1 +[f'(x)) dx 1(x + 4~)dx

2
=
2

= ( x: _LI= (9- .~)-(½-¾) = s:.

Remark Sometimes dyldx may fail to exist at a point and it is advantageous·to fmd the length oftbe
cUJVe by expressing x as a function y - that is, x = g(y). The formula for the arc length in this case
is obtained by interchanging the rules of x and y in formula (2): ·

Formula for the Arc Length of x =g(v), c ~ x ~ d

Let g be a function with continuous first derivative on the closed interval [c, d]. Then the length
of the curve x = g (y) from y = c toy = d is given ~y

J✓t+[g'(y)}2 dy
2

L = fJ1+(:J
C y
dy =
. C
.... (3}

EXAMPLE 23 Find the length of the curve y =f(x) = x213 from x = 0 to x = 8.

SOLUTION The derivative off(x) = .r- is f'(x) = 2 x-1/3 •

. ..7/'l

3
which is not defined at x = 0. Therefore, the arc length formula with respect to x cannot be used.
However, we can describe the curve by expressing x in terms of y :
y = x2l3 ⇒ X = y3l2

Also, notice that when x = 0, y = O; and when x = 8, y = 4. Therefore, finding the length of the
curve y =f(x) = x213 is equivalent to finding the length of the curve x = g (y) =y3n. from y = 0 to
y = 4. The derivative of g(y) = y3n. is:

g'(y) = %y1' 2 , which is continuous on [O, 4]

We may therefore use arc length fonnula with respect toy:

L =
.
I ✓l + [ g' (y) ]2 dy
d

C
= I 1+ (3-2 y' )2 dy
4

O
/2

=
4f+9 14
J l + - ydy = - I ✓4 + 9y dy
0 4 20

= H!( 9t" I 4+
 Applications ofDefinite /ritegrals
103
1
=· -
. 27
[<40)3' -s]· = .l[so
2
27
0)3' s] = ~[1 &
27
2
-
12
- 1] ·
.

1. Find the length of the cwve given by

. y = 2 + 31, -~ 2/3 ~ I ~ I.
x = 1 - t,
2. Find th~ arc length of the curve given b.y
, I · · 12
X = -13 · y
.
3 ' =2 I , O-< 1 -< I•
3. Find the arc len·gth of the curve given by
x = cos 2t, y = sin 21, 0~ t 5; n/2.
4. Find the arc length
.
of th·e curve given by
/

·x = cos t + t sin t, .y =sin t - t cos t, 0 5; t ~ 1t .

5. Find the arc length of the curve f(x) = x312 over the interval (0, 4].
6. Find the arc length of the curve f(x) = 3x 312 - I over the interval [O, I].

7.
3
Find the arc length .o f the curve/(x) 7 x + l~x over the interval [½, 2].
3
x 1
. 8. Find the length of th~ curve Y = + x from x = I to x = 2.
6 2

9. Find the length of the curve y = log(secx) from x = 0 to x = 1t!4.

10. Find the length of the curve x = 2y- 4 from y = -3 toy= 4.

' .

. . 2 3/2 . .
11. Find the le_ngth of _the curve x = (y - I), from y = 1.toy = 4.
3
. 3 2
12. · Find the length of the curve x = L + - from y = 2 toy= 4.
24 · y

5 ✓10 ,r 2
1. -3- 2. ~(2✓2-1) 3. 1t 4.
2
85✓
85-8 17
s. :1 (10)/ 2
- 1) 6.
243
7. 8 8.
12

9. log ( ✓2 + 1) 10. 7 ✓5 11. 14/3 12 . 17/6

 Ca/cu/tis
104
LUTION .
4.6 AREAS OF SURFACES OF REVO
aboqt an axis that
is generated by revolving a plane curve
A surfa.cc of revolution is. asurface that generated by
sam e plane as the curve. For example, the surface of a sphere can be
lies in the surface of a right
(see Figure 4.~6). Similarly, the lateral
re~olving a semicircle about its diameter

C\ C
. \ . .
FIGURE 4.2·6
paraUd to it (see
lving a tine segment about an axis that is
circuler cylinder can be generated by revo
Figure 427).
.
6 ~ ---~ G

FIGURE 4.27

In this section we will find areas of

surfaces of revolution.

Revolution About the x-Axis

Revolution Ab out the x-A xis
DEFINITION Area of a Sur fac e of
negative function on the interval [a, b
J, then' the area of the surface of
If/is a smooth and non =f(x ) between x = a and x = I;. about the ·
g the curve y
revolution that is generated by revolvin · • .
'
x-axis is defined as ·

S = l2-ityf+(!)' l dx = 21tJ(x}jI +ff'(x)f dx . ... (I)

curve y = 2
AM PLE 24- find the area of th~ surface generated by revolving the J; •
EX
1~ x ~ 2, abo ut the x-axis;

n y = .2.J; with respect to x yietds

SOLUTION Differentiating the fimctio
dy l
dx-;; J;

f♦Yil = YJ+
~(l1)7x2J = .-fQ1"; =y-r;;;-f = M I
'\/X

b 2
Using the formula f ;j; ) dt' the area of the surface generat ed is
S ;;:: 2rry J +(dy
a
 (

10~
Applicatfons ofDcfinitr /nu~rals

2 ;- M 12
dt = 4n ." x + • a...l
,-:-;1 J_
. S
f
= 2n . 2v :x -
I J; I

I
~ 4n [f (x+ 1)312 ~ s;[J ✓J - 2✓2J
3
rated by revolving the curve Y =x '
EXAMPLE 25 Find the area of the surface gene
0 ~ x ~ 2, about the x-axis.

SOLUTION we·use the formula:

s= ]2ny l+(!}dx
a
2
4
y = x3, dy = 3xi l + ( dy ) . = I + (3x 2)2 = I + 9x
with a = 0, b = 2, dx ' . dx

Substituting these values, we obtairi

-- 2
S = f2n · J1 + 9x4 tU = 2n J
2
x3 x3 J1 + 9x4 tU
0 0 ·
3
Let u = l + 9x4 ⇒ . du = 36:c dx

when x = 0, u = I and · when x = 2, u = 145. Thus,

Also ,

S = .2n
.
T-
I
1 ✓u du = .!!.. [3-u 312 ]
~6 18 _ 3
145

I
= 2:. [145,/i45 _:
27
iJ
by revolving the curve y = J;, o· ~ x ~ l,
EXAMPLE 26 Find the area of th~ ~rface generated
about the x-axis.

SOL UTIO N The surface generated by revolving

the curve y = J-;, 0 ~ x ~ l, about the x-a"<is
Y
is drawn as shown in Figure 4.28~
I
Letting/( x) = .[;, we have f'(x) = 2 ..r;

J. + (/'(x)]2 =; J + (-1-
2J;
)2
0
= J + _J = 4x +.J
4x 4x
111erefore, rhe surfa ce area is:
I
s~f2n /(x) JI _+U' (:c)J 2 dt
0 FIGURE 4.28
 106 Calculus

=finfx ~
0 2
dx
X

I
f
= 1t J4x+ ldx -
0 .

= ;[(4 x+J )
312
l =~(s✓S-1).
sphere of radius r is 41tr2 :
EXAMPLE 27 Show that the area·o_f the surface_ of a
by rotating the graph of a semicircle
SOLUTION . A sphere of radius r can be obtained
f (x) = ✓r - x about the x-axis (see Figure_4.29)
2 2 . Thus, the surface area of the sphere can be
obtained by using the following fonnula:

. S= f 2·1tf(x)J1+[P(x)}2 dx
-r

xi ,2
X
Now f'(x) = ⇒ I + [f'(x)]2 = I+ r 2 -x 2 = z 2
.J,2 -x2 r -x
y
Hence, we have
r
✓ 2 -x2 r =dx ·
S = J2nr
-;==
. -r . .
✓ 2
r -x
2
.
r .

I,
= 21tr dx f -
= 21tr lxL
-r

= 21tr(2r) = 41tr 2• FIGURE. 4.29

Revolution About the y-axis

t they-Axis
DEFINITION Area of a Surface of Revolution Abou
[c, d], then the area of the surface of
If g is a smooth and nonnegative function on the interval
revolution that is generated by revolving the curve x
= g(y) between y = c and y = d about the
y-axis is defined as
r

r
; .
,..
; ,

1, is revolved about the y-ax is to gene~ te

EXAMPLE 28 The line segment x = 1 - y, 0 $ y ~
Jhe base area).
the cone. Find its lateral surface area (which excludes

SOLUTION We use the fonnu.la

 J,07
-~plications of Definite lntegralt

S= [2~)+(: r dy

where c=O, d= I, x= l-y , :=-1, 1+(:)' =,/l+(-1)2 =J i

al surface area is .
Substituting these values, the required later

J2n(I ~ y),/idy
2

· S ;, J2nx~1+(dxdyJ dy =
0
· c

- .· = 2n,/i[y<I = 2nJi(i-½) = nJi.

generated by revolving the.curve x = J2 y- y2,
EXAMPLE 29 · Find the area of the surface
0 ~ y ~ l, about the y-axis.

SOLUTION We use the formula:

!2nxrp'f +lddyxJ).
2
. d
S == dy

= 0, d == l · x ~ J2 y· - y2 , . dx
= l- y
with C
dy V2y-y2'
2 .

l+( dx )
2
::::, I+( 1-y ) =·I +I+ /-2 y = 2y -/+ l+ /-2 y =
2y- y2 2y- y2
I
2y- y2
dy J2 y-/ .
Substituting these values, we obtain
.---- I
~ 2x[y~
I I

S= f2n✓2y- y2 ✓2y-I y 2
f
dy = 2n ldy = 2ll.
0
0

c Curves
Surface Area of R~volution for parametri
g' are
x = f(t), y = g(t), a ~ t ~ b, wh ere /' and
If a curve C is defined parametrically by rated by
on- [a, b], then the areas of the surfaces gene
continuous and not simultaneously zero
are given by
revolving the curve about the coordinate axes
~ 0):
1. Revolution About the x-axis (v
2 2
) (d ) dt
S = J2n y (dd; + .;
b
a
I 108
Revolution About the y-axis (x·. ~ 0}:
Calculus

t 2.

ri.
l
I ,
S = J2xx dt
2
2 ) dt
-dx) + (d
dt
2

. EXAMPLE 30 Find the area of the surface swept out by revolving the semi circle x ~ -cos t, .
y = sin t, 0 ~ t ·~
about the x-axis. ·
1t, ··
. dy . .dx .. .
SOLUTIO N We bave - = -sm t .. - =cost ·dt ' dt
dx -~ · ll i ·, · _x · · · . .· ·

⇒ S
b

= "J 21iy
. a
·
(. -
dt
J +(2). dt _· . 0
J
di =· 21tsin 1Jsin t
..
2
.
+.
cos t dt
2

,r
l(

= 2x.Jsin tdt = 21t[-cos = 21t{2) = 41t.

0 .
0

etS~I
I. Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve y = X, 0 s x s I, about 'the
-1 .
x-axis.
2. Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve y = x3, 0 s x s 1, about the
x-axis.
3. Find the area of the surf~ce generated by revolving the curve y = ✓4 - x
2
, -1 -s x s l,
about the x-axis.
Find the ar~ of-the surface generated by revolv~g the curve y ~ J; , 0 s x ~ l, about the

x-axis.
. 1 312
Fihd the are~ of the surface generated by revolving the curve y = J;- x , l sx s 3,
5:- 3
about the x-axis.
6. Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve x = 9y + I, 0 s y s 2, about
the y-axi~.
. . I
3/,
7. Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the curve .T = 0 sys I, about the

y-axis.
8. Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the cmve y = .x-2, I s x s 2, about the
y-axis.

- 71PliiflA:fil.WI!S;z
I. n"2 2. ; ( 10✓10 - l) 3. 8n 4. f (sJ5 - 1)
6. 40,rJii. 7. %(/8 - 1)
 I
I

- - -tmtmGt-- - - I
>,
j
~

5
Conic Sections I

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO CONIC SECTIONS ed cone

that can be obtained by slicing a double-napp
A conic section (or simply conic) is a figure cs, viz
vertex of the cone. There are four basic coni
with a plane that does not' pass through the
~

ure 5.1). ·
circles, parabolas, ellipses, and hyperbolas (Fig
I
t
f

I
I
I
l

Parabola Circle EHipsc . f:Iyperbola

FIGURE 5.1
 I
II
Calculus ·
\Vhen the plane passes through the vertex, the resulting figure is a point, a iine or a pair of
intersec'tion lines as shown in Figure. 5.2. These are called dcgener_atc conl~ sectio~s.

i
'

FIGURE5.2.
fn this chapter we will restrict our study of conics to·parabolas, ellipses, and hyperbolas. Each of
these conics -can be 'de.fined as a set of point satisfying a certain geometric property. These curves .
are very useful in the study of .calculus.

5~2 THE PARABOLA

A parabola is the set.of points in a plane that are equidistant from a .fixed line (called the directrix)
and a fixed point'(called the focus) not on the line {Figure 5.3). The point halfway between the
focus and the directrix lies on the parabola and is referred to·as the vertex ofthe parabola. The line
through the focus perpendicular to the directri~ is .called th~ axis of symmetry (or simply axis) of
the parabola. The I ine ·segment through the focus, perpendicular to the axis of symmetry, is called
the latus rectum of the parabola.
Parabola .

. . - - ~atus rectum
Axis of symmetry
F cus

Directrix

FIGURE 5.3
A parabo la is said.to be in standard position if its vertex is at the o :,f. n and the axis of s:-1nmetry
is alon g the x-axis or y-ax is, and th e resulting equ ation is called the standard equ ation of th<:
parabola. A parahola in i L~ stand ard position may op<! n upwa rd , down .v:,1d, to t'.lC righ t Pr ro the
1

left as s' .own in Fi gure 5.4 .

 1·

I
I

I
Conic Sections y
~I
I

/
{fl. 0) l
/ .r = -p
,·;=4px, p<O
.r = -p
(h)
• /= 4 p x , p > 0
I'
(a)

)' 1•= -p

y:.: -p
,
.r" = 4/~l ', fl ._✓
()

/= 4 p y , p > O (d )
(c)
FIGURE 5.4
y
o rizo n ta l A xi s o f Symmetr
Origin, H
io n o f a P arab ola : Center at at the origin an d Ui
c
Stan d ar d E q u at it/J its V< .'ftex
position, w
ua tio n o fa p ara
. bola in its standard -p . If P (x ,y ) is any po int
on tih .'
Let us derive.the eq ctrix is then x =
t F (p , 0). Th e eq uation o f the dire
focus at the poin fining property o
f parabola,
, th en by th e de
. parabola ... (1) )'

/PF/= /PD/ P to the

e fo ot o f the pe rpendicular from
th
where D(- p , y) is in g the distance fonnufa ,
we have
5) . A pp ly
directrix (Figure 5.
x+ p )~
F/ = = j( x -p ) 2
+y 2 and /P D /= j(
/P
des, we get
titutin g in ( 1) an d squaring both si
Subs
2 1.'x + p )2
(x - p f + J --
2
·· ,c2 + 2px + p Dit°L'c tri ,
x2 - 2px .L p +y:
2
.. .(2 )
⇒ axi s alt>ll ~
equ _' •n of rh c purao o/a w ith its FIGURE
wti ich is the sr,..1,~:i
r ,~
ri x uf cl ii s p,1ra bol:1 5· S
x nt ' ·. ·o ri gin . Th <.· dJrCL'l
lo r/r e n' !.! lll I( , 1 -. 11 . J k1 1
ve rte en s c111 r1> tl ,l'
the x-axis and 1/ic e pa rabo /,1 op
cus ar (JJ , 0). l/1 ~ i
\.-_ - p v: ·, ;, :o
ha s the equ atio n.
 ~-4 Calculus
1f
-0
p ._
lsec F' c4 purtc· (a) and (b)). In both cases, the graph is-symrr.etr;c wit
· 1gH rC .1. • "
x- axis bccausc ·hl (2) remains unc' . • h respect to
hanged 1fy 1s replaced by- y. .

.
Note· Notice that the kngth of the
latus rectum of a parabol~ is 4p. wh
the fow s 1t, the ,:1.· rtcx . In other wo
ere p is the distance from
rds. the length of the latus rectum
the <hstancc from ,·crte:x to focus. of a parabola is four times

Standard Equation of a Parabola

: Center at Origin, Vertical Axis
The standard 1.·quatit)ll of Symmetry
of a parabola with its ·axis along
the J;-axis and the vertex at the orig
h~ L'btaincd by interchanging in can
x and .r in t2) :
.,~ = 4py
The directrix of this parabola has
the equation y = -p with focus at
upward if p > 0 and downward if (0, p). The parabola opens
p < 0 [sec Figure 5.4, parts (c) and (cl)]
is symmetric with respect to the '. In both cases, the graph
_r-axis.
EXAM PLE I Write the st~indaid
form of the equation of the parabola with vertex at the orig
t't,cus at (2, 0). in and

SOLUTION Frum the location

of the focus, we. sec that the axis
Thus. the standard funn is : of the parabola is horizontal.

y2 = 4px
fkc ause thr..: ti.H.:us is 2 units from
the focus, we have p = 2. Thus, the.
equation of the parabola is
2
_\' = 4(2)x = 8x.
EXA J\IJ•LE 2 Fi11J an ~quatio
n of the: parabola that is symmetric
:!.t the origin, and passes
about the x-axis, has its vertex
thrnpgh the point (-1, 2).
SO LU TION Sin e,: the parabola is
symmetric about the x-a xis and has its vertex at the origin,
•.: quatil\l\ must be of the form the
·
.,~ =- 4px
Silll:c the parabola passes through
(-1. 2), we must have
4 =- -4p ⇒ /J = - 1
\ 11h~111uting p =-- - 1, the equation
of the parabola is
2
1 :.:: -4x

Bcc:rn sc p =-.c -1 i.s 111.:gativc, the par

abola opens to the kft.

Grap hing a Parabola

Procedure for Sketching a Parabo
la from .Its Standard Equation
Step 1 Dc tcnninc whether the axis
of synunetry. is on the x-axis or the
symmetry is along the x-axis if the equ ; ·-axis. Th~ a~i~ of
ation involves /-tcm1. and the axi
is along the: v-axis if the equation inv s of syn1111etiy
- --- -- --- -- - -- olv es x1
-tcrm.
-: -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
-- -- -~
Con ic Sec tions
5.5

--- --+ --+ --- -.. X

FIGURE 5.6
EX AM PLE 3 Find the focus and direG
trix. of the para bola y2 = -8x and sketch the graph.
SO LU TIO N ~inc e the give n equ atio
n involves y2-tenn, the axis of sym met
Com pari ng the ,equation y2 = -8x with ry is alon g the x-axis.
the standard for,m y2 = 4px, we see that
Bec aus e pis neg ativ e, the para bola ope 4p = -8, sop = -2.
ns to the left with focus at (p, 0) = (-2,
0). The directrix. of
the para bola is x = 2.
To ske tch the grap h, we first draw a
rectangle exte ndin g IPI = 1-21 = _2 unit
orig in and exte ndin g PPI = 1-41 = 4 on s to the left from the
each side of the x-axis. We then sket ch
its vert ex is at the origin and it pass es the para bola so that
through the corn ers of the rect ang le, as
sho wn in Figu re 5.7.
y )

Directrix
x= 2

2
y "" - Sx
FIGURE 5.7
 Calcu lus
5.6
x 2 + 12y = 0 and sketch the graph.
EXAMPLE 4 Find the focus and directrix of the parabola

SOLUTION The equation of the parabola can be written as

x2 = -12y
is along the y-axis. Comparing the
Since this equation involves x -tenn , the axis of symmetry
2
2
equation x 2 = - l 2y with the.standard equation x = 4py, we V

see that 4p = -12, sop = -3. Since p is negat ive, the

parabola opens downward \vith focus at -(0, p) = (0, -3). Directrix y=3
The -directrix of the parabola is y = -p, 1.e., y = 3.
To sketch the graph, we first draw a r~c'tangle ·exteh'ding ---..
,......~-+~--,---~ x
·IPI = 1-31 = 3 units down from the origin and extending i+ 12y=O
12pl = 1-61 = 6. units on each side of the y-axis. We the·n
sketch· the parabola so that its vertex is at the origin and it
passes through the corners of the rectangle, as shown ir:t
Figure 5.8. FIGURE 5.8

Standard Forms of Equations of Trans·lated Parabolas

ard positions with vertices at the
So far we ha Ye considered equations of parabolas in their stand
.-(or shifted) from their standard
origin. We now consider parabolas that have been translated
standard posi-tions can -be obtained
positions. Equations of parabolas that are translated from their
by replacing x by x- h and y by y - k in their standard equat
ions.

I
;---+ .r. ,. • '
~
I •.

2
,
(y-k) =4p( x-h), p>O (y- J.:r = 4A.r - ,':,', p< 0
(a) (h)
- - •.FIGU
. •
RE
.
5.9
• . ii
... ,. - . ;~ : /{ ' ....~~ ~ J
l . .: . .• I . ·, . •
 s.,

I .
I Conic Sections
aswith vertex at (h, k} and axis para/lith
parabola ,v VC ii 0£a
I
e tqrty-exaxat s(h. k) and sµis par.ii./cl to ; ~ax JS Is II

Th~ ~tlndard'form i . ibe. equa'

I Pa rabCJl tio .
.' .
1·

_ ftf" ' 4 .
p (r 1 ) (p ;e O) .
p en s do w n w ard (Figurc 5. ; O) 1/
. · ..· ;· (i;_ ens upward, and ifp < 0, I/le parabo la o
I Ifp > 0, the parabo la op
11. The focus lies on
the axis p u n its (JJ in·tc d distance)
I
=11.e axis of symm et ry is give n by x "'
p .
i /.I
i
I from the vertex, ,at (h , p + k). Tb e di rcctti~ of thi: parabo
·
la is y "' k -

ri x
)'
t d1rcc1
I
I
I
!
I
'

!
. \.'·
·:•:.-~ •·_-"::-·r·-.·~.r· -~ - + - - - .. .. ., X
. .;
.r

II ;..-·..·,,_:,.:. : I
(r -J ,) '= 4(ap) (i ·- k) , p>O
(x - I,/= 4p(1' - l/ . p <o

I/ . . .. ,· .:.. .
• . /
· (b)
FIGURE 5.10 .
. .. . . . )
EXAMPLE .
e vertex, focus an d .
equation oft/1e axis for th e parabofo (1' - 2f = 12(.r + /_).
I 5 fmd th th
SOLUTION Th e given equation o '
fonn
II ' e parabola has the
(v - k)1 = 4
/I
p(x - h) ·
~ s
. . . .-
so die axi • honz on ral: Also l -- -I , k = 2, and 4p = 12 Thus, th.e vcrtc,. isa t (- 1 ~)
' . ' r1m•' cc
1 , . 3
- •. s JS
e, the parabola. op ' ' cus is
/ p t- ,, JS positivax e righ. t and th C ,o the ri!!,J JI o f•th
~
en
an d s2 to th
. . um ts to e ,. .

~
. .
is ho nzon ra l i - .
, a (. , 2). The is umts from the .r-ox. s, ,o ,ts equa( 1s ,X .
E , IPLE 6 Show thatth . ,• , '°" "

, I . -s(x- 19) e equation fo

.
r a
pa rabo la w ith axis Y == 0
and p·, .. . - . t1"' (.,
, .,s111g t/1ro
~I I ·'· :: )
and (2, -3) is y2 = 5 (/Jett.11· u. . .
I SOL £ c. (/ f) illnt!. .
II N Th 111,: B .
UTIO
e standard fonn of
the equa1ion t .\, 1 0 1 5 /
la wit/1 I10 .

!h e a . (y - k) ' = 4p(.r - It)

o f a pa rabo
02
·0 n,.,,
:ix· i ·'· of·SJ '
m tll et
, Since ry ,.-
- mmcr,y 1s
of sv . gi ven to be . _ we I } - D, .
... (/) .
r,
'I
1
XIS
v2 - ia ve k = ()
- -4 p (x -/ ,) . Hrs, Fq (I ) fL.dtJccc·'· Co
/I lflliepara b /· II . .. ( J)
o a passes t/rrough le poinrs (3 • - ,incl (2 • - 3) ti
?) r
•

· -
.1 • 1' 'n
I 4 - ,
-,p (J - h) 4p == ~
/ 3 - I,

and 9 - ,_)(2 - h> . ( ,J)

), ._.
Prom (3) and (4 I.av:~
4 9
⇒ k - •·/'I/ ::., 27 l)/1
/1 I9
j --I t - Ii =·:- .

\
\
\ \
.
)

,
\
\
,;, Calcuius
J' '. 5.8
<r ' 4
/
1/ Substi1uting I, ==
19
5 into Eq (3). we get 4p = 3 _1 915 = -
5

· ( 19 \
5J
JQ .
Substituting 4p c= -5 and h = ~ into Eq ~2), the equation of the ;1:irabol .: is ;/ = -.5 x -
I
.
axis parallel to 1.he
EXAMPLE 7 Find the equation of the parabola that has its ve1l,: x at (5. -~).
r-axis and \i.·hich pas:,,cs through the point ( I0, 2).

SOLUTION Equation of a parabola with vertex (/1, k) and axis ?arallel to

y-axis has the form
(x - '1)°2 = 4p(y - k)
Sincc th~ vertex is at (Ii, k) = ( 5, -3 ), we obtain
... ( 1)
(x - 5) 2 ,;. 4p(y + 3) .
If it passes through the point ( I0, 2), then
(10 - 5)2 = 4p(2 + 3) or 25 = 20p ⇒ p .= 25120 = 5/4
Substituting 11 = 5/4 into Eq (I) yields
(x - 5) 2 = 4(5/4)(y + 3) · or, (x - 5)2 = 5(J' + 3)
which is the required equation of the parabola.
try and passiag .
EXAl\'IPLE 8 Find the equation for the parabola with vertical axis of symme
through (-2. 3), (0, 3) and (I, 9). ·

SOLUTION The st.nndard fonn of the equation of a parabola with vertica

l axis of symmetry is
(x - h)2 = 4p(l' - k)
... (1)

Substituting ( -2, 3) and (0, 3) into Eq ( l) gives

(-2-1,) 2 =4p(3 -k) ... (2)

and (--/,)2 = 4p(3 - k) ... (3)

From (2) and (J), it follows that

⇒ (~2 - J,)2 = (-J,)2 ⇒ 4 + 4h + h2 = h2 ⇒ h =- l
Subsrituting Ii = -1 info Eq (J) yields
1
I = 4p(3 - k) . ⇒ 4p= :- ... (4)
3-k
Sub stituting (I, 9) intn Eq (I) giws
4
Il -- (- 1)f =-= 4p(9 - k) ⇒ 4 = 4p(9 - k) => 4p =-
9-k
... (5)

(rom (4) ;,in<l (5), we get

4
⇒ 9 - k = 12 - 4k ⇒ 3k :.a: 3 ⇒ k =I
3- k 9-k

S11 bst11. .111 I

• ur g k .; I i1110 Eq (4) gives 4p = 2-
Thus, the r~quircd ~quation of the parabola is :
'I
tx + I )2 = -(y-1
')
).
Conic Sc. . .i or,s .
5.9
.. ·:,..-: •'. .. · ,
• ... .. : • '
·
' •
EXERCISE 5 1 ·
t ' • • , • • 1

1. Find the coordinates of the focus a·nd the equation of the directrix for the given parabolas.
Ske tch the graph of each. ·
(a) y 1 =1 2x (b)y2=-4x
2
(c) x ;:::; 4y (d) x 2 = -16y
(c) } .1 -;- lOx =0 (f) x 2 + 6y = O
2. F~nd an equation for the parabola sati~fying the given conditions.
(a) vertex (0, 0) ~ focus (5, 0). (b) vertex (0, 0) ; focus (0, -2).
(c) v~rtex (0, 0) ; directrix y == l. (d) vertex (3-; 0) ; directrix x = -3.
( e) vertex (0, 0) ; axis along the x-axis, passes through (2, -1 ) . .
(f) vertex (0, 0) ; axis along the y-axis ; pas·ses througli (5, 2).
(g) vertex (0, 0).; passes through (3, 2) and (3, ~2).
3. Find the vertex, focus; the directrix; and the equation of the axis for each parabola . .,,
(a) (y - 5) 2 = 12(x - 3) (b) (y - 1)2 =-12(x +4)
(c) (x - 1)2 = 2(y- 1/2) . (d) (x -3)2°= -8(y + 1)
. . . . .

4. Find an equation for the parabola satisfying the given conditions.

(a) vertex (l, 2) ; focus (4, 2) . .
(b) axis y =0 ; passes through (3, I) and (6, 2).
~((c axis y = -1 ; passes through (-4, -2) and (2, l).
(::JI passes through (-3, 3), (--o, 5) and (-11, 7) ·; axis horizontal.

I. (a) focus (3, 0); directrix x = -3 · (b) focus (-1, 0) ; · directrix x =l

(c) focus (0, l) ; directrix y = -1 (d) focus (0, -4) ; directrix y =4
(e) focus (-5/2, 0) ; directrix x = 512 ' (j) focus (0, -:-3/2) ; directrix y = 3/2

2. (a) ;/2 = 20x (b) x2 + 8y = 0 (c) x2 =-4y (d) y 2 = llt

. l 2 25 . 4
(e) )'2 ::: -x (J) X =-y (g) ./ = -x
2 2 3
J. (Cl) vertex (3, 5), focus (6, 5), directrix x=O and axis y=5
(b) ve.rtcx (~. I), focus (- 7, I), directrix axis y= l x = - l und
(c) vertex (I, 1/2), focus (l, I), directrix y = 0 and axis x = l
(d) vertex (3, - 1), focus (3, -3 ), directrix y=l and axis x= 3

4. (a) (;i - 2)2 -= J2(x - J) ~

(b)y2 ,;:.: x-- 2
(r) (y + 1)2 .:: J/2(x + 6) (d) (r - 1)2 = -4(x + 2)
5.10
Ca/c11/us
5.3 THE ELLIPSE
An -ellipse is the set of all points in a plane, th~ sum of ~vhose distances from two fixed points is
a constant.1l1c two fixed points arc called the foci (plural of focus) of the ellipse and the midpoint
of the line segment joining the foci is called the center (see Figure 5.11 ). The line segment through
the foci and across the ellipse is called the major axis, and the line segment across the ellipse,
through the ccnte,r and perpendicular to the major axis is called the min.or axis. The endpoints of
the major axis arc called vertices. ·

b. 1
\ Minor ~xis
J.'. . . . . . . .L.....................Fo~us __ v,Vertex
Vertex ... Focus
I'. · F, I
Major nxis Center f,

·;
.c--------
~--a-·--- ---a---
FIGURE 5.11
Traditionally, the length of the major axis of an ~llipse is denoted by 2a, and the length .of the minor
axis by 2b. The numbers a and b, representing ha1fthe lengths of major and minor axes, are often
-referred to as the semimajor and semiminor· axes; respectively. The distance between the foci
of an etlipse is denoted by 2c. The ·nu~ber c-representsthe distance from either focus to the
center.

Distance from center to ·focus of an ellipse

We now obtain an expression for the distance c from the cen~er to a focus, in tem1s of the
semimajor axis a and the serriiminor axis b. If Pis any point on the ellipse, then by the definition of
the ellipse,
... ( l)
where k is a constant. lf P is taken at a vertex VI' then ( l) becon1es
k = jV1f 11+ IV1F21= (a - c) +(a+ c) = 2a
i.<'., k = 2a
Substituting k = 2a in (I) yields .
iPFil + 1Pf21 = 2a
Thus, for all poi11ts on the ellipse the sum of the-,--4-- - - -+--- -~ --l-
d istances to th e foci is always 2a. In particular, the
sum of the distances to the foci from a point B at
1ht cd of mi nor ax is is 2a . That is,

.. .(2 )
F,GU RE 5.1 2
Conic Sections
. • ·d· t l'.rom F and f Thus it follows frl,m (2l. th :11 !llf) and :nr , _,1 ,1111
•
But the pomt 8 1s equ1 1stan • 1' ~- · · .
ot knl!ths a, h antic \\·1th ,, JS hypDknu ,,.
each be a. So, we .have an ::, with line segments
·•ght tn·anolc ~
. l2) H b . th' Pythagorean
, Theorem , a.hand c rm: rclatt:d hy th ~.C\.juat 1,J :~
(see F1gure 5. . ence, > ~
. .1.1l
a~ = b~ + c2

Note Notice that the quantities a and b arc the lengths of the semi major and sl'miminor axe~ :.11:-.!
remain so whether the ellipse is shifted or rotated . Thus. for nn ellipse i:1 any position. the di st:tn tX
c from center to focus is always given· by c ==- Ja 2 -t/ .
We have thus proved the following :

Distance ·rrom.tcnter.to focus . . .

•" ~" -_ •'::- - ':,. '-" {·. .:•, , :. t,. 0
• : •
~ • • ,• , • ' • •, ' ' • • ' I : ' ; ,

The distan~e c_fr?m ~e cc·ntcr to ·a focus of an ell ips~ .is given by

•• < •• - ·✓· .; . .;·
. . . --~-·:->. -~=..·_a--~-- -' ... ,· . ..
-~·~ere~~is .ffie"s~~9:1ajor ax1~ a!1~-b·is)he_semir11ino~:a_xk . . .

Note From the relation a 2 = b2 + c2, it follows th<)t a~ b, where the equality holds only if c = 0.
in which case the -ellipse is a circle.
An ellipse is said to be in standard position if the center of the ellipse is at the t1rigin and foci arc
on the x-axis or on the y-axis. The two possible standard posi:.i,:m::. ti ~ an ellipse arc shown ill
Figure 5.13. The equation of an ellipse in its standard position is ,aik\i 1h..: stundan.l equation .
1·

r
h

--+----+---L -..l,, \'

-h O h

-h

·· (/

FIGURE 5.13

Standard Equation of an Ellipse : Center at Origin, Horizontal Major Axis

W.c now dcri v..- 1:i e stan d.nil fonn of the equation of .in ellipse whos~ foci at,: on tilt· .\'·'\Xis lit th..:
points f 1(c, O; .:.nd Fi(-•c IJ )(sce Figure 5.14). The center of th \.! ~llipSL' is tht11 at tli-.· origi 11 such
that the distani.:e fn)m the '!tHer to either focus is c units. Let /'(.r . _r) b~ a11v point on 1:1t~ 1.·ll ip s.1.'
Since the sum of ·.L :: di si:, r es from P tu th~ foci is 2a , it follow s th :i t
 .- ~~ :. 5 12
·.:...,.. ~ ~/ Calculus
\'
~ J
~
--:/
,,,,
,/_, .-·,.... . .,,
' ~J ~ -
(0, h) P(.r. y)

(0, - b)

FIGURE 5.14
/ PF-1 I+ IPf2I = 2a
Uut /rr; I = ) (.r ~ c)~ + _I) and IPJS I = Jex+ c) 2 + y2

Sub stituting yields

J (.r - c'): + r 2 +Jex+ c) 2 + _\'~ = 2a

2 2
ll f . J (.\-c) + y2 =- 2a-)(x+c) +/
St.j uaring both sides. we have
,
r - 2cx + c- + y-
1 1 . , y 2 + x-, + 2cx + c-, + y-·'
= 4a-") - 4a ✓(x +ct+
➔a J(X + ,·)~ + y 2 = 4a 2 + 4cx
(D1\'idi11g by 4)
Squaring ngain. \\ c obtain
, ,
u-(r f 2cx + c-, + y-') = a4 + 2a-ex
? '
Tc 2 x2

( u-, - c-)
,
\' -, + a-1 y-1 = a-' ( a-? - c 2).

l3ut //· :c: 11 2 - c~ . Substituting, we have

, , , ,
b- x - -f ,,- Jr = rr, b'-
IJi , idi11g both sides by <I: h\ we get

... (l)

\'. !,i-.· h i.,; the s1;rnd.11Ll equation l>f the ellipse with its center at the origin and foci on the x-axis.
Ji ~is.: . I/ is ll :1 If t I1\: kngl h nf tile major axis and b is half the length of the minor axis. The foci lie on
1!11.· 1n:1jnr ;p,: i, c· llll its lru111 th e center, with c = 0 2 _ b~ . J
! il l: q ( l ). i r we k1 r == o.
we 1iJ1d th at th e x-intercept.s ar~ (- t, , 0) and (a, 0) . These are th 1: vertices
,i j' ,h e cli1p s~. 11 ,, c kt .1· ~ 0 in lq ( I). we find that the y-i11tcrccpts are (0, -b) and (0, b).
Conic Sections
5.13
Standard Equation of an Ellipse : Center. at Origin, Vertical Major Axis
If we interchange x andy in ( l ), we obtain ·
/ . x2 (0, a)
-,-, = l (a> b) ... (2)
a2 b·
which is the standard equation of the ellipse with its center at the
origin and foci on the y-axis. ·
In this case, the vertices are (0, a) and (0; -a), the foci are (0 , c) -----1,___ _(o_.O_)_ _ _ x
. . · (-h.0) (h 0) .
and (0, -c) and the ends -of the mmor axis are (-b, 0) and (h, 0) ·
(see Figure 5.15).

EXAI\IPLE 9 Find the standard fonn of the equation of the ellipse

that has a major axis of length 6 and foci at (-2, 0) and (2, 0).
(0, -o)
SOLUTION Because the foci occur at (-2, 0) and (2, 0), center FiGURE 5.15
of the ellipse is (0, 0) and the major axis is horizontal. Thus, ~he ellipse has an equation of the form
. . . .

x2 y2
2a +-
b2
=1 (a> b) ... (1)
Since the major axis has a length of 6 units, we have
2a = 6. ⇒ a= 3
Moreover, the distance from the center to either focus is c = 2. From the values of a and c, we
have
b2 = a2 - c2 = 9 - 4 = 5
Substituting a 2 =.9 and b2 = 5 in (1) yields the equation of ellipse·in standard form:
x2 y2
-+- = 1.
9 5

Graphing an Ellipse

P'rocedure for Sketchingafr ElliP,Se fiorii its Standard Equatiori'- ;''.} L{ :·_··-~ ·: ~ '!--:.. .· .
• ( ~ • l I l,;:~r~;li_~1 •,: 1 ·1~· 1,i}lf.;~\:. ·: ·.:~~\ J~fi/'j~\~1•~.~·,.•1'[,; · , ➔ ,~i -~r ;_,~: ~:".~~:·-~ --~·i ·i~ ~ - ~ ..· ,;. •• ~~ ~
Step 1 Det~,1111ine._
~vhe.~er th_e,r}.pi~t \~x;J$ _.i s,opc,t~:~.t .a.i<.!~ t.th~-{'.:.~~1s_i,! hi~_can pl! .~~tG1?1in~d
easiiy
,
by .•looking-a'
~
· , .,_ ..
t'. the'. equation::.The.rriajof axis is'-i1Iong th~:x--axis if x2-tenn bas the
, -t:" . I ~ J•,., ; ~~ ,/J};4~'· ,1 ·,..,\,. ~1 ·. ,r i\, ,_ ... " ·, , . • . •~ , . .. ~~
1
l,argc'r dcn,omJ~f~?f,,~nd,J .i~·,~1.?11g.~~/;t:~j~),f ~~\ ,l:l~lqrg{r d~n~.~ n,at~( ; l i~:rn~:
.Step 2 o·ctcnninctl;e·v~iues·~f a··;·ndb1,idclra\v 'ar.cc'tarigle 'd1i1t cxtcnds:a 'units on cach·sid_e
' . ·"'-: ~ .. · "'- ....... .. , ,,1 ,..,.

axis
.. . ' ..1, 1 .. ,.• • . • :. , I' \ • · , '

of the center aloug the major

, · ' '

and b ~nits on ~ach side of the c~ntcr along the minor

-aX1s. ·· .'? :- , ·'- ~~·. · ._ ::.-,,·, /"· _•·· ;::~ ~ -'.-. · · ,., · ' ·. · ·
J • ,: ,· \

Skp 3 >\~th the aid o(the rec tangle, sketch.the ellipse so that'its ccnt~r i$a~ the origin and it
louchcs.·thc'si_dc; ~f th~ .i-ec·taogle, ·~s:;11~w1dn~f igu·r~_-5_,I6.' ·,,- . . . . ,.. : .. . · ~
i • • •• ~ • , • ' 1 ' ,, •
 \

5.14
y
Calculus I
I
I
I

h
~ X
a 0 a
b

I
I

FIGURE 5.16

EXAMPLE l O Sketch the graph of the ellipse -x2 + - l = l and label the vertices and foci.
9 4
SOLUTION Since x2-tenn has the larger denominator, the major axis is along the
x-axis. Moreover,
since a2 > b2, we must have

a2 = 9 and b2 = 4 .⇒ a= 3 and b =2
We now draw a rectangle that extends 3 units on each side of the origin along the x-axis
and 2 units
on each side of the origin along the y-axis. We sketch the graph of the ellipse so that
its center is
at the origin and it touches the sides of the rectangle, as .shown in Figure 5.17.
)'

--+--"'" -=-"o) _
. ----1" ----~- --i--- .·x
-1 0
-\

-2
FIGURE 5.17
The vertices lie a = 3 units on each side of the center along the major axis. Hence, the coordin
ates
of the vertices are (3, 0) and (-3, 0), since they lie on the x-axis.
The foci lie c units on each side of the center along the x-axis (the major axis), where c is
given by
-c = ✓a2 -b2 . Substituting the values of a2 and b2, we obtain

c =~= ✓5
Thus, the coordinates of the foci are ( Js, 0) and (-fs; 0) , since they \ie on the H.1 x.is.
 e v1.Tt 1ccs :in d :,,.. :
. , ;.. r 2 == 36 nnd label ril .
. , , .
h of the ellipse 4. r rd n 1, .
to
Conic Sec11011s . (the cllirsc ,n stJnJa
LE 11 Sketch the grap ., vields tl1c equation
o
II EXAMP .
' .
· /-u..-i1 ,
I Dividing both sides,by J6 ---~--
N I
SOLUTIO
I

' 2 ,-
l
x
-+
J- -- l
9 36. ma ·or axis is along the
/I/ j'

. , has the larger denominator, the

2 > b2 we must ha
ve
~ V
.
Since .1- tcnn ver sin ' :;; 3
Mo-eo ' ce a d b;
r-axi·s . 1 6 an
b2 == 9 ⇒ a ==
e
. ,
ex te nd s 6 un its on each side of th
a· == 36 and . h .d f the ori!!.. iii al ong the
.
cta ng le that_ .
We now draw a .re .. d 3 units on eac s1terc ois at the origin and ,c
1
I
! .. ..
ongm along the J-~x1s an_lipse so that ib cen . . re 518 .
I x-axis. We sketch the -el
touches the sides of the
recta ng le, as sh ow n In F,gu . .
center alo_ng the m~-6
. .
Jt)>l .

I its on ea ch sid e of th e .
The vertices Jie a== 6 un • ·
s ar e
(0 6) and (0
' . ,
axis. Hence, the coor
dinates ot the vertice FIGURE .5.18
. . .

ce they He .on the y-axis. , .

sin of th e ce nter ale.mg the y-axis (the oh1:11n

1

The foci lie' c units on

ea ~h side
bstitutin" th e va lues of tr :111,I h-. we
I maJo
· r axis
· en by c.= vla 2 - b2 ·
· giv
·) . where c 1s
Su ::-

I
I
c .= J3 6- 9 = fn
== 3 fj

) an d ( 0, - 3 /i). sin ce they ./il· on Ili cy- ;l. \i.

-; .

of the foci are ( 0, 3 fj

Thus , the coordinates
I
I
uations of Transla ted Ellipses 1 , >nta//_ \'
II Standard Forms of Eq that are trans l:itcd ( or shilicd) /, un ic.-; /Jori
-equations of ellipses d y hy y - 1.: · ,11 thei
r :,;t :11.,d ;1rd
II As for the parabolas, the plnc in g x by x · - h n11
can _be obtained by rc
and k units vertically
I equations .
x-axis
I
nter (h , k) and major axis parallel to
. th ce
Ellipses,. wi l to X·JXis is :
and major ,l.'<iS paralle
.

cen~r
: ,.
, ' • .. , . , ,
I ; , .
.with (Ir, k)

I o( ~c equation.of an eli
ip se
.

The standard form

(x-1,)2 (y -k )2 ::::J
I
I
'
a
2 + b2 ·
.
on e~
. (a > b)

ch .si
_ de of tl1 c center along tffc 111
.'Jj or .ix,.·s, ,1rI
I
arc lo~ated a units side of the ccnt<.·r alon
g di e m:1jo r
j ~ verti~ c_s oft/Jc ell~pse are ated un lls on ea ch
I
(h .· a, k) an d (h + a,
J..) _. The foe, loc C

n by c Jc,2 -1> 2
=
. 1
/·
+ c, k), where c is gi ve .
I am , at (h - -c, I:) an~ (Ii
'

I
.
l.to y~axis
er (h , !:) and major axis paralle
Elllpses with ~e nt
,· I , ..
. . to·' :l \
. lS i ~ /
f

e '· , ation of n11 c1lipse \\ ,t l ccJJtcr (I,, k) and maJo

r 11x,~ p:trn/ld ·

JJ1 e s!andJrJ fo rm u1'tl1 ;

(x - , ,- (v -l )2
j
- - +·-·- -. <= l
:>
(a > h)
n 0
S.\h · Calculus
Ttl~ vertices of the ellipse arc located a units on each side of the crntcr ·atong L1e major axis, at
• ~ ~
lh, k - a) nnd \It, k +a), The foci nrc located c uni ls o~.each side of thc.~enter ~l~ng _tl1c.mnjor
' ' • • ' 1 ' • ' · ... , ' ' .,,., '• .. ' • ,l '

, • '1 ' ' ! , ' I~ 1, tf • , • ' lI ~i J •~1 t ~

a, is, ~l (I;, k ~ c) and (h.} + c), where C is given by ~ ~ Va 2.- -b~ .·· _": ►:' '.· :_,,. ~ . ~ ' : : ·. ·.
' ' • ,.. I. l ,

' ' ~ I ' ' ' • : ' . '' ' • • ' , ' • ,' •• ' • I

I'

('

·'

k ' A' • ; - •,
k \. :.

0 /,

FIGURE 5.19 . ..• • ' 1~, I • ' ' • I

0

; ·, ·:' r-" \,," -~

h

:~ ..t~~ ~ . : · ·" · ' , •" { .,.,

X

,'
:itY : ...,., ._
... ..',..~· " ,
-,
I-: , ·.,

' . (:c+4)2 (y-1)2

EXAIVIPLE 12 Dcscn~e the curve represented by the equation + = 1.
4 1
SOLUTlON The given equation is of the fonn
(x-:-h) 2 .(y...:k) 2 .
, + 2 = l
a- h .
with/,= -4 and k = l~ This is the equation.of an ellipse with its center at (-4, l), the major axis
para\\cl to thl! x-axis and w~ have
a2 = 4 and b2 = l ⇒ a = 2 and b = l
The sc•mimajor axis is a = 2, and the scmiminor axis b = L The vertices of the ellipse are located
" = 2 units on each side of . the center (-4, l) along the major axis , at
(-4 - 2, l) and t-4 + 2, \) or nt (-6, l) and (-2, l ).The foci are located c units on each side of the
ci.:ntcr along thl.! major ax.is, :.it (h ~ c, k) and (h + c, k), where c is given by c = .Ja2 _b~ .
Substituting the values of a2 and 1>2, we obtain

Thus, the foci ar~ locateµ at (-4 - h, l) and (-4 + ✓3, l). The ellipse is shown in Figure 5.20.
y

(-4 +F3, 1) 2

_,/
---- 1 . . ~. ...,,_-- -.--+--'---'----'--__.__ - + - -~ --. X
-I -3 -2 -I 0

FIGURE 5.20
 Conic Sections
S. l 7
EXA.l\1PLE 13 Find the equation of the ellipse with foci at (- 2. I) and (4, I) and a major axis of IO.

SOLUTIO~ From the l~catior.s of the foci, we sec that the ellipse has a horizontal major axis.
Thus, the ellipse has the· equation of the form : . ·
(x-h)2 (y-k) 2
.,
a-
+
/:) 2
=I (a > b)

Since the major axis has a·length of 10 units, we have 2a = 10 ⇒ a= 5

The center{h, k) of the eUipse is the midpoint of the line segment joining the foci. Thus, the center
of the ellipse is: · -

. (h, k) = ~,
·(-2+4 l+,l)_ ~(l, l}
.
1
The two foci are obvio·usiy 6 units ·apart. Thus, 2c =6 .⇒ c =3
From the values of a and c, we ~btairi . ·

b = .Ja 2 · - c2 = ✓25 - 9 = ✓16 = 4

. .. .

· : · · . . . (x-·1)2 (y-1)2
Hence, the equation of the ellipse is : + = l.
. 25 · l6

EXAMPLE 14 Find the equation of the ellipse whose foci are (1, 2) and (1, 4) and whose minor
. axis is of length 2. [l)ell,i U11iv. B.Sc.(H) Mat/rs, 20161
I
SOLUTION From the locations of the foci, we see that the ellipse has a vertical major axis.
Thus, the ellipse has the equation of the form :
(x-'1)2 (y-k)2
+
:::; l · (a> b)
b2 a2
The center (/z, k) of the ellipse is the midpoint of the line segment joining the foci. Thus, the center
of the ellipse is :

(h, k) = (1;1 • 2;4) =(1,3),

⇒
h =l and k =3
The two foci are obviously 2 units apart. Thus,
2c ·= 2 ⇒ c= l
Since the minor axis has a length of 2 units, we have
2b ;= 2 ⇒ b =1
From the relation c2 = a 2 - b2, we obtain
a2 = b2 +.c1 = 1 + l = 2

., 3)2
(x-1)4 + (y- = 1.
Hence, the equation of the ellipse is : 2
I

I
i
 Calc11/us
EXAMPLE 15 Find the equation of the ellipse whose foci are (2, 3) and (2, 5) and vertict:s
(2, 2)
and (2, 6). IDell,i Univ. B.Sc.(H) Mat/rs, 20171
SOLUTION From the locations of th~ foci, we see that the ellipse has a vertical major
axis.
Thus, tht eilipse has the equation of the fonn :
· (x- h) 2 (y-k) 2
l>2 + a2. == 1 (a> b)
The center (It, k) of the ellipse is the midpoint of the line segment joining the foci. Thus, the
center
of the ellipse is:

. ( 2+2 3 +. 5) •,
(Ii, k) = - - ., · ·) = (2, 4) ⇒ h = 2 . and k=4
2
The two foci are obviously 2 units apart. Thus
2c=2 ⇒ c=l
Since the distance, 2a, between the two ve1tices represents the'length of the major axis, it is
. .
given by t

2a = ✓{2-..2)2+{~.:,.2) = ✓16=4 ·2
? a=2
From the relation c2. = a2 - b2, we obtain .
b2· = a 2 - c2 = 4 - 1 = 3
Thus, the required equation of the ellipse is :
(x-2)2 ·(y~4)2.
- - - + -"------- - l
3 · 4 ·.

1. Find the coordinates of the vertices and foci of the given ellipse. Sketch each curve.
x2 Y2 x2 y2
(a) 16+9 = l . (b) 25 +36 = l
(c) 4x 2 + 9J = 36 (d) 25x2 + >1 C 25
2. Find an equation for the ellipse satisfying the given conditions.
(a) Ends of major axis (±5, 0) ; ends of minor axis (0, ±2)
(b) Ends of major axis (0, ±3) ; ~nds of minor axis .(±2, 0)
(c) Center (0, 0); vertex (15, 0); focus (9, 0)
(d) Le ngth o; minor axis 8, foci (0, ±3)
(e ) Encs of major axis (0, ±6) ; p·asses through (- 3, :·'
(f) vcniccs (±5, 0) ; foci (±4, 0) .

3. I ind the coordinates of the ce nter, vertices, and 'roc i for e: • i d\ ,;·•.
(x - 2)2 (y+2) 2 (x - ' l'. ( .. l :
(a) - -- - + ---- ··· ~ I (b) -- -.. -- + · -· - ·
16 9 q

r-
Conic 'Sections
· (c) (r +3)1 +4(
r - 5)2 "' I6
.
e ellipse satis6•i~ g the given condi:ions
4. Find an equation for th
an d (- I. J ); m in or axis oflenglh 6
/a) foci (-I , I)
8.
major ilxis of/ength 6
(b) foci (2, I) and (2 , -3 );
ax is of leng th 12, minor axis o f /engt/1
rtical maj or d t"Cri lC (
(c) Center (0. J) ; ve a focus ha lf w ay between i·ertc~ an
rtex (-2. I) ;
(fjy Cente_r (-2; -3 ); a ve
an d (-5, I) : vertice s (4, I) and (-6, I) .
(e) ti (3, I)
Fo
(3, -1 ) ; vertices (3. 6) and (3. -2).
(/) Foci (J., 5) and

·'ANS.WERS

(4, 0), foci {-ff,·o}. and ( f f, 0}

I. (a) Vertices (-4, 0) and
d (o, JiT)
(0, 6), foci (o, -JiT) an
(b) Vertices (0, -6) and
OJ, r; 0} and (J
foci ( -v5,
s. o;'
an d (J '
(c) Vert.ices. (-3 ' 0)

r: ice: (0, -5) and /0, 5),

YI rt
foci {0, - 2 )6 } and ( 0, 2 v'6)
. (d) ,\
,2 7
l'-
(c) - + - ·- - J
"J?5 J 11 A -
(b) -x2 + y · - l
,
2. (a ) 4 --J
25+ L
-
~ 4' 9 - -- .......' '
' )"2.
1i) x2 + .I' 2 - 1
' •T X- ·
r (e) 8 II 8 + 36
= 1
x-
(d) 16+ 25 = 1 25 9 -
. 1· {? ✓,_ }
}.
· (a) Center (2 • - 2) , ve, rtices (6 , _2) an d (-2 , -2 ) ' foc - + 7. - "'"> an d /' 2• - f i

✓7)
3 ') . . - .:2
Center (2, 3) , ·vertices (2 7) . ), foci (2.
3 + r:;.7) . { .
d (2 , -1
(D) Cent ( .
' "n v ; ,l~d 2, J -
(c (- 7 5
er -3, 5), vertices .{ (-3
, ) and (1 5) r,oc1 -J - 2 /i .
I) d , -5 , , {
s)
:i11d
3 -'
+ ? vr.;
- J. -'')
(d) ve rtices (0 ), fo . .
Center (0 , -2), , an (0 2 ,- .
" O, - + ·
.f s) anti , 2 -v ·, )I (o _
. ·
_<x +J)' + !.:,'-- 1) ' /r 1 · '
4. (a ) 9 -=/
!•J (y +/ )~
~
(h ) · --r
a·' / __ , p- ) 16 . -· - l
36:_ . = I (x + 2) - + (.I ' -i 3J2
(c) ·. · + _!__ ( d) _I
12 . /6 ~

,r - ')2 ( - 1)"")
,
(/. ) {r--·7-3f- , _( I, - -~) -
25 . .,, -- - = / (, - - :-: /
.,'• • I
- - · - - J
(e )
 I
''>n
T ,.:O THE HYPERBOLA
5,4
Calculus

:\ hyperbola ,s the set?~ all poi~t~ in a plane, the difference of \L'hose distances from two distinct
. nxcd points. called foci, 1s a pos1t1ve constant. The tcnn "differen~c" that is used in the definition
·is understood to mean the absolute value of the difference.
Figure 5.21 shows the typical shape of the hyperbola. It has two disconnected parts, called
branches. Th<:! midpoint of the line sewnent joining the foci is called the center of the hyperbola .
The line through the two foci intcrsec.ts the hyperbola at two points, called the vertices. The line
s~gmcnt connecting the vertices is called the tra:isvcrsc axis (or focal axis). A second axis of the
h)l)Crbola passes through the center and is perpendicular to the transverse 3:Xis. The segment of
this axis, slw~vn in Figure 5.21, is caHed the conjugate axis.
y

FIGURE 5.21
Tradi tionally, tltc <li starn.:e between the ve•r1iccs of a hyperbola is denoted by 2a, th e diSCance
b~1wccn the foci _is denoted by 2c. and the number b is defined as
h =· .Jc 2 -a 2
Th~ above rclat1.unship can also be expressed as y

(' = .Ja 2 + h2
i1 illl 1s illustrated gco mctrlcally in figure 5.22.
I lie number ,, is ca lkd 1hc scmitransvcrse (or
,~rn ifocal ) axi\ of the hyperbola and the number
/, I ' LJ ll!.:J th i: !)l'lll iC011J'\J1 1 ak axis .

i! : I ) ! l 11 , , ' , , . .
t, - - - --l---:-.-+-::--1-i:--;---
0
.,
- ' llk \ ul a hyp\.'1hola, then the absolute
·, i\, 1~· 1\ !' t\· • j (T1 , •· '
ic l 1 c r ~ 11 CL' ol 11 ~ J1 ~1a11c1.:s !rum the
I , •. \,l Il ' ( i I :i

FIGURE 5.22
Conic Sections ·
5.21
A hyperbola is said.to be in its 5tandar d position if'its center is at the origin and the foci are on the
x-axis or y-axis. The two possible standard positions of a hyp\!rJola are.shown in Figure 5.23. The
equation of~ hyperbola in its standard positio~ is caHed the standard e_quation.
·
y )'

y=~x _..
. .· a •...·..·

_ _ _ _··-1\,-
···._
···._··..._...._.:.,., ...._....._·11-
..._....._....__ ·/_....._·- ~ - + .\'
-a . ..· ··.
[... . . . . . . . . ·····,. ,,. ...J
....·······/ -b ""···............
.. b ..
......- y=--x ···....
a
xi y2 .
---=l Hyperbola in Standard Positions
a2 .b2
FIGURE 5.23
Standard Equation of a Hyperbola : Center at ·origin, Horizontal Transverse Axis

Let us derive the equation of a hyperbola in its standard position, with its center at the origin and
the foci , F 1 and F2, on the x-axis at the points (-c, 0) and (c, O)(sec Figure 5.24). Let P(x, y) be
any point on the hyperbola. Since the absolute value.of the difference.of its distances from the two
foci is 2a, it follows that
1PF1 - PF2 1= 2a
or, I✓tx-c) 2 + / - ✓(x + c)2 + y2 I = 2a
⇒ ✓(x-c) 2 + y2 - ✓(x+c) 2 + y2 = ±2a
⇒ ✓<x-c) 2 +y2 =±2a+ ✓(x+c)~+y2
Squaring both .sides, we obtain
2 •,1
(x-c ) +y = 4a 2 +( x+ cY1 +y- 1 I 1
±4 a ✓ ( x+cY +y ~
1

⇒ 2
x - 2cx +c 2 +y2 = 4a 2 + x 2 +2cx +c 2 +/±4a J(.\ +c )2 +y2

-4(cx + a 2) = ±4a J( x + c) 2 + y2

- (ex+ a 2) = ±aJ(,-.: +c)2 + y2 (Di vidi ng by 4) I't

I
522 Calculus
Squaring again . we ha\'e
c 2x 2 + 2a 2cx + a~ = a 1(x2 + 2c.x + -c1 + y2-)
1
⇒ ( ~-a" )x--a ~ ·2 ' ')c--a)2
" "
·y =a--( r
But c=- - a: = b: . Substituting, we have
b2 ;r1- _ a 2 ) .1 = a 2 b2
DiYiding both sides by a 2 b2• ,ve obtain
x1 y2
- - - -1 ... (1)
a=- b2 -
which is the standard equation of the hyperbola le, 0)
\\ith its center at the origin and foci on the x-axis.

\
I
It has a transverse axis oflength 2a along the x-axis I

1
and a conjugate axis of length 2b along the y-axis. I
!
In Eq ( l ), if we let y =0, we find that the x-intercepts
are (-a , 0) and (a, 0). These are the vertices of the
I
I
hyperbola. However, if we let x = 0, we find that FIGURE 5.24 1
!
we have imaginarysolutions for y. This means no portion of the hyperbola intersec
ts y-axis at any
I I
po1nt.
i
'
!
I
I
Standa rd Equati on of a Hyper bola : Center at Origin, Vertical Transv erse i
Axis I

If we interchange .r and y in (I), we obtain the :tandard equation of the hyperbo i

la with its center l
at the origin and foci on the y-axis at the points (0, c) and {O, -c) as
v2 x2
=-2 - - . , =1 ... (2}
a b·
lt has a transverse axis of length 2a along the y-axis and a conjugate axis of length
2b along Lie
x-axis , where c2 = a 2 + b 2. In Eq (2), if we let x = 0, we find that the y-interccpts
are (0, -a ) and
(0, a). These are the vertices of the hyperbola. However, if we let y = 0, we find
that we have
imaginary solutions for x. This means no portion of the hyperbola intersects x-axis
at any poin t.
Note Notice that jf the minus sign is located before they-te rm in the equatio
n of the hyperbo b .,
the transverse axis is along the x-axis, and if lhe minus sign is located before
the .x-2-tenn. the
transve rse axis i.s along the y-ax·is .

Asymptotes of a Hyperbola
Gi ven any hyp<:rbo la, there corresponds a pair of straight lines, called
the as) mptote s of tht
hyperbo la. ln Figu re 5.25, the dashed lines are asymptotes of th e hyperbo !:i
. These li:i ..'.s int~rse\.'.t
at It.~ center of the hyperbola and have the property that as a point P moves :ilong
th: h~1l~rt-o l:2
t\·:ay from the center, the vcrticul distance between P and one of e1e a,:'n':1tcte.s
a;-- :'.('Jch ~s Zt'ffl
·1
x·
C:: ;. '. :-: ti.c: ec,·.::nions of 0":1r.-:t.ot~s fo r i 11e hyperbo
la -T
{l
- - -=
Co11ic Sectio11s

t
a:;ympllll l' ;1, ympl nii.:
. h /1
•. I" =.: - - .\ 1·-:: - f ,··
··.. (/

\
or y =
b
a
g:
±-x· 1-,
x· Focus Focu:-;
We n?te that, as x gets large, the quantity under
the radical sign becomes approximately l, and .J \
the equation for y becomes
b
···.\ ·
r
.
= ±-x
a
These are the asymptotes of the hyperbola, each · FIGURE 5.25
of which passes through the origin.' One has a s\~pe of bla, and the other has a slope of - fi la.
1
11· X
Similarly, it can be easily verified .that the asymptotes of the hypcrbob ~ -,
a· 1, -
=
.
I arc gi \'t.:n o\·.
a . .
y= ± ;x
1 , . .
each of which passes through the orig\n. One has a slop.: ot' a //>, and th e other h:i~ ;1

slope of -a lb.

Remark There is a quick way to obtain equations for thL' asymptoll.'s uf ..1 hypt.:rb1Jla . The: c-.,n
be obtained by replacing I by Oon the right side of the given hypl!.rbob cquJtiun, and th ~11 ~oh l !\ !
for y in tenllS of x. For example, for the hyperbola ·

we replace I by Oon tbe right side to get

x2 /
- , - -b2 =-0
c1·

IJ
S-0 lvir1 g fo r J' in tem1s of x yields J' = ±-x, which arc till.' cqu:itiuth 1·dr 1[11..- ;1:-, ~n,pt1.ik ,
<I

EXA MPLE 16 find the: equation uf the hypcrbob \\I th \Trti: ~·, ( . \ U) an,! (~1,· 1, . _ 1 l\ )

1,, n1 , 11 ·· :1 and 1· -

l, -i, · · · • ; ,J
 ' ;4
' 1' Jl;ii:-. the: rqu:ition of the hyperbola is C~/cufus
')
r'
.\ •~ ~

y·
---
4 5
= I.

LXAMPLF. 17 Find the equation of the hyperbola with vertices (0 ±2) " 2
, an1.. asymptotes y == ±- x.
s· 3
SOLUTION "
1111.:c th~ \en ices are on the y-axis, the equation of the hyperbola has the ,onn
) .,
,,- x-
~ - -., = 1
11· b-

:md lhc asymptotes arc)' == ± ~ x. ±f x, we have

b ~ince the asymtot~s are given to bey=
a 2
= -
b 3
l3ut o == 2, bccaus~ the vertices arc 2 units from the center.
") 2
⇒ b=3
b 3
T hu!), the h)1)crbula has thl! equation

= l.

Graphing a Hyperbol~

Procedure for Sketching a Hy.perbola from its Stan_dard Equation

Step 1 . ·octcnninc whether the· transv'ersc axis is on tJle x-:axi~ -~r the y-,axis: .This ~an be
.determined from the location of. the .minus sign. Jf'the 'minus is located before the .
y2-tcrm, the transverse' axis is along the x-axis, .;utd if the ininus is located
ocfor'~the
. x2 -tcnn, the transverse oxis is along the.y-axis, , . '
. . . . . ' ' ' .... .., ; ., . : . . ...
'

Step 2 Dctcm1ine the values of a and b by reading the values of a- a~d .b- directly f~m the
equation .
Stc..1> 3 . Oraw ·a rectangle of <limcnsions ·2a by 2b that extends a ·units 'on each
sid<! of the
center along the t:111..:ivcrsc axis and h units on each side of the ~enter ato·ng the conjugal!!
nxis.
StC'p 4 Draw the asymptotes through the comers of the rectangle.
Step 5 Sketch the hyperbola so that it passes through the vertices arid approaches the as}mptotes.
. .
. '

.\' 2 ,l
1
r: :x i\ M I' I .E 18 Sket ch 1l1c ~mph of Ille hyperbola -
16 9 ,;= l und label 1.he vertices, foci and
 5.25
Conic Sections
along the
n is loc ate d bef ore the y2- term, th e tran sve rse axi s is
nus sig .
SO~U~ION · Sin_ce the miatio n, WC obtain
x-axis: rro m the given equ
⇒ a = 4 and h = 3
a2 = J6· and · b = 9
2
s, their coordinates
4 uni ts on eac h side of the center along the tran sverse axi
Since the vertices lie a= ·
are (4 ,_0) and (-4 , 0). of the center
ion s 8 by 6 tha t ext end s a= 4 units on either side
We now draw a rectangle
of dimens the y-axis . We then
and b = 3 uni ts on either side of the center along
(i.e., origin) along the x-a xis ph of the
cor ners of the rec tan gle. We finally sketch the gra
h the mptotes, as shown · in
draw the asymptotes throug ver tic es and approaches the asy
pas ses throug h the
hyperbola so th~t it'
Figure 5.26. J'

. 30
y ::- x /
4,
I
/
/
: ,.,/ ;'
I
3 f
-- +X l
4

FIGURE 5.26 c is given by

eac h side of the cen ter alo ng the transverse axis, where
The foci lie c units on
c = Ja2 +b2
b2 = 9, we have c = -./16+
9 = 5.
Substituting a = 16 and
2
x-a xis. Th e equ ation s
of the foci are (5, 0) and (-5, 0), since they lie on the
Thus, the coordinates
of the asymptotes are
b . 3
y = ±- x or ± -x
.Y = 4 .
a
ic~s. foc i and
ph of the hyper bo la 25;.2 - 9x2 = 225 and bb cl thl! vcn
EXAl\f PLE 1-9 Sketch the gra
asymptotes,
erb ola in stand ard fLm n:
iding both sid es by 225 yields the equation of the hyp
SOLUTION Div
y2 x2
--- = I
9 25 2-tt: nn , the transverse axi s is along the y-a
.\ is. frvm the
d before the x
Since th e minu s sign is locate
giv en equ ation, we obt ain
and b =:: 5
and b ~ 25 ⇒ a
2 =- 3
a2 = 9
 Calculus
5.26
coordinates are .
Since the vertices lie a = 3 units.on each side of the center along the y-axis, their
(:0, 3) and (0, -3).
side of the
We now draw a rectangle of dimensions 6 by ro that extends a = 3 units on either
the x-axis. We
center (i.e .. origin) along the y-axis and b = 5 units on either side of the center aiong
the graph of the
then draw the asymptotes· through the corners of the rectangle. We finally sketch
as shown in
hyperbola so that ·it pa~cs through the vertices and approaches the asymptotes,
Figure 5.27.

FIGURE 5.27
The foci lie c units on each side of the center along the y-axis, where c is given by
. --- '

c = Ja2 +b2
' I

Substituting a 2· = 9 and b2 = 25, we have

I
I

C .. = ~J9+25 = .ff4.:::: 5.83 I

-../34), since they lie on the y-axis. I

Thus, the coordinates of the fo~i are (o, ✓34) and ( 0,
a 3
The equations of the asymptotes are : y = ±bx · or y = ± x
5
Standard Forms of ~quations of Transfated Hyperbof as
) h units
As with the other conics, the equations of hyperbolas that are trans.lated (or shifted
y - k in their
horizontally and k units vertically can be obtained by rep-lacing x by x - h and y by
standard equations.

Hyperbolas_\~i~h·cente:-.(h,:_k) and ·trahsv erse axis parallel to x-axis •.·:-_ -- . -.-

..
'1 .' ; s p ~r~llel
The sta_n~ard_fc>rm 'of the equa_tio? of~ hyperbola ~vit~ c; ~te/ (h , ': ) and 71·:; l1.S \ ',T Se
to .r -Dx rs 1s : · · ;: · ·
• , I •

',
'l
 Conic Sections
~e vertices o~_the hyper~ola arc locate~ a units on each _sidr.! ~f the c~ntcr
along the transvcrs~-,\ \
u,is, at (Ir - a, k) and (h + a,·k). The foci are located c umts on each s,dc of_
!h~ center a tong the
~ns,;e ~se .hxi~' ~t -( h-c, k) and.(h + c, k), where C is given by c == ✓a 2
, ,.. . '+b 2 . The equations of\I
the _asymptotes a~ _.
I
.
. .
v...:k ·= ±-(x -h)
I)

a
I

\
Hyperbolas center .(h, k) _and transverse axis parallel to y-axis i
, l
!;;_::~:~d-forn~-~(~e-equa~iori
•
, • • . • . I
. • I

of a hyperbola wi~ center t/1. k) and transverse axis parallel I

•\ '- ;'. ~, . •: '~• <~.•~ ~•/~•;: ~ •:~I~• _. 4

,--~ ·: , · ..,~. ., (f · k)2

; ' , • • , • •

ii)2 ·
•
• •

..-~:_-._-~.--(?.~~: -:~,_>L ·{ .
x_._b2 . • = 1 ·
The \le~ce s.?f.th(~ypcrb~l'a'ar~ lo_cated a units oneac h f.itle u~thc cent.er
along the transverse I
·axi~.~_a t(h, -~/ :a):'and -(11;·~? a)_.'. !he foci are located c 1inits .o~ cacb ~idc
, . ~ , ". ;. ~ ._: ! [ r- ·•. ,.,. , . :' _of tl~c center along the
f
; .,,. ·r
r----- -· .• . . . ·.
tr.msyers~,~~1s:/:W-',k~ c>, ~.nd fl:; +.~), v.·1:~re,c is !iiven by c = ✓a1 + b1 , The cqua tions of .

ili;°:.:7:tl?ri}/l}h-h) - > · ·· - -
1
!
y

I
I
I
I

l
\
I
i

(h k} I
__
"....,._.....··_)_:<_:·::_·
:::_·
.~--+-._..._.-~:_:·::_·::·:_,1........._ _ _ _ x
I

I I

__ __________________~- -- ---- ~-lI

...;._
FIGURE 5.28

• .
EXAMPLE 20 D1:scn br I ).: . :
th e curve represented by th e equati o n (y + I) - ··( .,- -t .-- = I.
-;

SOLUTION The given 1 1ation is of the fom1

l
j
I
( )' - J. :;: (X - h/
\I - - - - = I
C. 2 1}
 f
. ;: _; /,
_ _ Calculus
,,11 ;, ..: l :u1J k - - 1. This is the_ equation of a hYP·er bo1a with 1, 5 c 'r.l (/
. . c. er at z, k).::: (-1, -1), the
,r.1 11)\-crsl' a:m parallel to the y-axis and we ha\·c
11 ..

=- I ,1~ and h2 = 4
. _ ~ a. = I and b .:a: 2
ax is 1s I. and the s "mico · · -
T11 c ~c1111tran~,·cr:-c <1 ...:
llJuga tc axis is b =- ' The v . f
• c
.
side of the l:cntc r (-1 -1 - · cr11ceso thebypc_rbola
.ire lncatcd u "'" I un11 o11 c:1d1
r I. 0) and ( - l. ] ). The foci an: locate
d c unit . o I '.d ) _:dong the transverse axis, at
:,; n eac l s1 c ot ulc center along the transverse
, . is gi,·cn bv . - / 2 2 S b . .
.1\1 :-- . at(/, . /. : <) ,111d (/1. k .. l'). whcrt: c
- - c - \J a +b . . u st1tutmg the values of al
.111d ii:. \\'C ubt:111 1·

i· = " ": +h~ = fu4 = ✓5

Thu s, th e fo(i a1 c hicakd at '-1.- I'-

\
Js) and ( I ·1 r;5) ·
- , - + \/) . Substituting the values of h, k, a

.111 d /, in the cqu;llions

(-1, -I +Js)
a
.
1· - k -- ±-(x -h)
/i ~
iii ~ l'qt1atio11s \lf th~ asymptntes arc
I
1· + I = ±-(x
, + I)
T iiu ~. the asymptotes a~c :
' /
3 I (-1, - I -.fs).
1· c.c - -- + - x and r = - - - - x
' ' - 2 2
FIGURE 5.29
\\ 'c 1ww draw a rcctangk of Jimensions 2 by 4 that
c' \\,·1.1J ;-; u = I 111111 on either side of the cente
r along the transverse axis and b = 2 units on either
the asymptotes through the comers of
.i·.k l,r 1hc cc 1iti.: r alung the conjugate axis. We then draw
1he i' i.:c t.t11gk \\\: till:dly sketch the graph of
the hyperbola so that it passes through the vertices
.1 1h l .1p pr11:1c lic·:-- tl1i.: asy111p101cs. as
shown in Figure 5.29.

EXERCISE 5.3 .

1. I inJ tile , L'l1icc s, l'uci ;ind equations of the asymploll!s for each hyperbola.
, 1
,
\-
'
I.- v- x-
- - -- ---- _- I (b) · ;_ __ =I
( 1/)
I I> ~5 9 25
l (1\ ~ - l)1• ;' -= 1-l-l (,[) x~ - 4y 2 = 16

~- l· 11 itl i lll l'ljl l :\l i t) ll rur thl' hyperbola satisfying the given conditions,
( //) \'n t1 cc·. ( !_\ 0) . rnci (± 5, 0)
( /1) \'v 1I IC C', t U. ➔ 4) , Ith.' i (0, ±5 )
6
I, ) \\; 1f , ~ \ 0
, ( ! ·, , I) ) , :1:-y111p1orcs y -=: +-r
- 5;
Co11ic Sections ·
5.29
-4
( a') Ve~ ices (0, ±8) ; asymptotes y = ± x
3
(e) Center (0, 0) ; foci 8 units apart ; tranvcrse axis = 6 and is horizon
ta l
((} Center (0. 0) : transverse axis = IO and is vertical : passes
through (8, IO)
3. Find the center, vertice s, foci and equations of asymptotes for each
hype rbola.
(X -3) 2 (J - l) 2 = I ( F+4)2 {x- 2) 2
I
(a )
16 I (b) - 3 - 5 = I
(c) 2
16(x + l ) - 8(y - 3)2 = 16 (d) (r - 4)2 - (x - 2)2 = 9

4. Find an equation for the hyperbola s·i t:isfying the given conditions. \.
l

(a) Center (3, 2) ; transverse axis = 8 and is vertical .; conjugate axis = '
4
(b) Foci (-1, -1) and (-5, ..:.1); b a=
~
Foci (5, -2) and (-3, -2) ; vert_ex halfway between center and focus
Foci {l, 2) and (11, 2); transverse axis= 8.

5
1. (a) vertices (±4, 0), · foci {±-✓41, 0), asymptotes v=± -x
4
3
(b) vertices (0,±3), foci (o, ±_ ✓34), asymptotes y =± x
5
(c) vertices (±3, 0), foci (±5, 0), 4
asymptotes ,\' = ±-x
.,
.}

vertices (±4, 0), foci (±2✓5 , l

(d) o), asymptotes Y = ± ;- x

x2 y2 . y2 x2
2. (a) --- = I (b) - - - = l
9 16 16 9

y2 x2 ') ,
x· y·
(d) --- = I (c) - - - = I
64 36 9 7

3. (a) .ccnt ~r {3 , 1), verti ces(? , l) and (- 1, l) , foci (3 +2Js, 1) :rnd (3 - 2,../5. t),
1
asympto tes y- I = ±-(x -3)
2
( b) ce nkr (2, -4 ), ve rt ices (2. - 4 + J:i) and ( 2, - 4 •- J:\),
 CalC11lus
5.30
; 3), foci (- 1+ ✓3, 3) and (-t- ✓3,
3),
(c) ant cr (- 1, 3), vcrtices .(O, 3) and (-·2
:isymptotcs r - 3 = · ±✓2(x + I) ·,

I), foci (2, 4+3 ✓2) and (2, 4-3 ✓2),

(d) center (2, 4), vertices (2, 7) nnd (2,
asymptotes y - 4 = ±(x - 2)
, ~
2
( b) (x + 3)2 - (y + I) = 2
'

(y - 2)- _ (.t - 3)4 = I

4. (a) 4 .
16
2 (y-2)2 = I
· (x- 6)
(x-1)2 (y+2)2 1 (d) . .
(c) --= 16 9.
4 12
COMPLETING
OF A QUADRATIC EQUATION :
5.5 IDENTIFYING THE GRAPH
THE SQUARE
in x and y
Consider the second-degree equation ... (I)
A.r2 + C),2 + Dx + Ey + F =0
r of
is degtncrate if it represents a pai
'
'

not both zero . We say that ·Eq (l)

where .-4 and Ca re mple,
line s, a pair of par allel line s, a sing le line, a point, or has no graph. For exa
intersecting x and y =-x.
(a) the equation x1 - ;,2 =0 repr
esents a pair of intersecting -lines y =
l.
a pair of parallel lines x = 0 and x =
(b) the equation x - x = 0 represents
2

(c) the equation x = 0 represents

2 a single line x = 0.

(d) the equation x + y = 0 repr

2 2 esents a point {O, 0). ·

'( e) the equation x + y2 = -1 has

2 no graph.
a translated
-de gen erat e, we can com plet e the square to show that Eq( l) represents
1f Eq ( l) is non axes. This is
in standar d pos itio n who se axis or axes are parallel to the coordinate
conic sect ion
illustrated in the following examples.
2 - 2r + 4y - 3 = 0.
EXAMPLE 21 Describe the graph of the equation x
dratic tenns in x but not in y . Taking
all of tile
ice thar rhe equ ation invo lves qua
SOLUTION Not
..r-renns on one side , we obtain ·
x2 - 2x :::: - 4y + 3
lic icnl of x to both sides,
ple ting the squ a re on the x-1e1m by adding the square of half th <' cod
Com
we obl:Jin I

"'
>. 2 ·- 2.r + I ..: - 4y ➔ 3 +
I

( [ (i I f c.-: - 4.J ' -t 4

Ur it l )7 , - 4()' - l )

'f rus t ~ I. :.: !i i>fi !' ().· the /(J rJJ)

:r hf - 4p( J' /:1

Conic Sections 5.3 1
Thus, the equation represent a parabola with vertex at (I , l) and axis parallel lo y-axj s. Since 4p '=- --4 0 r
p : -l, tl1e parabola opens downward . The focus is I. unit below the vertex, at (I , 0). The axi:; i:,
vertical and 1 unit from the y-axis, so· its equation is x = l. Th~ parabola is sho~11 in Figun; 5.3 0.

EXAMPLE 22 Describe the graph of the equation x 2 + 9; 1 + 2x - l8y + I = 0.

(Delhi Unir. B.Sc.(/{) Maths, 201 51

~OLUTION Grouping the x-tcnns and the y-tcnns on one side and putting the co11 s1an1 on the
other, we obtain ·
(x2 + 2x) + (9y2- 18y) = -)
or (x2 + 2x) + 9(y2 - 2y) = -1
Completing the square, we obtain
(x2 + 2x + I) + 96,•2 - 2y + l ) = -1 + l + 9 .
or (x + 1)2 + 9(v - 1)2 = 9

. ld (x+1)2 (y-1)2 =I
Dividing by 9 y1e s -___,;,,-+ ---
9· .I
. . . (y-k)2 1· .
(x-/,)2 ' ,
Tius 1s an equation of the form 2 + 2 = , with /, = -I , k = I, a- = 9 and b- = 1.
a b
Thus, the equation represents an ellipse with center{-1,. l) and major axis parallel 10 the x- axi s.
Since a= 3, the major axis extends 3 units to the left and 3 units to the right of the ccnlcr. so it s end
points are (-4, l) and (2, I). Since b = l, the minor axis extends I unit above arnl I unit below tile
center, so its end points are (-1, 2) and (-1, 0). Since
c = ✓ a 2 - b2 = M = ✓8 = 2/2
the-foci lie 2✓2 units to the left and right of the center, placing them at the points ( - I - 2✓-}... l )

and (-t + 2✓2 , J). The ellipse is shown in Figure 5.31.

)'

(-1, 2)

(-1 , I) (2. I)

-4 ·-3 -2 -I O

FIGURE 5.31

:XAMPLE 23 Gescribc 11, gra ph of the equatio n x] - 4y 2 + 2.r + Ry - l - 0.

IDcllri Vnfr. R. Sc.(11) ,lllltlt ,·. !Ol hl
on ont.: side a11J putun c! 1l 1c n ,,1:,; t:111t ~,11 tltl' u1 1t~·1 •
SO LUTJO~ G:· 1": , g tJw , ~mis and the y-tcm1s
we obtain 4(v2 - 2y ) ;:: 7
 ,,
Cairn/us
• -~ _,_ I ·tinl-! tile.: ~quJrc.: . \H' obtain
( ·(111rr l, -

(x: .. 2r + I) - 4(1 2 2y + I) = 7 + 1 -4
- (x + ; r - 4(r1 - : /- = 4
()1viJ1ng b y ➔ y1dJs
1 ,
(r + Ir (y- lf
= l
4 I ... (I)

(x-h ) 2 (y- k) 2 .
lliis is :in cqua1ion of the fom1
02
h2 = I. w1lh h = -1. k = I, a2 = 4 and b2 = l.
lli us. the cq11a1io11 rcpn:scnts a hyperbola ~~th
center (-1, I) and transverse axis parallel to the
., -i1 xis. Since a = 2. the vertices arl! locatc<l 2 units
to the left and 2 units to the _right of the center.
Thus. 1hc vertices arc ( I. I) and (-3, I). Sinc
e
c = Ja1 ·+/;2 = J4 ;i = ✓5,
the fociarcloc1t.L·J Js t;nitstothclcft~ndrightofthccenter.Thus,thefo
ciare (-1+ ✓5, 1) and
(-1 :-/s, I) . The equations for the asymptotes arc obtained
by replacing l by Oon the right s_ide
of Eq (I). and then sol\'ing for y in lcnns of x.
This yields
I
,. - I = ±-(x -+ I)
. 2
Thu s, the two asymptotes arc

I 3 I 1
and 1· =- x+-
J' = - - x + -
· 2 2 2 · 2
With the aid of a rectangle that extends a= 2
units to the left and right of the center and b =
abt>\ 'C and below the center, we sketch I unit
th~ hyperbdla as shown in Figure 5.32.
y
I J
J' a:-.t +-
2 2.,...
......

. . . .... -···{~·j.···i\'···••,, '••, s I) '

I X
0

FIGURE 5.32
LX.\l\1PLE H D~scribc the graph of the equation 9x 2 - 4y2 -
72x + 8~• + l 76 ~ o:
SOUJTION (;1n11pi11g the x-tams and the y-tem
1s on one side and putting the constant on the
.i !l1c r, \.\C ob1ai11

·1(_1 2 -2 1') - 9(.r 2 - 8x) = 176

0

( \ll ll r k 1i1 ig Ill e SlJll,ll•~S . \\'I.' obt:1i11

I
I

I
l

I
l
Co11ic Sections
5.33
4(r2 -2y + l)-9 (.r2 - Sy + 16) = 116 +4
- 144
⇒ 4(,, - I)2 - 9(1 - 4) 2 :e 36
Di,·id ing by. 3~. ,,·~ get

(r -1) 2 (x - 4) 2
9 4
= l
.. .( l) '
I
l
. . . (y - k)2 (x - /i)2 I
This 1s an ~quat10n of the fonn . ;
a 2 , = . with I,= 4, k = I, a-=
b-
J
9 and b- = 4. Thus. i
thc given equation represents a hyperbola with '
I

center (4, I) and transverse axis parallel to the

)'-axis. Since a = 3, the vertices are located 3 units
! I
above and below the center. Tims , the vertices f
are {4, 4) and (4, -2). Since '
.'
c = .Ja 2
+b 2 = ✓9+4 =· m,
the foci are located .JD
units above and below the -center. Thus, the foci
are ( 4, 1+ and .Jo)
( 4, l - ✓13). The equations for the asymptotes
are obtained by replacing I by Oon the right side ''f
I

of Eq (1). Thus, .l
I
(y-1 )2 (x-4 )2
ll
---=O 3 \
⇒ y-l =± -(x -4)
9 4
Thus, the two asymptotes are
2 l
3 3
y= -x- 5 and . = --x
)'
2 2 +7
With the aid of a rectangle that extends a ='3 units
above and below the center .and b = 2 units le ft
and right of tl1e center, we sketch the hyperbola
as shown in Figure 5.33 .
y

\ / 3
i y= -x- 5
/ 2
-.. F~·-·--(4 4) ) ':·
I \ ., i
1 \\ //

\
:,;,

1 ,....
1 '--....(. 4
i
I) .
; ••. ,
.. · \
}
I

I
I
I

/ \ \;
I' -::: -- ~.., .\ + 7 \
I
\

FIGURE 5.33
I
I
5.34 Calc:ulw:
. .' . ..
·. : ·. · .·;. . . -:.: . · . ·_. . :< .. ·- .EXERCISE s·.4· · ,' :_.
._, '\, • • t •, ' • ' I •I ~ . • \ ~; •• : ' • • • • •• •• :, .. ' • I ~ ' • ._, : •
., '

1. Describe the graph of each equation by completing the square,

.(a) _1.2 - Sx - 6_1 • - 23 = 0 (b) x2 + 6x + By + I = 0
(c) 2x2 + y 1 - 4x - 4 = 0 (d) x2 + 4y2 + 6x - 8y + 9 :::: 0
(e) 4x2 - 3y2 + Sx + 16 =0 (fJ 4x2 - 9J + 32t - 144y - 548 = 0

. '• ANSWERS ·:

I. (a) parabola; vertex (-4, 3), _focus (-2, 3), directrix x = -6 .and axis )' = 3
(b) parabola ; vertex (-3, 1), 'focus (-3, -1 ), directrix y = 3 and axis x = -3
.(c) ellipse; center (1, 0); vertices (I, ✓6), (1, -./6); foci (1, ✓3), (I, - ✓3)

(d) ellipse; center (-3_, 1); vertices (~5, 1), (-1, 1); foci {-3- ✓3, J), (-3+ ✓3, I)

(e) ·hyperbola; center (-1, 0); vertices (-1, 2), (-·I , -2);
. . 2
foci (--1, -2- ✓7), (-1, - 2 + ✓7) ; asymptotes Y = ± .Jj (x + 1)
(/) hyperbola ; center (-4, -8); vertices· (-7, -8), .(~l, -8);

foci (~~ ✓13, -8), (-4+ ✓13, ~8); asymptotes y+S = ±~(x+4)
3
----------o :
M an -
iJ~ - - - - - - - - - -
6
Polar Coordinates

, . .... ~
i::~::i:
~ .:;~ SJ-..
-:.,v- ~~_'?'C...~- ~ ~ ~ :.,; .~

;ii--:
. er ftan i/1!,e';noJtt;:?:at-iin---
~-.-
-=--• - ·. ~ •F.,~:~~-~ ~

;~f;,:·•iiJ~-<vJ?-~J?
-,~~ ~ ft; p~ ~ ~- ~ ~l~}~
grl!JJ./vo li !!f:.lfJ. Uaf(<J!Jr-~ -
-~r:Ji'§_k.,etrlz.~tl1~7t.r,,-:;..t::;'"~~ ~!; ~~~ ~ ; , -,,t-,.~ o~I i< ,:, • • -

~; ~-: ;~~ ~~ ,q=~

B,:,r1:t16t};n-1 ·b1ahrfJo1- iit;;sr ·
-~~ ~.iJ'~~io/z1e-:1itlt!ilW
~ ~~ 11 ~~ -f ;t~~ }ar~ ~ y~
;~ ~~:1~g~
~-=-- ~~~~ ~ ~'i~
-E-w4° !:l ~~. ..
"'~ -Jd -~ur. ~u.:.,. c~ ~~ ~J ,,,
P,!fJ'!~ fJ'R;lJ'EJ{f,.1!,r,&~fgg,, r:~ :f~ ~~ ,~,4•'•
:-:;./ '-'l,;ci4 !! .-'J-!-!1!1!'f;l t~~
-~•.- --~ ~~ l~::~ ~~~i~
eP.~~ 1-~ i~ '.; ~ ~~~~ tJ~
a"t

6.1 POLAR COORDINATES

is usu ally spe cified usi ng the Cartesian coordinate system ; We
plane
The location of a point in the tem , called the polar coordinate sys
tem; that
d of c~o rdinat e sys
will now introduce a new kin of a poi nt in the plane. Unlike Cartesian
coordinates,
to spe cify the loc ation
uses the polar coordinates
nt in the plane has inf initely many pairs of polar coordinates.
a poi from
firs t fix a poi nt 0, cal led the pole (or origin), and construct
we
· To define polar coordinates, Fig ure 6.1. This axis is usually drawn
horizontally
lar axi s, as sho wn in
Oan initial ray, called the po coordinates.
the right and corres pon ds lo the positive x-axis in Cartesian
to
P(r, 0)

OPole Polar Axis

. FIGURE 6.1
ected
can be ass ign ed po lar co ordinates(,; 0), where r is the dir
Then each point Pi n t}1e plane . We use the
0 is the direct ed an gle from the polar axis to the ray OP
distance from O to P and en measured
sitive wh en me asu red cou nterclockwise and negative wh
convention thar O is po angle) of P.
rad ial co ord ina te and O the angular coordinate (or polar
clockwise. We caIJ r the
130 Calculus
to O the polar coordinate (0, 9)
The origin O has no well-defined angular coordinate., so we assign
for any angle 9.
e. For example, the
Remark The angular coordinate associated with a giv~n point is not uniqu

polar coordinates ( 2, i} ( 2, - ~") and ( 2, :") all represent the same point P (Figur
e 6.2.)

f(2; - 5rr13) P(2, 77t/3)

FIGURE 6.2
Note Because changing the angle by 21t does not chang
e the point, the coordinates ( r, 9) and
(r, 8 + 2n1t) represent the same point for any integer n.
negati ve with the convention that the
Remark Because r is a directed distance, we allow r to be
and at the same distance lrl from
points (-r, 8) and (r, 8) lie on the same line through the origin O
0 (see Figure 6.3.). If r > 0, tpe point lies in the same quadr
ant as 9. If r < 0, it lies in the
1t) represent the
quadrant on the opposite side of the pole. With this convention, (r, 9) and (-r, 8 +
same point Thus, the point (r, 8) can be writtep as
(r, 8) = (r, 8 + 2n1t)" or (r, 9) = (-r, 8 + (2n + l)1t)
where n is any integer.
(r, 9)
or (- r, a+ 1t)

(-,, 8)
or (r, 0 + n)
FIGURE 6.3
coordinates.
Figure 6.4 ilJustratcs a point P with t.hrce ditTercnt sets of polar
P(- 2, 77t/6)
P(- 2, - 51t/6)
/ P(), tt/6)
2
O~ x _ _..__ _ ➔ x

- 5rr/6 I
FIGURE 6.4
I
 Polar Coordinates 131
We can thus see a distinct di~crence betweeri Cartesian and polar coordinates for a given point. ·
While a point in the plane has exactly one pair of Cartesian coordinates, it has infinitely many pairs
·of polar coordinates.

EXAMPLE 1 Plot the following points in polar coordinates: P(2, 1t/4)~ Q(-3, 51t/4),R(4,-31t/2),
and S(-:-1, -rr/3). Also, give two alternative representations of the points in polar coordinates.

SOLUTION The point P(2, 1t/4) is 2 units from the origin·on a line_that makes an angle of 1t/4
with the polar axis (see_Figure 6.5(a)). Adding·n to the angle and negating the radial coordinate, the
point Pean berepresent~d as (-2, 51t/4).Adding 2 n to the angle~ the point P cary also be represented
as (2, 91tl4). .

To plot the point Q(-3, 5n/4), we first plot the point Q' (3, 51t/4)in the third qua4rant. The point
Q(-3, 5n/4) is then the reflection of Q' through the origin (see Figure 6.5(b)). Other representations
of Qare: (3, n/4) and (-3, -31t/4).
Q(-3, 5Jt/4)
yP(2, 7t/4)

~X
Q
..__._____ x

.
I Q'(3, 57t/4)
(a) (b)

R(4, - 3n/2)
S(-1, -it/3)

\Q'-•)....._-Jtl-3---+~ X
..
. ' S( I, -Jt/3)

(c). . (d)
FIGURE 6.5
The point R(4, -3n/2) is 4 units from the origin, obtained by rotating clockwise through an ang.le
3n/2 (sec figure 6.5(c)). The point R can also be represented as (4, n/2) and (- 4, - rt/ 2).

To locate the point S(- 1, - n/3), it is easiest first to find lhc point S'(l ,- n/3) in the fourth
I
quadmnl Then S(- 1, - n/3) is lhe reflection of S' through the ori),'ln (see Figure ~.5(d)). Oth~r
representations of Sare (l, 2n/3) and (l. 8n/3).
I EXA1\·1PLE 2 Plot the poiht P whose polar coordinates are (2, n/6). l bc:o find all the poll,
coordinates of P

\
 Calculils

132 _ · - . d - the polar axis (or initial ray) and then draw the
SOLUflON By fixing the p0le 0, we firs_t raw_th th nnlar axis Figure· 6.6 shows the point p
ted. d'stance of r == 2 from the origin and lies on ~ ~y
· ak - gle of 1tl6 radians wt er · .
ray from O that m es an. an .
that bas polar coordinates (2, ,c/ 6), It tS loca at a I . -- . •. ~.
of . . '. : 'i r:i ' ·

. ·, .
/>(_2, 7d6) = (-2, 71ti6). < ·. ; . .:

= (-2, -5it/6} •
.
I.
; I
' •

etc. _
u:.,,..u.;__---- -:-~ X
Polar axis

f FtGURE 6.6
1

l:] angle 0 ~ ni6. Notice that the poi~t P(2, ,c/6) also has polar coordinates (-:2, ?rt/6) and
11
'j (-2, -5n/6). In fact, the point_P(2, n/6} has infinitely many polar coordinates which corresp~nd
I '

to,= 2 and r =-1, respectively.

For r ~2, the complete list of polar coordinates is : {( 2, ~ + 211 n} n is an integer} .

For example, the polar coordinates corresponding to n =0, n = 1, n = -I are, respectively,
J
I

i,~ (2' ~) (2 lJn)·. and··(2 ' ~)

6 ~ ' 6 · 6
''!
• ! ·1;
For r ~-2, the comj>l~te-list of polar coordinates is : { (-2, : + ( 2n + I) ,c} n is an integer}
' ,;:
,; ~
- t· ·Jl : For example, the polar coordinates corresponding to n = 0, n = I and n = -1 are, respectively, _
'.,,!I .
!::_t.tl.;
;i '
I i:
i
: (~ f
~
,l

-·
-·(-2 7n). (-i 19n).and (.. :.2 -5-n)·
' 6 ' ' 6. ' 6
h ..
'1"
IP, ' I 6.2 CONVERSION BETWEEN POLAR AND CARTESIAN COORDINATES

l
~
.1.~ i'

·Jt r To establish the conversion between polar and Cartesian

1 ~ coordina~s. it is.customary to place the two origins together Y
I ~ l and make the polar axis coincide with the positive x-axis ray
8 nil
=
;~ : as in fi_gure ~.7. In that case, every point P in the plane P(_.T, y) = P(r, 8)
!;1. 1: will have bota Cartesian coordinates (x, y) and polar
I;.a: coordinates ~,, 0-). All inspection of th~ diagram shows
y
t· i1 / at these points are related b the e uallons
'l
,: >
I
, ·l
~ x = r cos 0 - y == r sin 0 ... ( l )
:~ , 0 X Polar a"tis x
,1 = x2 +y2 tanO- = y .. .(2)
\fa " X
FIGURE 6.7
 4

Polar Coordinates
. Howe ver,; to find r and 8 when x
Equat ions ( 1) allow us fo find x and y when r a~d 0 are known
and y are know n. we use equat ions (2). ··

Note 1 The conve rsion formulas (I) were deduc ed from Figure
a point Pin the first quadr ant The same relationships hold if
6.7 which inustr ates the case for
Pis in any of the other three quadr ants.·

0. The angle_0 is chose n so that O~ e < 2~,

-~
~ -
Note 2 The signs of x and y dcten nine the quadr ant for
unless stated otherw ise.

n conve rting from Cartes ian coord inates to pol~r coord inates
Rema rk ~e_
that there are infini tely many possib le pairs of polar coord
, we. must remem ber
inates repres entin~ ibe same point. . - ·
-~
f;;~
~ates to Cartes iab coordinates.
EXAMPLE 3 Conv ert the follow ing points giv~n in polar coord

SOLU TION The point P(✓2,;) has Cartesian coordin~teS: &~

x = r cos 0 = ✓2 cos 7t
4
= ✓2 · _~
✓-2
= I ~c
. 0 ~ . 1[ -~ I . -~ !
='I/.!. · ✓2 = I
y = rsm = '1!2sm
4
There fore, the Carte sian coord inates of P (.✓z, ; ) _a re (I, I). ~I
Q( ~l
(h} Toi, point 2, ; ) has Carte sian coord inat~s :

x .
x = r cos fl = 2 cos - = 2 · -
I
3 2
=I ; i
.
y
•
=r sm 0 = 2 sm
. •
-
7t•

3
Jj
=2 · - 2 · =v 3
~
I
There fore, the Carte sian_coord inates of Q( 2, ; ) are . ( I, ✓J).
I
EXAMPLE 4 Find polar coord inates of the points with given

(a) P(-J, I)
Carte sian coord inates.

(b) Q(- 1, -.JJ) lfll'I I

SOLUTJON (a) We wiJI f~t find the polar coord inates (r, 0) of
0 and O :S O < 2 n. The radial coordinate, r, of P satisfi es the
P that satisfy
equation
the conditions r >
I
fk\
r i =x2 + y 2 :.= (- J)2 + (1)2 = 2 ⇒ ,. = .Ji
'The angul ar coord ina te, 0, of P satisf ies the equati on
•I
tanO =
.Y. _
X
_!__ == -1
-I I
134 Calculus
From this and the fact that the point (- l, l) lies in the second quadrant, it follows that the angle

. fyin g the requirement

sabs . . 0 ~ . 8• = Jx . Thus,
9 < 2 1t IS . (r, 8} = ( -.J~21;, J,c) are polar coordmates
·
4 4
of P. All other polar coordinates of P are

(fi,
3
: + 2n ") or (-fi, -1 + 2 n ")

where n is an integer.
y
ray 8 =rt/2
YorO = ro'2

P(-1, 1)
.,
,
,
.
,
n/3
-----+~-----~x
Polar axis
.
Polar axis
X

.. . ____ -✓3

Q{-1,-.fi)

(a) (b)

FIGURE 6.8
(b) We will first find the polar coordinates (r, 8) of Q that satisfy the conditions r > 0 and
0 ~ 0 < 2n. The radial coordinate, r, of Q satisfies the equation

r 2 = x 2 + y2 = ( - I + {-✓3f = 4
,2 ⇒ r=2

The .angular coordinate,_ 0, of Q satisfies the equation

tan0 = y = -·JJ = JJ
X -1

From this and the fact that (-1, - ✓3) lies in the third quadrant, it follows that the angle satisfiying

the requirement O ,:; 8 < 2 n is :" • Thus, (r, 8) = ( 2, :") :ire polar coordinates of Q. All othe,
polar coordinates of Q are

(2, :n +2nx) or (-2, f +2n1t)

where 11 is an integer.

EXAMPLES Replace the following Cartesian equations by equivalent polar equations.

(a) x 2 - y2 =- I (b) (x - 5) 2 + y 2 = 25 (c) xy ~= 2 (d) y =1
 Polar Coordinates I 35
SOLUTION (a) Substituting x = r cosO and y = r sin 0, the equation x 2 - y 2 = I in polar
coordinates becomes
r 2 cos 20 - r 2 sin 29 = I or . r 2(cos 2 9 - sin 2 0) = I or r2cos28 = I
(b) The equation (x - 5) 2 +y 2 = 25 can be •written as
x2 - l Ox + 25 + y 2 = 25
or x 2 - l Ox+ y 2 =0 (cancelling 25)
or r1- lOr cos9 = 0
⇒ r = O· or t - IO cos e = 0
The graph of r= 0 is th~ pole. Because· the pole is include~ in. the graph of r - l O cos e =0

( take 8 = 1). we can discard r =0 and keep onli,

r - l O cos e =0 or r = l O cos 0
(c) Substituting x = r cose and y;,,,, r sine, the equation x y = 2 in polar coordinates becomes
r 2 cose sine= 2 or r 2 sin2e = 4

(d) The polar equation equivalent to the Cartesian equation y = I is r sine = I, obtained by
replacingy with r siri 0.

. EXAMPLE 6 Replace the following polar equations by equivalent Cartesian equations, and
identify their graphs.
5
(a) r = 4 cosece (b) r = 8 sin0 · (c) r ~ose + r sin9 = l (d) r =
sin0-2cos0
SOLUTION We'll make use of the following conversion formulas:
X = r COS0, y = r sine, r2 = x2 + y2

4
(a) Given: r = 4 cosec 9 = r sin 9 = 4 y =4
sin9
Conclusion : The graph of r = 4 cosec 9 is a horizontal line throug~ .(0, 4).
{b) The transformation of this equation as it stands into Cartesian fonn· is fairly difficult With a
little trick, however, it becomes easy. We multiply both sides by r, which simply adds the pole to
the graph. But the pole is already a part of the graph of r = 8 sin 0 (take 8 = 0), so we haven't
actually changed anything.
r = 8 sinO ⇒ r1 = 8 r sin 0
⇒ x 2 + y2 = 8y or x 2 + y 2 - By = 0
⇒ x 2 +y 2 -8y+l6-l6 = 0 (completing the squar(!)
or, x 2 + (y - 4) 2 = 16
Concl,aion : The graph of r "" 8 sin Ois _a cm:le of radius 4 antered at (0, -4).
,
Calculus
136 + r sin O= I becomes
g x cos Oby x and r sin e by y j the equation r cos 8
(c) Replacin
or y = - x· + I
x +y = I a~d y-inlercept 1.
r cos 0 + r sin 0 = J is a straighJ line having ~lope -I
Conclusion : The graph of
5 r(sinB~-2 cosO) . = 5
(d) Given r = . e
SID - 2COS
O ⇒

or y =:= 2 x + 5 ·
- 2r co s8 = 5 or y- 2x = 5
or · · r sin O .
\5 . ' ,
d y-intercept 5-.
= ·· . is a straight line havin· g slope 2 dn
Conduswn : The graph·
of r . ..
s.m0·- 2c os 0

resentation s of
follow ing polar co ord inates. Give two alternative rep
I. Piot the points with_the
tes.
th! points in polar coordina (c) (- I , ~ 1t / 3}
(h} (3, 2,r 13)
(a) (2, 1t 13 ) (/) (- !, 3,r I 2}
(e) (-3 , - rr)
(d) (l, 7,r I 6)
s. .
inates of the following point
2. Fiad aH the polar coord (-2 , rr/ 3) (d) (- 3, 0)
(h) (3, O} (c)
(a) (2, 1tlJ.)
lar coordinates).
sian coordina tes of the fol lowing points (given in po
3. Find the Carte (c) (- 2, -n /3 )
(h) (2 ,2 ,r/ 3)
(a}.(2,0)° (I) (- 3, Sn 16)
(e) (-1 , 71r)
(dJ (J i, 1t I 4)
te~.
the fo1 1ow ing po lar coord inates. in Cartesian coordina
4. Express
(b) (1, - n /3 }
(a) (3, 1rJ 4) ntify the
tio ns to Ca rte sian co ordinates. Then describe or ide
polar eq ua
5. Convert the following
resulting graph. 4
4 (c) r = .
6 sin B (b) r cos O= - · 2c os 8- sm 0
(a) r =

J (I) r = 2 coscc 0
(d') r = (e) r 2 = 6r cos 0
3cos0 +smO
(i) r ,:;; 2 co s f)
(h) r = cot O cosec 0
(g) r sfo O= 0
lar equ ation .
following Carte sia n cquJtion s by an equiv alent po
6. Replace each of lhe (c) r 1 +y 2 = 16
(b) x -= y
(a} x c 5 (f) (x - 5)2 +y _= 25
2
2 (c) .r 2 + (y - 3)1 == 9
.(d )y ::. fu
 •.,.¢, ;,
~ 37. ~ I
~
a- -.r ::, ~~
' ~-;-;_, ...--::, -~;;,.•.,;,._?~r4·~s ~'
; _:t:1....... ;;/__ ,;...-N- '-"VJE1tsz.~.' #: :;. ~ d;:i!,. •
dm
Po•. mr,:•~ ;
- _
~ m
tes -- • ,. .,,__...~
~!- A.~ ., • •• •
_,
•,
I
'.;.
'
.,••' • ' • • : , :•' •
r,·,c,... ,..~ '.>•. • •
-4 n/ 3)
· ... _ •,, ....~ ~ -.
.- .,

/
n/ 3) (c) (I, 2r r/3 ), (I,
'-
•
-,.
,..._. -

(b ) (3 ;-4 n/ 3) , (- 3, -
)
(a ) (2, 7n /3 ), (-2 , 4n /3 /2 ) , I
I. (/) (l, n/2)., (- I, -n
/6 ) (e} (3, 0), (3, 2n )
(d ) (-1 , n/ 6) , (I, -5 rc
-~ ,'

2. (a ) ( 2, J+ 2mt) and (-2, f + + l),t). (2n n is an int eg er

(b ) (3, 2m t) and (-3

,(2 n+ l)1 t), _n i-s an integ
er
i-5, I
:n ~ l)n ). n is an integ~r
(c) ( 2, + 211n) and (- 2: :• + (2n
# I
(cf) (-3 , 2mr) and (3, (2n +
l}1t)~ n is an integer

(b ) (-1, JJ) (c} (~1, FJ) ~~ l

*i Ij
3. (a ) (2, 0)

(d ) (I, I)
(e) {I, 0) (/) (Jt ,-¾)
(-'- _Jj) 4; .
;( :,. .

~,~• - ~r
,Jc.

4. (a ) (}i, }i) (b }
2' 2

·~· ,
2 + (y - 3)2 = 9 ; a circle of radius
3 centered at (0, 3)
5. (a ) x
(b ) x = - 4; a vertica
l line through {- 4, 0)
-intercept = -4
4; a str aig ht Jine with slope = 2 and y_

~• I
(c) y = 2t -
ept = l
+ I ; a str aight line wi th slope = - 3 ·and y-interc
( d) y = - 3x 0)
3 }2 + y2 = 9 ; a cir cle of radius 3 centered at (J,
-
~
( e) (x
e through (0, 2}
(j) y = 2; a .horizontat lin
(g ) y = 0-; x-axis
(h ) y2 = x; a parabola
(i) (x - l )
having vertex at (0, 0)
2 + j1 = l ; a circle of radius l cente

( b) 0 = 7t / 4
red at (I, 0)
(c) r == 4 or r = - 4
~'I
(£ ~
}I
6. (a ) r cos 0 = 5 . U) r ::: lO co sO
(e) r= 6s in 0
~ E
(d )r = 6c ot 0c os ec 0

6.3 GRAPHING IN PO
LAR COORDINATES

In thi s se ction we ~ ~nsid

er the pr ob lem of gr ap hin g equations in polar co
tc~ n ha s inf
or din al<s. Un like
inite I~ many dif fe~ nl
·,
~ I
co or din ate sys
1en.1, a point in the poJ_nr rna.y sall~fy ~m e- qu a~
('
Ca_rtesian coordinate _sy.s. s.e po J~r c~ rd ma tes
s. _I low~ver, s.omc ot tl~c=
,s polar coordrnJ tes 1s de
ft.ned ro' ~~
pim s of poJar c~ rd m; rte

I an eq ua tio n r :;; j (O )
t. 1 he graph of ~
where as oth ers rmght no
, .

of coor din ah ~s (r, 0) a

s. tis fyiug the equation. 1
atlea sr on e pair
lhc s<; t of all po in ts wi th
'-i,, , l,
. '

:
 Calculus
138
EXAMPLE 7 qraph the equation r ~ 1 in polar ~oordinates.

SOLUTION The polar equation r ~ 1 ~s satisfted by the set of all points (1, 8), where 0 is
arbitrary. Since the _point (I~ 8) is one unit away from the pole, the .graph of r = ris the circle of
radius I centered .at the pole (see Figure 6.9). In general, the equation r = a represents a circle of
radius la I centered at the pole.
0=7t/2 0=7t/2

----------o 0

FIGURE 6.9
EXAMPLE 8 Graph the polar equation 9 = 1t/3.

SOLUTION The polar equation 8 = 1t/3 is satisfied by the set of all points (r, 1tl 3), where r is
' arbitrary. For any value of r, the point (r, 1t I 3) lies on· the line that makes an angle of 1t I 3 with the
polar axis (see Fig 6.10). Therefore, the graph of e·=.1t I 3 is the line through the pole making an
f~ i angle of 1t/3 with the polar axis. Notice that the positive values of r correspo~d to points on the line
in the first quadrant and.negative values of r correspond. to points orr the l.ine in the third quadrant.
~i Jr/2 . 7t/2
~1
(2, x/3)
o; 7t/3)
x/3
-----#---A-----+O

FIGURE 6.10
In general, the equation O= 00 describes the line through the pole making an angte of 00 wi1h the
polar axis.
EXAA1PLE 9 Graph the sets of points whose polar coor<linales satisfy the following conJitioos.
n
(a ) l S r :S 2 and 0~8~ -
2
n
(b) · - 3 ~ , s·2 and 0 :::: -
6
Polar Coordinates 139

(c) r50 and O =.::3

1[ 1(
(d) - ~ 8~- (no restriction on r)
6 3

SOLUTION The graphs are shown in Figure 6.11. .

y y

- 3 ~ r ~ 2, 9 = n/6

(a) (b)

y y

_.: .

rt/6
/
/ it/3
-----
0
-~x
r~O, 8 =n/3 rrl6 ~ 0 ~ n/3

(c) (d)
flGURE 6.11
We now .describe techniques of graphing equations of. the fonn r = /(0) that express , as a
function of 0..for example, the equation r = 0 is the simplest polar equation of the fom1 r = f (8)
that expresses r as a function of 0.

Point-to-Point Plotting Method

TI1e po'int-to-point plotting method of graphing an equation of the fonn , c /(0) consists in
choosing some typical values ofO, find the corresponding values ofr, and then plot the concsponding
points (r, 8) in a polar coordinate system. The point are then connected by a smooth curve.
The following examples wiH help illustrate this method.

EXAMPLE IO Sketch the graph of r i.: 0 (0 ~ 0) in polar coordin~\tcs by plotting point~.

SOLUTION The gt.iph of r ~- 0 cao be obtained by plotting the p.oint-s that correspond to\ alu~
of Othat are iutt:ger multi.pies of n 14, kt:eping in mind that the v~luc of r is olways t:4lua.l to thf , .llur
140 Calculus
. '

als out from the pole as 9

~f 0. \Vl1cn we join these points, the resulting graph is a curve that spir
ed spiral of Archimedes.
mcreases (see Figure 6.12). This curve is call

Polar axis

FIGURE 6.12

Sym me try Tests for Polar Gra phs

g symmetry, we
ns in grap hing is symmetry. By anal yzin
One of the mos t imp orta nt con side ratio
significantly.
can ofte n redu ce the amo unt of grap hing
ut the x-ax is if
h in po.Jar coordinates. is sym met ric abo
(a ) Sym met ry abo ut the x-axis. A grap an equ ival ent
acin g (r, 0) t>y (r, - 0), or repl acin g (r, 0) by (-r, -n - 0) in its equ atio n give s
repl
·
equ atio n (Fig ure 6. l 3(a) ).
ut the y-a us if
h in pola r coo rdin ates is sym met ric abo
(b} Sym met ry abo ut _the y-axis. A grap an equ ival ent
g (r, 0) by (-r, -0) in its equ atio n gives
repl acin g (r, 0) by (r, n - 0), or repl acin
equ atio n (Fig ure 6. l 3(b)). ·
I

rdin ates is sym met ric abo ut the orig in if

h in pola r coo
(c) Sym met ry abo ut the origin. A grap equ ival ent
g (r, 0) by (-r, 0), or repl acin g (r, 8) by (r, n + 0) in its equ atio n gives an
repl acin
equ atio n (Fig ure 6.13(c}). y
0)
y
J' ( r, 1t-
or( -r,- 0) (r, 0)
- - - - - - (r, 0)
. (r, 0)
X
:r
X 0
0

'(r, - 0) (- r, 0) or (r, Jt + 0)
or (- r. n - 0) •
(c}
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 6.13
s the
metric about the y-a..,is because if (r, 0) satisfie
For example, the graph of r = I + sin Ois sym the graph of
, then (I"., ,r - 0) also satisfies the equ atio n. Similarly, it can be checked that
C{juation
y-axis, and the origin.
r = 3 sin20 is symmetric about the x-axis. the
 141
Pol ur Coo rdin ates
by plotting points.
equation r --' 2 cosO in polar coordinates
E.XA.MPLE 11 Sketch tl1e graph of the
n, so we know in
TIO N Not ice first that repl acing 0 by -0 docs not alter the equatio
SO LU to graph the equation
anc e that the grap h is sym met ric about the polar axis. Thus, we only need
adv ng ~e ·portion already
r the interval (0, 1tJ. The com plete graph is then obtained by reflecti
ove
grarhed about the polar axis.
These points are
sho ws valu es of r for som e typical values of 0 varying from O to rr.
Table 6.1 to_be a
in Fig ure 6.14 . Wh en we join thes e points, the resulting curve appears
plotted as shown
circle. ·
TABLE6.1
2 rr/3. 3rr/4 5rr/ 6 1C
rr/3 rt/2
e 0 rr/6 rt/4
-1. 41 -1. 73 -2
I 0 -1
r 2 1.73 1.41
7t/2
r;$
.:el::
11~

3nf2

FIGURE 6.14
w e( ~
the polar equation r = 2 cos O in terms of x and y. To do so,
We can confinn it by expressing
r to obtain
multiply both sides of the equation by
x 2 +y 2 =2 x or r 2 +y 2 -2x =O
r 2 = 2 r cos 0 ⇒

Complc;tine the square, we obtain

(x - 1) 2 + y 2 -~ 1
which is a circle of radius I centered
at the point (I, 0) in the .9•-plant:.
.us_t';...
equ atio~ r _== 2ac os0 represents
a circle of raJius 11, centered on the x-a
Remark In gc1_1_eral, the a. ~~
I )). S1rm farly , the equ atio n r c; 2as in O represents a cird~ of radius
at (a, 0) (see hgu re 6. 5(a
ure 6.1 S(h)).
centered on the y-axis at (0, a)(see Fig
142 Calculus.
0 = 1Cl2 0 - n:/2

_... 0
0 (0, a)
(a, 0)

0
0
r= 2a cos 0 r·=2a sin O
(a) . (b)
FIGURE 6.15
EXAMP LE 12 Sketch-the graph of r =I- 2cos0 in polar coordinates by plotting points.

SOLUT ION Replacing 0 by-0 does not alter the equation, so the given graph is symmetr ic about
the polar axis. Thus, we only need· to graph the equation over the interval [0, ·n). The complete
graph is then obtained by reflecting the portion already· graphed about the polar axis. Evaluati ng r
at different values of 0 from 0 = 0 to 0 = n, we prepare the followin g table.
TABLE6 .2 -

e 0 n/6 n/4 ni3 rt/2 2n/3 3n/4 5rc/6 re

r = 1 - 2cos 0 -I -0.73 -0.41 0 1 2 2.41 2.73 3

These points are plotted as shown in Figure 6.16(a). When we join these points,_we get a portion
of the graph over the interval
'
[O, rt] as shown in Figure·6. l 6(a ). The complete graph is obtained by j

reflectin g it about the x-axis (see Figure 6.16(b). This graph is called a lima~ons.
;c/2

TCl2

77r/6
Sn/4
◄ n/3 ·

Jn/2
(a) (b)
FIGURE 6.16
 143

1•◄ 1 /<11 ( '11<11di11aft'.\'

Rc.'mJrk lo J!l't\n,1I, n\\lJIWII~ ol till' hH1ll

,, ' /,ni~ O O( ,. " ' /, Nino
'
in " ln d; ., :· o • <1 /1 • O qn 1--,,·111 po I:ir , 111-v1· s, ralkil lhn n~" u,. ·I he ra IJO alb determines the
11 I
..-,.,ct ,h>p,· of 1hc hm:1(ons. If <1/11 I, i.,·, if" I>, th1·11 th,· linior;ons is ~ailed a Card!old (from
1hr GH·,·k w," ii i / 11,-.111 ; 11 t: /11 •111 1). Thr Ii 111:iyons r ti t /, cos O w1 II be to the n ght of tl1e
1111 111 1
w1ttrol ""' if th,· sii:n lw1ww1 ,, 111111 b is plus nml lo thr Jen if the sir,n is minus. fib,ure 6.11
shows four p,,sihk shapes fo1 11 Iin i:,~ons ,. " I /, cos O. 8 i111 iInrl y, the Iima~ons r a +b sin Owill
he ah,nc the horiw111ul axis if the si1;11 between a nnd /, is plus and below if the sign is minus.

8000
c1Jb, l alb = l I < nib < 2
Dimpled
alb~2
Convex
Lima9on with Cardioid
lima9on li."T1a9on
inn~r loop
FIGURE 6.17

Cartesian-to-Polar Method for Graphing r =f (0)

Another method of graphing a polar equation r =f (0) is to first graph r as a function of 0 in the
Cartesian 0 r- plane. This Cartesian graph is then used as a guide to sketch the polar graph. The
method is best illustrated with the help of following e~amples.

EXAMPLE 13 Sketch the graph of r == ·cos 2 0 in polar coordinates.

SOLUTION Observe first that replacing 0_by - 0 does not alter .the equation, so we know in
advance that the graph is symmetric about the polar axis (or x-axis). We then sketch the gr:iph of
r == cos 2 0 by plotting r as a function of O in the Cartesian coordinates. Figure 6.18 shows the
graph of r = cos20 displayed using Cartesian coordinates.
r

. 1

-~ot-----:-'r---+----1---+----\---4- -:....-/,~-~-_.
2n o

-1

FIGURE 6.18
We now analyse the graph of r = cos 2 0 in Cartesi~n coordinates to visu:ilizc how the polar graph
of this equation is generated. From the Figure 6.18, we can s~c the following :
 144 ,, ,11' \ \ , . Calculus
' . .
• As Ovaries from Oto n/4, r varies f~om ·1 to 0. The resulting portion oftbe polar graph is
drawn in Figure 6.19(indicated by (1)). ·

• As Ovaries from rc/4 to n/2, r is negative and varies from Oto- I. The resulting portion of
the polar graph is drawn in Figure 6.19(indicated by (2)). Notice that this portion of th~
pol~ curve lies on the opposite side of the pole ~ the third quadrant, because r is negative.
• As 9 varies from rr/2 to 3 rr/ 4, r is still negative and varies from - l to 0. The resulting
portion of the pol~ graph is drawn in Figure 6. l 9(indicated by (3)).
• As 8 varies from 3 n/ 4 to n, r varies from Qto I. The resulting portion of the polar graph is
drawn in Figure 6.!9 (indicated by (4)}.
The rest of the curve can be obtained by continuing· the preceding analysis from 1t to 21t, or as
noted above, by reflecting the portion already graphed about the x-axis (Figure 6.20}. This curve
is. called·a four-leaved rose.

O=~ O=~
2
1

·.
..·· CD

9=0 · 0-=7t
O=n:

FIGURE 6.20
FIGURE 6.19
Remark In general, equations of the fonn
r = a cos n0 or r = a sin nO

in which ~ > oand n is a positive integer represent families of flower-shaped cu~es called roses.
The number of petals that are present in a rose will depend on the value ~f n. lf n is even, then the
rose will have 2 n equally spaced petals of radius a if n is odd, the rose Wlll haven equally spaced
petals of radius a.

i
 4
145•

Polar Coordinates

11 =4
11=2
n=3
r = a sin n 0

11 =3 11=4
II= 2
r= a cos n 9

FIGURE 6.21
EXAMPLE 14 Sketch the graph of r = 1.+ cos O in polar coordinates.

SOLUTION We will begin with the graph of r = l + cos0 in the Cartesian coordinates. Notice
first that this equation is not changed if we replace 0 by -0. So, the graph is symmetric about the
x-axis. Thus, if we graph the upper half of the curve, then we can obtain the lower half by
reflection about the x-axis.
The graph of r = 1 + cos 0 in Cartesian Or-coordinates can be obtained by first drawing the graph
of r = cosO arid then shifting that graph up I unit to obtain the graph of r = l + cosO (see Figure
6.22) .
 M6 Calculus
r

r= 1 + cos 0
·-.
,,
, .
,

', -
---:--o-t-------.a.,-,---.:=::::..-+-a:::::: ::.---..,__-------.f---+ e
rr.12 •• . 1t
. • • 3rr/2 21t
,
.
.. -
-1

' FIGURE 6.22

From the Figure 6.22, we can see the following :
• As 8 varies from O to n/2, r decreases· from 2 to ·1.
• As 0 varies from nl 4 to n, r decreases from 1 to 0.
This produces the polar curve shown in Figure 6:23(a).
. y y

2
X
(0, 1t) (2, 0) -

(a) (b)
FIGURE 6.23
The rest of the curve can be obtained by continuing the proceding analysis from 1t to 2 1t, or as
noted above, by reflecting the portion already graphed about the x-axis(scc Figure 6.23(b)). This
curve is shaped like a heart and is called a cardioid (from the Greek word kardia meaning .. heart").

EXAMPLE 1S Sketch the graph of r 2 = sin 2 0 in polar coordinates.

l SOLUTION Notice that the equation r 2 = sin2 0 docs not express r as a function of O. s~ce
wiving for r in lcnns of 0 yields
r -= ✓sin 28 and r =- -Jsin 20
Polar Coordinates
147
Thus , _to grap h the cquati~n r1=si1_120 we will
have to graph the two func tions sep~ tely and then
com bme thos e grap hs. ·
To gra~ h these two functions, we begin by plott
ing ,1 as a function of O in the Cartesian 9,2- plan
(see Figure 6.24). e
·
,1-

FIGURE 6.24
We pass from ther e to the grap hs of ·r
= ✓sin 20 and r = - ✓sin 20 m the Gr-p lane
(see Figure 6.25).
r

r=+ ✓sin20

-1
r=~

FIGURE 6.25
Noti ce that there are gaps in the grap hs of
r = ±✓sin 20 over the intervals rc/2 < 0 < re and
3rc/ 2 < 0 < 2n beca use .sin2 0 is negative for
these values of 0.
\Ve now anal yze the graph of r = Jsin 20 in Cart
esian coor dina tes to visualize how the polar grap
h
of this equa tion is generated. From its graph,
we can see the following :
• As Ova ries from Oto n/4, r increases from Oto
l.
• As Ova ries from n/4 to rt/2, r decr ease s from
1 to 0.
• As Ovaries from n/2 ton, no points are gene
rated on the graph.
This prod uces the port ion of the grap h.sh own
in Figure 6.26 (a). As noted above, ~o portion oftb
graph is gene rated in the second quadrant. How e
ever, we can also sec the following:
 Calculus
148

0=-
I .. 0::-ir
X
0=- ,,
.
,
•2
0=-
•
.· 4
,
, 0=-~
2 2 ,,
4 ,
,
. I

. ..
· 0 =0 O=O
., 0=0

.. ••51t
3l't
-2
...
-4
- (c)
(a) (b)

FIGURE 6.26
As S varies from 1t to 5n/4 1 r increases from Oto l .
•
As 0 varies from 5it/4 to 3rc/2, r decreases from 1 to 0.
•
As 0 v·aries from 3 rt/2 to 2 rc, no points are generated on the graph .
•
This produces the portion of the graph shown in Figure 6.26(b). Note that no portion of the graph
is generated in the fourth quadrant.
Combining the above two portibns, we get a complete sketch of the graph of r = JWI 20 in polar
coordinates (see figure 6.2 6(c)). This graph is called a !em nisca le ( from the Greek word /emn isfOS
for a looped ribbon resembling L~e number 8). We leave for thireader to verify that the equation
r = -Jsin 20 has the same graph as r = Jsin 20 , but traced in a diagonally opposite manner. Thu~,
the graph of the equation ,2 = sin 2 0 consists of two identical superimposed lemmiscates.

- ~ * f @,~ :!~?~Jf¼~~
1. Identify symmetries of the curve r == l + sin 0 and then sketch the graph.
(Delhi Unfr. B.Sc (H.) Allied Courses 2015}

2. Identify symmetries of the curve r == sin 20 and then sketch the graph.
(Delhi Univ. GE-1 2016}

3. Identify symmetries of the curve r == 3 sin 20 and then sketch the graph.
4. Identify symmetries of the curve ,2 == 9 cos 0 ·and then sketch the graph.
5. Graph the polar equation r = I - cos Oand identify its symmetries. (D.!lhi U11i" GE-I, 20151
6. Identify symmetries of the curve r -= sin Oand then sketch the graph.
7. Identify symmetries of the curve r = 3 cos 20 and then sketch tl!c graph.
8. Identify symmetries of the curve r = l + 2cos Oand then sketch the graph.
9. Identify symmetries of the curve r = 4 sin 30 and then sketch the graph.
10. Identify symmetries of the curve r == 4 cos Oand then sketch the graph.
---------Glmtm
7
Vector-Valned Functions

7.1 VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS

So far we had been dealing with functions from a subset of R to R. In this chapter we will be
2
dealing with functions whose domain is a subset of R and whose range is in R3 ( or R ). Such
functions are called vector-valued functions of real variable. :

DEFINITION Vector•Valued Function

A \'CCtor-valued function in 3•space is a function of the fonn . r·[
rl,t) = f(t) i + g(t)j + h (t)k . (1

where the ~unctions/(t}, g(t) and h(t) are real-valued functions of the parameter,. We call ~t.
these functions the component functions or simply the components of.the vector function r(t~
...
 150 Calculus
1
Vector-valued functions are sometimes denoted as r(J) = (/(t), g(t), h (t) ). ·
Notice that a vector-~alued function in 3-space is a function from the real numbers R to the set of
all three-dimensional vectors. We can alternately think of it as three separate functions:
x = f(t), y = g(t) and h = h(t),
that describe points in space. In this case we usually refer to the set of equations as parametric
equations for the curve.
Note A vector-valued function r(t) in 2-space can be defined by
. ,. .
r(t) =J(t)i + g (t)j = (f (t), g (t))
for some real-valued functions f and g.
The domain of a vector-valued function r(t) is· the set of all t's for which all the component
functions are defined. · ·· ···

Note If r(t) is defined in tenns of component functions and the domain is not specified explicitly,'
then the domain is considered to be the intersection of the domains of the component functions/,
g and h. ·

EXAMPLE 1 Detennine the domain of the function r(t) = cost i + log (4 - t)j + Jt;i k.
SOLUTION The first component, cost, is defined for all t's. The second component, log(4 - I ),
is defined fort < 4. The third compo_nent, ✓t+1, is only defined fort ~ -I. Thus the domain of
r(t) consists of all values of r such that -1 ~ t < 4 or [-1, 4).

EXAMPLE 2 Find the domain of the function r(t) = logt i + ~ j + t k.

SOLUTION The domain of the component functions

f(t)=logt, g(t)=~, h(t)=t
are (0, oo), (-<0, 1), (-<0, oo)
respectively. Putting all of these together gives the following ~omain of r (t) : (0, I].

EXAMPLE 3 What is the domain of r(t) =Ii+ .ft j + log (t- 3)k?
SOLUTION Let's look at its components. The first component/(/) = tis defined for any real
number, so is domain is (-<X>, oo). The second componentg(t) = .ft is defined for a~y nonnegative
number, so its domain is [0, oo). Finally, the third-component h (t) = log (t - 3) is well defined for
t > 3, so its domain is (3, oo). The domain of r{t) is the set of all t's for which all its components are
defined. Therefore, its domain is (3, oo).

7.2 GRAPHS OF VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS

The graph of a vector-valued function rl.t) is de_fined to be the parametric curve described by~~
component functions of r(t). In other words, 1f r(t) = (f (I), g (t ), h (t )), then the par:unetn\;
curve represented by the equations
x = /(r), y == g(t). z = h(t)
is called the graph of r(t).
 151
Jcctor-J'1.1lucd Functions
EXAM PLE 4 Graph the vcctor-~alued fu~ction r(I) = a cos Ii+ a sin I
j + cl k, where a ~d ·c
arc positiv e constan ts.

SOLU TION The vector- valued function r(I) = a cost i + a sinlj + cl k is defined for all real
onding compon ent
values of I. The graph of r(t) is the parame tric curve describ ed by the corresp
functio ns ·

X = a cos I, y = a sin I i z =CI

The first two compon ents satifiy the cylinde.r's equatio n :
x2 + y = .(a co~,)2 +.(a sint)2 = a2 (cosi I+· sin I)= a2 ... .
2

radius a centere d on the

which means tha_t the graph lies on the surface of the _circula r cylinde r of.
es which means that the
z-axis. Next notice that as t increas es,_the z-comp onent z = ct also increas
point (x. y, z) on the graph move upward .
that winds around a
The combin ation of these upward .and circular motion s produc es a curve
es by 21t, the curve
circula r cylinde r of radius a (see Figure 7.1). Notice that·eac h time t increas
a
comple tes one tum around the cylinder. This curve ·is called circular helix.
z

X
y

FIGURE 7.1

EXAl\.lPLE 5 Graph the vector- valued function r(t) = (x0 +ta) i + (y0 + t b)j + (z0 + I c) k.
graph of r(t)
SOLUTION The vector-valued function r(I) is defined for all real values oft. The
is the parametric curve described by the corresponding component functions
x = (x 0 + t c), y = (Y0 + I b) z = (z0 + t c)
the point
We recognize these as the parametric equations for the line in space: that passes through
a line passing
P0 (xo, y 0 , zo> and is parallel to the vector v = (a, b, c). Thus, the graph of r(r) is
through the point P (.10- y , z ) in the directio[! of the vector,, • (a, b, c).
0 0 0
 Calculus ·
152
z
F.

v=(a , b, c)
is a vector in the
direc_tipn of I

FIGURE 7.2

7.3 UMITSAND CONTINUITY

DEFINITION limit of a Vector-Valued Function
that is defined for all t in some
Let r(t) =J (t )i + g (t)j + h (t) k be a vector-valued function
open interval containing a, except that r(t) need not be defined at a. We say that r(t) approaches
the limit L (a vector) as I approaches a and write

if, for every number £

Jim r(t) = L
t➔a

>: 0, there exists a corresponding number 8 > 0 such that

I
llr (t) - LIi < £ whenever O< It -.al< o
uting the limit of a vector-value.d
We now state a theorem (proof omitted) which helps us in comp
function by computing the limits. of its components.

THEOREM7.1
+h(t )k
A vector-valued function r(t) ={f(t), g(t), h(t)) = f(t)i + g(t}j
aches a limit, and in this case,
approaches a limit as t ➔ a if and only if each component appro

lim r(t) = / lim f(t), lim g(t), Jim h(t)) = tJim f(t)i + lim g(t)j + Jim h(t)k
l ➔a \t➔ a /➔a ➔a
l ➔a t➔a t➔a

EXAl\fPLE 6 If r(t) = cost i +sint j +I k, find lim r(t).

I➔ x/4

SOLUTION By Theorem 7.1,

Jim r(t) = ( lim

1-+xl ◄ l ➔ •I ◄
cost)i +( lim sin
l ➔ •I ◄
,)j + ( lim
l ➔ Kl4
r)k
J • J • Jtk
= -1+ -1+ -.
Ji fi. 4
 153
1~-ct< >r- f alut ·d flm cti ,ms

Jim(,· ~,. log( t + I),

EXAMPLE 7 Eva. JuJlc the limit ,-
4).
o

SOL l..:l ON lim ( c

2
' , Jog (t + 1), 4) = (tim e21 , Jim Jog(t + 1), Jim 4) = (1, 0, 4).
t -► 0 t➔0 t➔0
l-4 0

2 + I, sin t\
EXA !\IP LE 8 Find thl.! limit tJim (sco sr, 1
➔O I
2 m
2 lim sin t)= (5,l , 0).
c~st, Iim(t +1f, t->0
SOL UTI ON lim (sco st,t +1, sinr )=( 51i
t➔O t➔O
t➔O •

21
+ 5, t 2 + 2t - 3, I/ t \ Eva luat e Jim r(t), if it exis ts.
EXA:MPLE 9 If r (t) = (e I - t➔O

Not ice that the limit of the third com pon

e~t is lim !
whi ch does. not exist. So,
SOL UTI Oi~ t➔O I
n vect or-v atue d
com pon ents exist, the limi t of the give
e\'en thou gh the limi ts of the first- two
func tion doe s not exis t.

Con tinu ity At a Poi nt

scal ar-v alue d
ity of vect or-v alue d func tion s is defi ned in the sam e way as in the case of
Con tinu
func tion s.
n
DEFINITION Con tinu ity of a Vec tor- Val ued Fun ctio
to be con tinu ous at a poin t t =a if
A vect or-v alue d func tion r(t) is said
Jim r(t) = r(a) -fE~
-
t➔a

alue d func tion r(t) is con tinu ous at t =

a if and only if
It foll ows from The orem 7.1 that a vect or-v
tinu ous at t = a.
each of its com pon ent func tion s is con
con tinu ous at c3ch
be con tinu ous on an inte rval I if it is {.~
A vect or-v alue d func tion r(t) js said to
point of I. .
defi ned by r(t) = cost i + sin tj + r k
is continuous for ~
For exa mpl e, the vect or-v alue d function •~
r(t) are cont inuo us for all t.
all tin (-oo, oo) beca use the com pon ents of
vect or-v alue d func tion give n by
EXAMPLE 10 Discuss the con tinu ity of the
r(t) = cos / i + sin/ j + I k at I = 0

SOLUTION Wr- havi:

Jimr(t) =[l, imc os1 ]it[ lim sin 1]j +[l,im1 ]k = lit0 j+0 k = i
,~ o ➔ o ,➔o -~o

r(O) = cosO i + sinO j + 0 k = ) i + 0 j

+ 0 k =i
also,
 Calculus
1='.i

hm r(t) r(O)
, )0
r.: 0. By similar reas onin g, we
can conc lude that
Tims, we l':tn '-'0n dude that r(t) is cont inuo us at t
r l,) is cont inuo us for all t in ( -oo, co).

or-v alue d func tion

E...XAJ,tPLE 1t Dete nnin e for wha t valu es oft tbc vect
r(r) = (e~', log(t+I)~ cost).
is cont muo us.
tions:
UTI ON From The orem 7 J, we need only cons ider the cont inui ty of the com pone nt func
SOL pon ent
rv) will be cont inuo us whe reve r all its
com pon ents are con tinu ous. The first com
pone nt g(t) = log( t + I) is ~nti nuo us fort >
-1
fV) = e5' is cont inou s for all t, the seco nd com us
inuo us for all t. This means r(t) is cont inuo
and finally the bst com pone nt h (t) = cost is cont
for I > -1.
vect or-v alue d func tion
EXA.1\IPLE 12 Dete rmin e for wha t valu es oft the
- , tan r)
1
r(t) = (1 t + { j, -t-3
is cont inuo us.
nt
f (t) =It + II is. cont inuo us for all t. The seco nd com pone
SOL UTI ON The first com pone nt
.
1 = 3. Finally, note that the third com pon ent
g(t) = t _ 3 is co.qtinuous ever ywh ere · exce pt at t
n ;
h(t) = tant is cont inuo us everywhe~e exce pt att
= (2n +1) 2 , .n .= 0, ±I, ± 2, ... Since r(t) will
cont inuo us, we have that r(t} is cont inuo us,
be cont inuo us whe reve r all its com pone nts are
7t
except at t = 3 and t = (2n +I)
2, n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ...

EXAMPLE 13 For which values oft is r(t) = cost i + smt j + [t] k cont inuo us?

.
SOLUTION /( t) = cos Iis cont inuo us for all t in (-oo, co)
g (t) = sin t is cont inuo us for all I in (-<0. oo)
I, (I} = [ t], the grea test inte ger func tion ,
is cont inuo us ever ywh ere exce pt
i
at integ er poin ts.

Thu s, r (I) is cont inuo us everywh ere exce pt at integ er poin ts

CTI ON
7 .4 DERIVATIVE OF A VECTOR-VALUED FUN
of a
defin ed the sam e way we defin e dt:rivuti\·e
lbe derivative of a vector-valued function is
scalar-valued function.
 155
Vector-Valued Func tions
d Function
DEFINITION Derivative of a VectorNalue
r(I) is defined by
The deri vati ve of a vect or-v alue d func tion
r'(t) = lim r(t+ llt)- r(t) . ... (I)
M➔O Ill

s, then r(t) is said to be diffe renti able at t.

for all t for which the limit exists. If r''(I) exist
. d dr ·
. - .or r'.
for r'(I) are: -[r( t)],
Note Othe r notations . d1 . dt
com pute d
ative s of vector~valued func tion s can be
Acc ordi ng to _the next theorem, the deriv
com pone n twis e·.
/
ns
THE ORE M 7.2 Diff eren tiati on of Vect or-V alue d Fun ctio
rentiable at I if and only .if each of its com pone nts
Let r(I) = <f (t), g (t), h (t)) .. Then r(t) is diffe
is diffe renti able at t. In this case,
r'(t) = (f'(t ), g'(I) , h'(t ))

· . r(I +fl t)- r(t)

PRO OF r '(I) = 11m . flt
M➔O

(f(t_+flt
. . ..,__ h(t_
), _ - (/
_))!..,_....!
+flt (t), g(t) , h(1))
= hm _ ), _+flt
_g(t __ .:..,._:_-=....:......:____:....:.2..

M➔O di

lim (f(l+ !1t) -f(1 ),g( t+! 1t)- g(1 ), h(t+

flt) -h(t ))
=
M➔O /)./

t))
= Jim (f(l +D .1)- f(t) ' g(t+ l1t) -g(t ), h(t+ D.t )-h(
111 /).t · flt
M➔O
) 1m
-g(t._, lr(t ;._..
. ~-_, (t))
)-/,.;..
+llt..;...
. f(t+ t1t) -f(t ) , Li m _g(t+
_ At)
_ _.;. 1
= I1m M➔ O f:lt
(M➔O D.t ~t ➔ O At

= (/'(t ), g'(t ), h'(t} ),

in the last step we recognized the definition of the derivatives of each of the component
whe re
functions f, g and h.
tion, we need only differentiate the mdividua1
Thus, in order to differentiate a vector-valued func
rentiation.
component functions, using the usual rules of diffe
:
EXAMPLE 14 Compute the derivatives of the following functions

(a) r(t) =(log /, t, 12 )

2 (d) r(t) -== ( 1 2 , 1l, cost )
(c) r(t) = (sin tcos t, cos t, sint }

(c) r(tJ =(s int, - J,e3 '}

 l
: '
'
I 156 . Calculus
I
i !~
'.,

·ll SOLUTION (a} r'(t) = !!__logt, !!_(t), !!__(t 2 )) =

( dt dt dt
(!, 2,)
t
1,

.I ']f' (b) r'(t) = -(I

d
( dt
3
), -(31
d
di
2
), -d -
di 6
(1 J/ = (31 , 61, -12
3
2
2
)

(c) r'(t) = !!__(sinlcosl), !!_(cos 2 t), !!_sin1)

t ( dt dt dt
.!
l _(cos~t-sin 2 t, ._- 2s_intcost, cost)= (cos21,-sin2t, cost)
. -
4
d d \ .d .). . . .
lf (d) r'(t) = ( -(t 2
), -(1 3
), -(cost} = (21, )1
2
, .:...sint)
di dt dt

(e} r'((J = ( !!__(sint), _!!__(-1), !!__(e3')) = (cost, 0, 3e3')- -

dt dt dt ·
The following theorem shows that many of the rules of differentiation for real-valued functions

jl
l.
have their analogs for vector-valued functions.

' THEOREM 7.3 · Differentiation Rules

Let u(t)and v(l)be differentiable vector-valued functions, let/(t)be a differentiable scalar-valued
function, let c a constant vector, a~d let le be a scalar. Then the following rules of differentiation
hold.
d Cons.tant Function Rule
1. -(c)= 0
di
d Scalar Multiples Rule
2. (a) -[ku(t)}=ku'(t)
dt
' d
,, (b) -[/(t)u(t)}= f'(t)u(t)+ f(t)u'(t)
dt
d .
Sum Rule
3. -(u(t)+ v(t)]= u'(t)+ v!(t)
di
d Difference Rule
4. -[u (t)- v(t)J = u'(t)- v'(t)
di
d Dot Product Rule
5. -[ u (I}· v(I)} = u'(t) · l'(t) + u(t) · v'(t)
dt .
d Cross Product Rule
6. - [ u (I) X v(I)] = u'(t) X >'(I)+ u(I) X v'(t)
dt

7. ~(u(/(1))}= u'(f(t))J'(t) : Chain Rule

dt
The proofs of Rules 6 and 7 are given below. The proofs of the remaining rules are ldt as
exercises to the readers.
 157

P,oof of th~ Dot Product Rult~

Let

Then
u (I) 11 (t)i • u,(tli + ui(l)k
1
nnd • (1) = v1(t)i + vi(t)j + v,(t)k
~,
d
-;- lU · l') -
ut
=-
-J (u1l·1 +11 2v2 +u 1vJ.)
dt
uj v, + 11 1 "'1 + "2 V2 + 11 2 vi+ tl3 YJ + U3 vj (Rearranging terms)
-~bf
= (u~ v
1
➔ u' v + uj v3) + (u 1 v\ + u2 v2+ u/3}
2 2
= u' · l' + 11 • v'

Proof of the Chain Rule

Let u(t) = u1(t)i + u2(t)j + u/t)k
⇒ u(f(t)) = u (f(t))i + u2(f(t))j + u3'J(t)}k
1

⇒ :, [ u(f(t))} ~ :Ju, (f (t)}Ji + :, [u, (j<t) )Ji + :, [u, (f (t))]k (Derivative of a sum)
~ u',if(t)) j'(t)i + u;if(t)) J'(t)j + ujif(t)) J'(t)k (Ordinary Chain Rule)
~ (u;lf(1)); + u;if@j + u;if(t) )kJJ' (t) (Taking J' (t) common)

= u'(f(t)) f'(t)-.

EXAMPLE 15 For the vector-valued functions given by

u(t) = t; + i1 j-t3 k and v(t).= sirit i + 2 costj + co~t k

compute ths following derivatives:

d
d (c) -[u(t)x v(t)}
!!_[1 2u(t}]
(b) -[u(t)•v(t)] dt .
(a) dt
dt
(Product Rule)
SOLUTION (a) !!_[,
dt
2 2 2
u(t)] =!!_(t )u(t)+t !!_(u(t))
dt dt
2
= 2 t (t i + t2 j - t 3 k) + t 2 (i + 2 t j - 3t k)

= (2t 2 i + 2t 3 j - 2t 4 k) + (t 2 i + 2t 3 j - 3t-' k)
4
= 3t 2 i + 4t 3 j - 5t k

d . (Dot Product Rule)

(b) -(u(t) •v(I)} = u'(t) · v(t) + u(t) · v'(t) ·
dt
~ (i + 2t j - 3t 2 k) •(sint i + 2cost j + cost k)-~ (ti+ 12 j- t 3 k) · (cost i- 2sint j - ·sint k)
3
= (sint + 4t c?st - 3/ 2 cost}+ (t cost~ 2tJ sint + t siut)
= (I - 2 t 2 + 13)sin t + (5t - 3t 2)cost
Note that the same result wilt be obtained if we first compute u • v and then differentiate.
 158
Calculus
d .
(c) dt [u(t)xv(t)] = u'(t) x v(t) + u(t) x v'(t) · .

= (i + 2tj- 3t2 k) x (sin/ i: 2costj + cost k) +(Ii+ t2 j- 13 k) x (cost i- 2srntj- sint k)

I j k j k
= l 21 -31 2 + t t2 _,3
sint 2cost cost cost -2sint -sint

= [(2t cost+ 6t2 c~st)i - ·(cost+ 3t 2 ~int)j + (2cost~ 2t sint)k] +

(-t 2 sint - 2t 3 sint)i - (-t sint + t 3 cost)j + (-2t sint- t 2 cost)k
= (2t cost+ 6t2 cost - t2 sint - 213 sint)i + ·(-cost - 3t2 sint + t sint - t3 cost)j
+ (2cos t - 2 t sin t . :. . 2 t sin t - t2- cost) k ·
= [2t(l + 3t)cost- t 2 (1 + 2t)sin t] i + [-(1 + t3)cost + t(l - 3t)sint]j
+ [(2 - t.2 )cos t - 4t sint] k
Note that the same result will be obtained if we first compute u x v and then differentiate.

EXAMPLE 16 Given a vector-valued function u(t) = t 2 i + 5tj + k, and a scalar-valued function

/(t) = e 3 ', compute
d d
(a) -[f(t) u(t)] (b) - [ u (f (t))]
dt dt

SOLUTION. We have/'(t) = 3e 3' and u'(t) = 2t i + 5 j

(a) ~[f(t) u(t)] = f '(t) u(t) + f(t) u'(t) (Product R~le)

dt
= 3e 3 '(t 2 i + St j + k) + e 3'(2t i +·5 J)
= e3'(2t + 3t 2 )i + e 3 '(5 +15 t) j + 3e 3' k
l

(b) ~[ u (/{t))] = u'(f(t)) f '(t) (Chain Rule)

dt

I
1
DEFINITION Smooth Curve
= (2e 3 ' i + 5 j) (3e 3') = 6e 6' i + 15e ' j.

A curve represented by the vector-valued function

3

r(t) = (/(t). g(t),

h (t))
is said to be sm~otb on an open interval I if f', g' and h' are continuous and r '(I) "F Oon cbat
interval.
R~mark It may be remarked that ~mooth curves have no cusps or com«:~.
 159
Jt·ctar-Viilucd Functions
The Derivative as a Tangent -Vector
1/
TI1c dc:rivativc vector r '(t) has an important geometric significance: C is the graph of a
snwoth rcctor-wlucdfu11ctio11 r(t), then r'{t) is a vector tangent to C and points
\
in the direction
ofincreasing parameter.
To understand this, consider the graph C of a smooth vector-valued function r(t). ·
z
r(t + M)-r(I)
=
p

y
X
_hi> 0
X M>O
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 7.3
Let P be a point on this curve, associated with _position vector r(t) and let Q be a nearby point
associated with the position vector "r(t + t:.t), where t:.t -:t:- 0 is a small increment The difference
· t:.r = r(t + t:.t)- r(t) is the vector PQ. Notice that when t:. tis positive, the vector 6.r = r(t + ~t)- r(t)
points forward in the ~irection of move~ent of the curve with increasing t. Thus in this case, the
tir
quotient, t:. t , being a positive scalar multiple of t:.t, also points forward (see Figure 7.3).

z - r{l + 61)-r(t)
Q

y
tJ<O .-r
X
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 7.4
When !J.t is negative, the vector 6 r = r(t ➔ 6t) - r(t) points bad;.wa1d in the opposite direction
6r . .
and hence in this case, the quotient, M,
being a negati,•c scalar multiple of A,. once aga111 p(llllts

forward (see Figure 7 .4). So in both cases. the vector

160 Calculus

r (t + 111)- r (t)
= ~t
points forward in the direction of motion of the curve with increasing parameter t.
z
limit as~ ➔ 0
p
_..,.._,__ ,. r'(t)

y
X

FIGURE 7.5-
As 6t approaches zero, 6r also approaches zero but the quotient ~r/6t approaches a vector
r'(t). The vector r'(t) is nonzero, tangent to C, and points in the direction-of increasing parameter
(see Figure 7.5). We refer to r'(t) as the tangent vector to Cat P. Normalizing the vector r'(t ),
we obtain a unit vector
r'(t)
T(t) = llr'(t)~

that is tangent to C and points in the direction ofr'(t). We call _T(t) the unit tangent vector to Cat L

DEFINITION Unit Tangent Vector

If C is the graph- of a smooth vector-valued function r(t), 'then the unit tangent vector to<;: ~t
t is defined as
r'(t}
T(t) = lr'(OI
The unit tangent vector T(t} is tangent to C and points in the direction of increasing parameter.
the.graph of r(t) = (10, 3cost, 3sint) where
EXAMPLE 17 , the unit tangent vector to
Find
0~ t~ 2n at t = 1t.
SOLUTION We have
r'(t) = (0, -Jsint, 3cost)

I r'(t) I = Jo + (-3sin 1)
2 2
+ (3cost)2 = J9(sin t + cos
2
1) = 3

Hence, the unit tangent vector at t is

) (O . )
T(t) = Ir'(:)
r'(:)
I = -3I (0, -3smt,
·. 3cost = , -sm,, cost
·
 161

iec tor -Va luc d Fu nct ion s

tor at t =1t is
In particular, the unit tangent vec
T(n ) = (0, -si n rr, cos1r).
= (o, 0, -1 )
2 stj + 2 sin t k
the uni t tan gen t vec tor of the curve r(t ) = t i + 2 co
EX AM PL E 18 Find
SO LU TI ON We have
r'( t) = 2t i- 2 sin tj + 2 co st k
2
~r '(t )i = Jc2t) 2 2
+( -2s int ) +( 2c ost )

·tJ ~
2
2 2 2
J4 r +4 = 2-J, ·+1
= J4r +4 (si n t+ co s
2

is
Thus, the un it tan gen t vector
. t . sin t . co st k
r'( t)
T(t ) = II r'( t) ~ = .,J;z;i' - J,2 + 1 J + J12 + i -

7. 5 MO TI ON IN SPACE
by a vec tor -va lue d
tio n of a par tic le alo ng a smooth curve that is des cri bed
Let us con sid er the mo cri bed by r is
z(t ) ), wh ere the par am ete r t denotes time. Th e pa th des
fun cti on r (t) = (x( t), y(t ), ng its trajectory, its
or tra jec tor y _o f the par ticle_ As the par tic le mo ves alo
the po sit ion fun cti on T(t ). Th e
t of tim e t is the dir ect ion of the un it tan gen t ve cto r
instan
dir ect ion of mo tio n at any po sit ion fun cti on
tic le at tim e I is def ine d to be the rate of cha ng e of the
ins tan t vel oci ty of the par
with res pec t to time.· Th at
is,

= dr = (x' (t) , y'( t), z'( t)J

vel oci ty = v(t ) dt
loc ity ve cto r :
tic le at tim e t is def ine d to be the ma gn itu de of its ve
The ins tan t spe ed of the par
2 2
(z'(t)}2 ,
spe ed = ~v(t)~ = J(x'(t)) +{ y'( t}} + .rr ~
v(t ) po int s in the dir ect ion
of mo tio n of the ~ ':
e, the vel oci ty vec tor

~, I
of tim
Ob ser ve tha t at an y ins tan t
rhat is equal to its speed.
par tic le an d has a ma gn itu de
of ch an ge of the vel oci ty:
rat ion of the par tic le at time t is de fin td to be rat e
Th e ins tan t acc ele
dv d r
-
2

acc ele rat ion = a (I) == -dt = dt2

.
I
DEFINITIONS Velocity, Sp
eed , Ac cel era tio n
ticl~ moving along a curv~ in
space,
I
If r (t) ;.:; (x(I), y(t ), z(r )) is the po sition fun ction of a par
tant acceleration of the p..,,wL
·
.... · Iea t time ta rt 4~ I
~,
ocity, ins tan t spe ed ancJ ins IC
then the instant vel
defined by
 162 Calrt.1/u~

velocity = l'{t) = ~ : (x'(t), y'(I), z'(I))

. dt

speed = ~ v (t}I == ( x' (t) )2 + (y' (t) )2 + {z' (t) )2

2
. = a(t) = -dv = -d r = (x "()
acceleration I , Y "()
I , z "(t )}
· dt dt 2

EXAMPLE ~9 Find the velocity, speed and acceleration of a particle that moves along a curve in
space described by the position vector . .
r(t) = 3cost i + 3sintj + t 2 k, 0 -~ / ~ .47t
_ Also, find the times, if any, when the particle's acceleration is orthogonal to its velocity.
(Delhi. Univ. GE-1, 2015]
SOLUTION Wehave

velocity =' v(t) =

dr = - 3sml
dt · .1· + 3 cost J· + 2t k

speed = llv(t)jj = ✓(-3sint) 2 2

+ (3cost) + (2t)
2

= ✓9sin 2 t + 9cos 2 t + 4t 2 = J9 + 4t
2

a(t) = -dv = - 3 cost 1. :_ 3 smt

acceleration =
. J. + 2k
dt .
To find the times when v and a are orthogonal, we look for values oft for which
v·a =0 i.e., 9 sint cost - 9 cost sint + 4t = 0
⇒ 4t = 0 or t =0
Thus, the only time the acceleration vector is orthogonal to its velocity is when t = 0.

Vector-Valued Functions of Constant Length

THEOREM 7.4 Vector-Valued Functions of Constant Length

Ifr(t) is a differentiable vector-valued function oft of constant length, then r(t) is orthogonal
to r'(t) for all t.

PROOF Suppose that Ir (t) I = c for some constant c

r(t) · r(t) = Ir(I) r : : c2

d d 2
d,[r(t) · r(t~] = dt (c ) = O

r'(t) • r(t) + r(t) • r'(t) = 0 (Dot Product Ru/.:)

 J('Ch>r-J'a/ucd nmctioTLS

⇒
163
2 r'(t ) · r(t) =0
⇒ r(t) · r'(t ) =0
Fro m this it follows tha t r(t) is orth
ogonal to r'(t ) for all t.
No te Ob ser ve tha t the abo ve
the ore m has ·som e geo met ric sign
i r (t)\I= c, wh ere c is a constant, then the cur
ific anc e. Firs t, not e tha t if
ve trace'd out by r (t) lies on the· sph
cen tere d at the origin. Thu s, geomet ere of radius c,
rically, The ore m 7.4 says tha t if the
sph ere with cen ter at the origin, the gra ph of r(t) lies on the
n the tan.gent vec tor r'(t ) is orth ogo
r(t) at eve ry poi nt on the curve. nal to the position vec tor

EX AM PL E 20 Sho ~ tha t the

vector r(t) = cost i + ✓3j + sin t k has con stan t length and
orth ogo nal to its derivative. is

SO LU TIO N Giv en =
r(t ) cos t i + ✓3j + sin t k
⇒ ~r( t)\l = ✓co.s2 t+3+sin 2 t = ✓4 =2
Thu s, the vec tor r(t) has con stan
t length. Further,
_r'(t ) = -si nti + cos tk
r(t ) · r'(t ) = -si nt cos t+ sin t cos
t= 0
Hen ce the vec tor r(t) is orth ogo
nal to r'(t ).

· fit~ i;1 -? } j~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~f1g1fg 5pgf ~

1. Fin d the dom ain of the following
vec tor- val ued functions.
(a) r(t) = sint i + log (2 - t)j + ✓t k
(b) r(t) = M ; + e 1 j + cost k
\
(c) r(t) 2
= ,/4-1 i + .Ji j- .J I
k
l+t
2. Evaluate eac h of the foll owi ng limits.

(a) hm r(t) = t 2 i + e' j

,_ .o r(t) , where + 2co st k

(b) lim r(t) , where r(t) ==sin 21; t· COS I j + r k

I-•• ~

(c) lim r(t).

l➔O
wh ere r(t) ;::; ,:2'; + log(r + l)j + 4k
(d) lim ,(1) , where r(t) =(t 2, l -1, ( ·l)
I .....,
 Calculus

: .
, I
164
3. Differentiate each of the following functions.
I
3
.,; I (a} r(t) == ti+ t 2 j - t k ·
I'
l I
:1 '· (b) r(t) ;= sint i + 2cost j + cost k
• I

(c) r(t) == ( 4, 3cos2t, 2sin3t)

'1
I

(d) r(t) == (1, t2, }ogt /

.:I
·, (e) r(t) ~ 3cost i + 3sint j + 1 k
2

\ '

Let _,(t) = (1 2, St, 1) and /(t) =e '. Compute:

3
4.
d d
(b) - [ r(J(t)}}
(a) -[/(t} r(t)) dt · .
dt

5. Let u(t) = (t2, 1; 21) and v(t) = (1, 2, e') ..Compute:

d d
(a) -[u(t) · v(t)l (b) -[u(t) x v(t)]
dt · dt
6. Find the unit tangent vector for each of the following parametrized curves.

(a) r(t}=2costi+2sint,j+ ✓Stk, 0 5 t 5 7t

(b) r(1)=(tsint+cos1)i+(tcos1-sint)j, ✓2 5 Is 2
3
(c) r(I) == 61 3 i - 21 3 j- }t k, l 5 I s 2

(d} r(t) = cos 3 t j + sin 3t k, 0 5 I s n/2

(e) r(t) = (8, cos 21, 2sin 21), 0 5 ts 21t

7. In each of the following problems, r(I) is the position of a particle in space at time t. Find
. the particle's velocity, speed and acceleration at an arbitrary time t.

(a) · r(t) =ti+ 1 2 j + t 3 k

(b) r(t) = (3sint, 5cost, 4sint)

(c) r(t)=(3+1, 2-41, 1+61)

(d) r(t) = (1, 12 , e-')

(e} r(t) = (t + I) i + (t 2 - I )j + 2 t k
(f} r(t) = 3cost i + 3 sintj + t 2 k

I
 t65
Vector-Valued Functions 4lJ.

1. (a} [O, 2} (b) (-co, l}

(c) [O, 2} l
II:i
(9, -2, ½)
l. (a)j +2k

3. (a) i + 2 tj - 3t:k
(b) -j+r ck
(c) i + 4k

(b} cost i- 2sin tj-s intk

(cf)

•--
{c) (0, - 6sin 2t, 6cos3t}
(e) -3 sint i + 3 cost j + 21 k
1
6 3
3 3
(a) ((31 2 +2t) e ' , (15t+5)e ', 3e3') (b) (6e ', 15e ', o)_ .
4.
· (b) (e 1 - 4) i- [te (t + 2) - ·_2 ].j +
1 41 k _ I
5. (a) 2(t + I) (e 1 + I)

2 . . ✓5 k
. 2
ij
(b) costi - sintj
6. (a) --sm t, +-c ost J + - 3
3 3

(c)
6.
-l - -
2 .
J - -
3k (d)- -cos tj + sintk I
7 7 7
(o, -2si n2t, 2cos 2t) I
(e) J1 + 3cos 2 2t
I
·r.-
2 4
2 lvi= Jl+4 t +_9t ; a=2 j+6 tk
7. (a) v;,i +2t j+3 t k;
~vi~ s·; a= (-3~ int, -5co st, -4si nt}
(b) v = (3cost, -5si nt, 4cos t)

(c) v= (1, -4, 6}

(d} v = (o, 2t, -e-')

lv~= ✓53; a=( 0,O ,0}

~v~ = ✓41 2 +e-2' ; a= (o, 2, e-') . •

~
(e) v=i +2t j+2 k; lv~= ✓5+4t 2 ; a=2 j

(f) v = - 3 sin ti + 3 cos t j + 2 t k ; lv~= ✓9+4t 2 ; a=- 3co sti- 3sin tj+2 k

7.6 INTEGRALS OF VECTOR-VALUED FUNCTIONS

~ ,' .
.I-~
Recall that for a scalar-valued fonc tion/ (t), we say
that a scalar-valued function F(t) is an
antiderivative of/ whenever F '(t) == f(t). We now exten
d this notion to vector-valued functions
t~.~ ~ f '
in the following definition.
~ I,
..... _ l l '
_r:__J'
 Calculus
J66

DEFINITION Antiderivative of a Vector-Valued Function

~ antiderivative of a vector-valu~d function r (t) is a differentiable vector-valued function

R(t) such that R'(t) = r(t).

Notice that if r(t) =f(t}i + g(t)j + h(t)k, then an antiderivative of r(t) is:
R(t) = F(t}i + G(t}j + H(t)k
. . .

where .F(t), G(t), H(t) are antiderivatives of f(i), g(t)and h (t); respectively because
R'(t) = F'(t)i + G'(t)j + H'(t)k- = f(t)i + g(t.)j + i, (t)k = r(t}.
In fact, ( F (t) + cl' G(t) + c2, H(i) + c3) is also an antiderivative of r(t) .. For example, an
antiderivative of r (t) = ( t, t 2, t 3 ) is R (t) ~ ( t 2 I 2, t3 / 3, t 4 14 )·. ·
Note If R(t) 1s an antiderivative of r(t), then for any constant vector c, we have
d .
dt [ R (1) + c] = R' ( t) + 0 ~ r ( t)

Therefore, R (t) + c is a_lso an antiderivative of r (t ). This motivates the following definition :

DEFINITION Indefinite Integral

If R(t) is an antiderivative of r(t), then the indefinite integral of r(t), denoted by Jr(t )dt,
is defined as

Jr(t)dt ~ R(t) + c
where c is an arbitrary constant vector.

Note Note that

Jr(t )dt =.J(/(t), g(t), h (t) )dt = ( ff (t}~t, Jg(t)dt, Jh (t)dt)

That is, to integrate a vector-valued function, we need only integrate each of its individual
components.

EXAMPLE 21 Evaluate the indefinite integral J(ti+ cos 21 j + 2sin I k )dt.

SOLUTION J(ti+ cos2t j + 2sint k )dt

;; (Jt dt ) i_+ ( Jcos 2t dt) j + ( J2sin t dt ) k
 167
Vec,tor-Valued Fune.lions

12 1 ·· 2 • 2 t k +
= · - I• + -Sill t J - COS C,
2 .2
where c = c 1 i + c2 j + c3 k is an arbitrary constant vector~

Note Readers are advised to suppn;ss constants c , c and 3 and append the constant vector cat
1 2
c
the end of the calcuiation. · · ··

EXAMPLE 22 A particle moves in space in such a way that its velocity is v(t) = i + t j + t 2k.
Find the particle's position as a· function oft given that the particle is at the point (-1, 2, 4) .at time t;:; 0. ·.

SOLUTION 011r objective is to find r(t) knowing · ·

dr -
v(t) = dt i + t j + t 2k ... (I)

subject to the condition that

..

r(O) =-i +2j+4k

Integrating both sides of th·e equation (I) with respect to t gives
. · 2 3
r(t) J
= v(t)dt = f(i + t} + t k) = ti +
2 3
2
k + c, ... (2)
1
j +
1

where c is a vector constant of integration. To determine c, we use the fact that r(O) =-i + 2j + 4k.
Thus, substituting t = 0 into equation (2), we obtain
_r(O} = c
⇒ C =.:....j +2j+4Ji
Substituting this value of c in equation (2) yields

. . t • t . .
r ( t) = ( t, + -1
2 3 )
+ - k + (- i + 2 j + 4 k)
· 2 - 3

.= . + ('22 + )'j + ('33 +· )

(t-l)i 2 4 k

. .

EXAMPLE 23 Solve the following initial value problem for r as a function of time t.

. Differential equation di, ·= 32k

dt 2

Initial conditions r(O) =100k and (d').

dt t =O
= 8i +8j (Delhi Univ. GE-1 , 20161

SOLUTION It is asked to find r(t) knowing _

· .r . I . d2r
D111erenha equanon : - - = 32k
d12
 7
I

Calcului
168

Initial conditions : r(O)

.
dook .and ·(d')
dt 't=O
= Si +8j
.

Integrating both sides of the. difTerential equation with. respect to t gives

. ' .
.. .

dr · ·
-= 32tk + c1
dt
. . .. . . - , dr - - . -. .. ·
· where c, is a vector constan:t of integration. Evaluating· -d at I= 0, we obtain
I \ . I

⇒
ci = 8i + 8j (using initial condition}

dr = Si +8j + 32t k
dt ·

Integrating both sides of this last equation ~ith respect to t gives

r(t) =8ti_+8tj+ 16t2k+c2
where c is a vector constan~ of integration. Evaluating r(t) at t = 0, we obtain
2
r(O) = c ⇒ c = JOO k (using initial condition}
2 2

I
I
r(t) = (8ti + 8tj + 16t2 k) + wok
l =8ti + &tj + (16t2 + l·OO)k
! EXAMPLE ·24 Suppose a person on a hang glider is spiraling upward due to rapidly rising air on

'' a path having acceleration vector a(t) =-3- cost i -Jsin t j + 2 k. It is also known_that initially (at
!
1

! time t = 0), the glider departed irom the point (3, 0, O} with velocity v(O) = 3 j. Find the glider's ,
·position as a function oft. ·

SOLUTION It is asked to find r(t} knowing

I d ' 3
2
. 3 : . 2k
.

t Differential equation : a= - 2 = - cost 1 - ·smt J +

dt
I
Initialconditions : v(O) = 3.j and r(O) := ~ i + 0j + 0 k

Integrating both sides of the·diff-erential equation with respect to t gives

v(t} = -3 _sin ti+ 3 costj +.2tk + c1·

where c is a vector constant of integration. Evaluating v at t = 0, we obtain

I
v(O) = -3 sinOi + 3 cosOj +Ok+ c 1
Jj =3j+c 1 . ⇒ c1 =0
⇒ v(t) = -3 sinti + 3 costj + 2tk

Integrating both sides of this last equation witn respect to , gives

2
,(I) =3 cosli + 3 sintj + t k + Ci
 169

ion.t
firtor-Value d Fim ct 0, we obtain
t:m l of in1cg ra1ion. Evaluati11g r(t) at I ~
where c2-is a vector
cons
r(O ) "" 3 co sO i +
Ji ::: Ji + c 2 ⇒
3 sin OJ+ Ok + c 1
c2 =_0
cl
t) = 3 co st i + J si
nt j + t 2 k.
⇒
r(
tion
gr al of a Vector-Valued func en
DEFINITION D ef in ite In te
c integr able ov er the interval [a, b}. Th
g an d/ , ar
)j + h( t) k, where/,
Let r( t) =f( t) i + g (t fined as
fi ni tr in tr gr al of r from a to h is de
the dr

l r(t)dt = (! f( t) d J + (! g (t )d } + [! h (t )d i}
vector whose
ed fu nction r( t) is simply the
finite integral of a ve ctor-v alu · ·
!n other words, the de sp onding co m po .nents of r(J ).
the corre
definite integrals of
components are the continuous on
r V ec tor-V alued fu nc tio ns If r( t) is
re m of Calculus fo
fu nd am en ta l Th eo en .
(t ) is an an tiderivative of r( t) th
[a, bJ and R
b
fr(t)dt = R (b )- R (a )
3
f integrals.
t PLE 25 Evaluate the following definite
EXAM
j I

I_, (
f(li + 2t j +·3t k fdt
2 2
2 (bJ . i + t j + 3t k )d t
l (a)
0

I 4
I(

2t k) dt
f (sec
l( /

t (d) J( co st i + j -
ti- :- 2c os tj - k )d
2

I
~n d}
(c) 0
' 0

II
SOLUTION (a )
j(li + 21 j + 31
2
k =(l
)dr ld J + (l 21d} 31 2

= 1[; i+ 1
2
t: j+1J.1:k = 2 i+ 4 j+ 8 k
I Al te rn at iv e AJ et ho d

I I(li + 21 j -f, 3t
2
k )d t = Ii + ,2 j + 13 k + c

ental TI1eorem, we
have
ore, us in g fu nd am
TI1 cref
i
[(li+2tj ➔ 3r2k)dr
2 3 ;
= (r i+ t j+ t k~

I
 -
170 ,.· Calculus
k)
= (2 i+ 4j +8 k) - (0 i+ 0f +0

= 2i + 4j + Bk , same as before

(11d,} + (13t2 d+ ·
(b) j( i+ tj + 3rk)dt =(J. ld+ +

. . I
· I . t2 3 I
. ] + t f_ 1 k_.
0

=- It +-
-I l . : 2
-I

~ .[1 -(- l)) i + [.!2.._.!_

2
]I~ [1 -(- l)} k

= 2i + 2k

(c) [\sec ti - 2costj - )dt =Cfsec

2
k
2
}- (T2cos1d}- Cf1d}
rr./4. - . lrr.'4 . t1
.,4 k
= tan t lO 1 - 2 sm t O J - O

,. ( rap ;-1ano}-+n ;-sino}-(;-o}

.. . 1tk
2 I J- . ~2 . 1t
=l- ~ - =t -v LJ -- k·
v2 4 4
.

(d) l(costi - j- 2t;)dt = (lcos1d}+ (Id}- (l21d}

= sin t /; i + J 1; j - t
2
1: k
sin 0)i + (it - O) j- (n ~ O}k
2
= (sin n -
2 -n2 k
=( 0- -0 )i+ 1t j-1 t k = · nj

the folJowing functions.

1. Compu_te·the indefinite integrals of
(b) r(t ) = sin i i + cos t j + 2t k
(a) r(t ) = i + tj +3 t 2 k 2 tk
(d) r(t )= (t+ l)i +( t - l)j +2
(c) r(t )= :c os ti+ j-2 tk

(e) r(t ) = (e', e-1

, 3t
2
)

definite integrals.
2. Ev alu ate each of the following
I
)
)dt (b) J(, 2; + e ' j - 2c osn tk )dr
(a) J( 3t 2 + 2j + (t - 3)k
0
0

I
• .1 \Vector-Valued Functions - 171

J(1-t i + ·1 ).dt
i.-.j +-:-k
4 I
(c)
. I _5 t ~ 21 . _
(t!) J(e2' i + e- 1
j + 2_
tk)d~ .
0 .

3. Solve the following initial value problems for r as a function oft.

(a) Differential equation: dr =-Ii - t j - t k · ·

· . dt
Initial condition: r(O) = i + 2j + 3k

(b) Differential equation: dr = (t 3 + 4t)i + t j +

' dt ·
2; 2
ic
Initial cqndition : · r(O} = i + j

(c) Differential equation: dr = t 2 i + St j +k

· dt
Initial condition : r(l) = j + 2k
· d 2r
(d) Differential equation: - 2 = -32k
dt ·

Initial conditions : r(O) = IOOk -and -dr). . = 8.l + 8 J.

(
dt t=O
2
d r- . .
(e) Differential equation : - 2 =- , - J- k
- dt

Initial conditions : r(O) =· lOi-i.IOj + 10k and (dr)

dt t= o
=O

2
. t • 3 k
1. (a) I I + ~ J + I +C ' ( b) - cost i + sin t j + t 2 k + c

(c)sinti+1j:...1 2 k . (d) ('>} + ('; - } + h +c

(e) ( e1 , - e_, , t3 ) + c

2. (a) I. + 2 J. _--;_5 k (b) !;+(e-

3
l)j
.
2

(c) log 4 ( i + j + 1k) (d) (e: -'i }-c,- 1

+ I) j + A
- - -- - -··-···

.. f11 Cal&lii1

(b) r(t} = (': + 2t +

2
1} + (': +1} +i13k
( )
I
J -:- 31 1.+ (25t2. \ 2"3) J. +. t + I .k
I
. . (. t 3 } .
( c) r ( t'} · =

(cl} r(t}= 8ti+ 8tj+ (~l6 ti-+ lOO)k

. ,2) ~ +{~10- ,2)-j +(10- 12).k

(e) r(t} = 10~ ( 2 2 2

7.7 ARCLENGTH
curve
It may be recalled that the arc length L of a smooth parametric
x =f(t)., y = g(t) (a ~ t ~ b)

in 2-space is given by the fomiula

b
L = I (f'(t)} 2
+ (g'(t)}2 dt ... (I}
a

An analogous fonnula for the arc length L of a smooth param

etric curve

x = f(t), y = g(t), z = h(t) (a ~ t ~ b)

in 3-space is given by the formula

b- . . - - - - - - - - - -
2
. L = J (/' (t)-}2 + (g' {t)) + (h' (t) )2 dt ... (2)
. a
B)'.letting
r(t) = f(t) i + g(t)j (2-space) or r(t) =f(t} i + g(t}j + h(t) k (3-sp~ce}

we find that
r'(t} = f'(t) i + g'(t)j (2-space) or r'(t)·= f'(t) i + g'(t} j + lz'(t) k (3-spacc)
..,, .
and hence
2
or lr'(t)I = ✓(f'(t)) + (g'(t)}~ + (lr'(t)}
2
2
lr'(t) I = ✓(f'(t)) + (g'(t) )
2 .

us to define the arc Jength of a

Comparing these expressions with Fonnulas ( 1) and (2) motivates
smooth cUJYe described b.y a vector-valued function.
 .,.iL
,
-~
lfG"\

e
Ve.c,tor-Vah1ed Functions
$ ..,
t«t--.

.. -.\
~
h f a smo oth curv e t d function
gt o ·
DEHNITtON Arc Len vect or-v a ue .
(a ~ t ~ b)
. - ace). of a smo oth
. . (I) • + h(t) k
If C is the graph m 2-space (or 3. sp . (t) = f(t) I + g J . ~

r(t} = f(t) ; + g(t) J. or. from, - b .th

t = a to I - ' en J
·ts·arc leng
.
th L
.
is defi
.
ned
.
as
. ,,
.
. .. . . •
,......
.,
.
that is traversed exactly once as t increases

L=
b . b
JI r'(t) Idt = f (J'(t))2 + (g'(t)) dt
. 2
tt'-'
a .,.-.
a
tW

'l
or
~
·Q \
a

EXAMPLE 26 Find the arc length of the

circular helix given by

r(t) = cost i+ sint J+ t k, 0 $ 1 ~ 21t ~

{f9_,, ..,

g -.1
r(t) = cost i + sin tj + I k
SOLUTION
r'(t) = -sin t i + cos tj + k

⇒ ~r'(t}~ = ✓(-sint}2' + _(cost)

2
+ I = ✓2

Tnus, the arc ·length of the helix is

L =
2x . 2n
J~ r'(t)II dt = J✓2dt = 2✓21t
0 0
:J
Arc Length Parametrization
vY 4,1;
ways. For example, the vector-valued fun
ctions II
e in spa-ce can be parametrized in many
A curv

that r2( t) = r 1( e ).· Tha t is, r2 is .

11 _,
sam e c1:1rve - twis ted cubic curv e. Not ice
both p~ tri ze the
starting with any parametrization r(t), a
new ·

d
= in r (t). In gen eral,
obtained by substituting t eu 1
g a sub stitution t =·g(u}, that iss by replacing r(t) with
•~ .. ·;I
param~tri7.a'tion can be obta ined by ~in
r 1(u) - r(g( u)). ve rse s~ _
er that 'a paramet ri7.a tion r(t) desc ribes not just a curve, but also how a particle tra
.Rememb nging'~ )
up, slow ing dow n, or reversing the direction along the way. Cha

.>:
the curv e, poss ibly spee ding f
curve.
met ri'za tion amo unts to desc ribin g a different way oftrav~rs1ng the same underlying
the rara
para ~etr izin ~ a path is to cho ose a st_arti?g point and walk along the path at the
_One way of th
spee d of one unat per seco nd. A para metnz.at10n of this type is called an arc leng
cons tant • --:-,
parametrizatio n.

r 11
'°fi"' ,,\
11 7

f , \ , ! 'I . • · ,Ca/cu/us, >

=4

s=O
0
tors have../e11gt/1 J,so speed is l .
A11 ~ length parametrization: A~/ tangent v_ec
FIGURE 7.6
. An arc length
met er in an .arc leng th para met riza tion
The lette r "s" is ofte n use d as_the para constant value 1.
para met riza tion r(s) of a curv e 'is char acterised by the property- that the spee d has
1 ·
Tha t is,
Ir' (s) I~ I for 'all s
rval [a, b] is
that in an arc leng th para met riza tion , the distance traveled ove r any •tim e inte
Not ice ·
equ al to the leng th of the inte rval :
. b b

Dis tanc e trav eled ove r [a, bJ: : . Hr'(s) !Ids = J1ds = b- a
a
a

Par am etri zat ion

Pro ced ure for find ing an ·Arc .Length
me that
Con side r a curv e C with para met riza tion
r(t), for ( ~ a, whe re tis a parameter. We assu
met riza tion of C.
proc edu re for finding an arc leng th para
r ',(t) :t: 0 for all t. We now outl ine the
length function defined by
Step l To find the arc leng th function. The first step is to find the arc
I

s ~ g(I ) = Hr' (u) ~du

a
for the
the function s, so a different sym bol u is used
Notice that / is the inde pen den t vari able of
vari abk of inte grat ion. The func tion s
= g(I) measures the . distance traveled during the time
in terv al [a, t]. 1
nd step is to find the inve rse of s = g(t) to get , = g- (s), · •
Ste p 2. To find the inverse of g. TI1e seco
1
of g (the exis tenc e g- is gua rant eed
by the fact that s = g(t) is an
whe re g - • is the inve rse
iocreasing fun ctio n bec ause Ir' (t) I > 0 for all 1).
t = g- '(s) in Lhe
triz atio n. The fina l step is to sub stitute
Step 3 . To find the Arc Len gth Par ame
length parametriza tion
original para metriza tion r(I) to obta in the arc.
r 1(s) :;;:: ,(g- 1(s))
t curv es in terms of arc leng th is diff
icult, _but not'
Rem ark 1n prac tice , repa ram en izin g mos I

later
leng th is us.e d as a para met er ro de~ne curv atUi e ond nonn:i l vector to be stud ied
always. Aic
in this cha pter. . _j
 175
Vector-Valued Functions
EXAMPLE17 Find the arc length parametrization_of the helix

r(t) =cos4ti+sin4tj+3tk, . 0 ~ t ~ 21t

SOLUTION Step 1 To find the arc length function
We, first, _evaluate the ~re length function; ·· ·

r'(t) = -4 sin4·r i +4cos4t j + 3k

. .

⇒ Jr'(t) ~ ~ ✓16sin 2 4t ~l6cos 2 4t ·+ 9 = ✓16 +9 = ../25 = 5 .

I I

: · s=g(t)=Jllr'(1.1)11du=J 5du=5t
0 0

Step 2. To find the inv·erse of g

We observe that the inverse of s = 5t is t = 15. . s

Step 3. To find the Arc Length Parametrization

Replacing t bys I 5 in the original function, we obtain the arc length parametrization

r(s) ·= r ( -s) =cos-

4s· ,. +sm-
. ,4s J. +-
3s k
. 5 5 5 5
Note Notice that the vector r(s) obtained in the preceding example has a unit speed:

. 4 : 4s . . 4 4s . 3k ·
r '(s) = --sm-1 + -cos-
. J +-
· ·· 5 · 5 · 5 s : ·5
⇒ - ~,'(s.)11 = .!i + .!i + ~
25 25 25
=r
EXAMPLE.28 Find an arc length p~rametrization of the line r(t) = r O+ tv, where the terminal
point of r0 is a point on the line and vis a vector parallel to the line.'
\
SOLUTION We have r'(t) = V ~ r'(t}! =IV t.
Thus, the .arc length function is

n n
. t t

s = g(t) = r'(u) ldu = V \\du-= I V l'

0 0

s
i.e., . ⇒
,= R
s .
II
Replacing t by v in the original function, we obtain the arc kngth parametrization

s .
r(s) = 'o + r;lv = 'o + su,
f76
I ' •' . • .
. . . .· Calculus
I

. ., .
. ' ~~- ~ .. ..
V

wher e ~ = I V ' is the unit vecto r paraUe~ to the l~e.

e r(t) = (a cost, asint7, O$t $ 21t,

EXAMPLE 29 Find an arc length parametrization of the circl
wher e a> 0.

SOL UTI ON \Ve have r'(t) = (-as ini;a cost )

.. Ir'(t) I= ✓a 2 sin2 t +·a 2 ·cas2 ·, = f:1 =a . (·:a> 0) ·•

Thus, the arc length function is :
I I

s = Hr'(u}!d~ = Jadu = at
0 .. 0

i.e .. s =at ⇒ t = sla

h parametrization of the circ,le- is
Repl acing t bys I a in the original func tio~ the arc, lengt

r(s) = . s)- ,
(acosas-, asm 0 :5 s :5 21ta
. a

curves.
1. Find the lengt h of the indicated portion of the following
(a) r(_t) = 2cos t i + 2 sintj + ✓Stk, 0 :5 t :5 1t

(b) r(t} =(co st+t sint )i+( sint -tco st)j, 0· :5 t :5 n/2
3 0 :5 t :5 7t/2
(c) r(t)= cos 3tj+s in tk,

(d) r(t} = 6t3-i - 2t j -

3 Jt3 k, l :5 t :5 2-

(e} r(t) = (4co st, 4sin /, 31}, 0 :5 t :5 61c

(I). r(t) = (cost, sint, t}, 0 :5 / :5 7t ·

(g) r(t) = (cos3 t, s~3t , 31), 0 :5 / $ 2x

= (2co st, 2sin t), 0:5t: 527t .

2. Find the arc length parametrization of the curve r(I)

( 2 · 2) ,
Find the arc length parametrization of th~ curve r(t) =
cost , sm t
3.
(cos4 t, sin4t , 31), t~O.
4. Find the arc Jeng thpar amet rizat iono ftheb elix r(t)=
(2co st, 2sint, 41), t ~ 0.
s. find the arc length parametr..zation of the curve r(t) =
 ~
1n ~
Vrctor-Va/ucd /•,mctions G
~
(d) 49
2 /8 (c) 3/2
1. (a) J,c (b) rr

(/) ./i 'It (g) 6./2 1(

(c) 301e
tf
2. r(s ) = ( 2c os f 2si n}).

= (co ss,
0 S s $ 4•

sins.), 0 ~ s ~ 1t
(~

3
3~ r(s )

4. r(s ) =(cos:', sin~, ~).

0

S 2'. 0
1< ~
,;Ii,
J
5 2v 5 .
2
2v5
;) , s~ O
r(s ) = (2c os sr; , 2si n sr; , v5
--~
,~(1:J
J
j
·
OR
INCIPAL UNIT NORMAL VECT
7.8 CURVATURE AND THE PR
sha rpl y a l.;:..
sid er the pro ble m of obt ain ing a numerical me asu re of how ~~
ln this section we will con .
··

I'
-
curve bends.
-va lue d ,.
oot h cur ve. that is des cri bed by a vec tor

J
a par ticl e alo ng a sm
Let us con sid er the motion of
·
function
r(t ) = ( x(t ), y(t }, z(t) ),
resent~ the
time t, the vec tor v(t ) = r'( t) rep
where the par am ete r t den
velocity of the particl e tha
ote
t
s
is
tim
tan
e:
gen
At
t
any
to C
ins
and
t vector
tan t
poi
of
nts in the dir ect ion of inc rea sin
g par am ete r. ~
~ J
J
r'(t ), we get the uni t tan gen
Normalizing
r'(t ) v(t} .
T (t) = ~ r'(t)-1 = ••(t}I I
that points in the
ve.ctor T turns as
dir ect
the
ion
cur ve
of the
ben
tan
ds.
gen
Sin
t
ce
vec tor r'(t ). As ~e particle mo ves
Tis a unit vector, i~ length doe s not
dir ect
alo ng its trajectory, the~
cha nge alo ng the
ion. A cha nge (in dir ect ion ) in
7 as _
J
nge is thr oug h a cha nge in
path. Th e onl y way T can cha and the mo re rnpidly T changes, the
(&
tha t the pat h is ben din g,
we move alo ng the path indicates

more the pat h ben ds. Th us, .

1l see ms th at -dT
~
I I.
. might be used to me asu re cur
vat ure . Howevecd...'
~

I: I depend s -0n how fast we move along the curve. If we move fosccr, the
unit taogenl ve ct o~

unit tan gent vec tor changes less

qui ckly. So

~
y, and if we mo ve slowe r, the
change s more qui ckl

I:I docs n<A simply dep end Che geo on

me hic pro per
s
ty of che curve buc ;1 depend 00
ho~

(e< J
1J !
 .Calculus) --
178 .
quick ly we move along the curve . llms, we assum e that the
particle is movi ng at unit speed a~d ~
of the unit tange nt vecto r with respe ct
defin e curva ture to be the magn itude of the rate of chang e
to arc lengt h.

DEFINITION Curvature
is
Let C be a smoo th cu~e that param ~trize d by r(s), wher
es is the arc length parameter. The

curva ture of C, denot ed by K, is defin ed by

K
,i .
= -
dT
ds
= II r"(s) II
wher e T is the unit tange nt vector. Th~ letter K used to .denote the curva ture is the lower case
· Greek letter ••kappa".

The above formu la implies that T -be expre ssed in terms of

s, the arc length, and hence
Remark
.
we must have the curve param etrize d in terms of arc length

Notic e that K(s) is a nonne gative real-v alued function_ ofs.

It varies from point to point along a
chang es direct ion quick ly at that point
curve . A large value of Kat a point indicates that the c~rve
tion slowly.
If K is small , then the curve is relatively flat and changes its ,direc
~ t ~.21t, where a> 0. Show that
EXA MPL E 30 Cons ider the circle r(_t) = (a cost, asint ),o
a is 1/a.
, . the curva ture of a circle of radius
K= 1/a. That is, show that ,

tion of a circle of radius a Wlth

SOL UTIO N It has alread y-bee n prove d _that _the parametriza
respe ct to arc length was

r(s) =(acos : , a sin :). 0 :5 s 5 2na

Thus ,
,
r ' {s)
s
= ( - sin ~, cos~
S.) and
-
_ s)
r "( = ( --l cos-s ,
a a
--sm
a
s)
1 . -
a

and hence

K = lr"(s)I ==

Thus the curva ture of a circle is constant.

. Curva ture is supposed to measure
Obse rve that the curva twe of a cirde is the inverse of its radius
a large curvature and vice-versa.
how sharp ly a curve bends . A circle with small radius will have

Note The defin ition for curvature works well when the
curve is parametrized with respect to arc
is -often diffic ult to find arc l~ngth
len gth, or when this can be done easily. In practi ce, it
des us two formulas for tl1c curYature
param etriza tion explicitly. Fortunately, the next theorem provi
in terms of a general param eter.
 179 .
Vi·clor~Valued Functions
THEOREM 7.5 Formulas for Curvature
by r(t), where t is any para met er. Then
the
Let C be a smooth curve thnf is parametrized
following formulas can be used to compute
K.

I T'(t) I
( I) K =
1,,c,>I
I r'(t) x r "(t) I
K=
(2) .
lr'( t) f
PRO OF (a) Using the chain rule, we have
,; :

dT dT ds · dT
dt = --;i;. dt = ~!r '(t) ~
dT . dT I dt T'(t )
-= = --
ds r
7
i
(t)! I I·
r'(t)

~ dT ! iT'(t )I
r Hence K = 11~11 =. llr'(t )II
(b) We have

I T t - r'(I)
<) - ·II r '(tYII
⇒ r'(t) = llr'( t)jjT (t)

I
~ Diff eren tiati ng With respect to t, we get

I r"(t ) = llr'(t )II' T(t) + llr'( t)I T'(t )

), we obtain
I Find ing the cros s prod uct of r '(t) and r "(t

I
r'(t )xr" (t) = . r'(t)
'
IT(t) x (I r'(t) ~, T(t) + Ir'(t) i T'(t))
. .

= Ir'(t )llr '(t) f (T(t)xT(t)) + lr'(t)t2{T(t)xT'(t))

. \ .

to
f is always zero, so this equa tion simp lifo:s
Sinc e the cros s prod uct of a vect or with itsel

r'(t )xr" (t) = Ir'(t )f (T(t) x T'(t))

.. ( 1)
⇒ I r'(t )xr" (t)I = Ir'(t )r I T(t) T'(t)I X

th and henc e by The orem 7.4, T(t ) and T '(t )

Because T(t) is~ unit vector, it has a constant leng
are orth ogo nal.

f T (t)x T'( t)I z fT(t)lfT '(l)f sin i = fT' (t)I

Sub stitut ing then into Eq. ( I) yit lds

I
l r '(t) x r "(t) I ;; lr ;(1)l 1 T '(l) I
180
· I· = ·.1::..i-'(t)
.T'(t) x r "(t}f
• Calculus
7
I
:
I
!

. . ._,- ---- -=-

⇒ I Ir'<1>f
Substituting this value into fonn ula (1 ), we get
I T'(t} I f
· r'{t) x r"(t) I-·
1( = -"--- -- =
Ir '(t}I I r'(t} f

EXAMPLE 3.1 . Find the curvature o( the m~e given by

r (t) = ( 2t, t'•~ f).
I, or Fonn ula 2. To illustrate the fonnulas, Jet's
SOL UTIO N We can find Kusing either Fonn ula
calcu late K using both methods.

Method 1 We use formula r = IT'(l) I _ We have

- Ir '(1> I
r '(t) = ( 2, 2t, -t 2 ),

⇒ lr'U>I = J4+41 2 4
+( = J(2+ ,
2
)2 = 2+1 2
. r'(t) (2,2 1,-1 2)· ( 2 ,..,, ' ,2 )
I
T (t) = r'(t}I· = 2 + /2 = 2 + /2 , 2: ,2 , - 2 + ,2 .

T'(t) · = l 2 (-41, 4-21 2

, -41)-
⇒ (2 2
+1 )

J161 2 + I 6 + 4t
4
- I6t 2 + I6t2
-
I T'(t) I = (2 +1 )2
2

✓4{t 4 +4l 2 .+4)

2
_ 2(2+ 1 ) _· 2
= 2 - 2---2
(2+1 2} (2+1 2) 2+1

K IT'(1)1
= = 2 •
It follows that 2
.: lr'(1)I (2+12) -

Ir'(I) x r "(I) f
Meth od 2 Here, we use fonnul-a K = Ir, (t} f
Now r"(t) = ( 0, 2, -2/)
 1-81

Vector- Valued Functi ons

; j
k .
-212; + 41 j + 4k
r'(I) X ,: "(t) ::: 2 21 -t2
0 2 -21 2

fu• + 1612 + 16
==. J4(; 4
_;
2
4t +_ 4} =_. 2(1 +2)
Ir'(t) X r"(l)I · ==
2 · · ; same as before.
Ir'(t) x r "(t) II _ · 2(1 2 +2) =

Thu~ K = t,'{i}il - (1' +2)3 (1' +2}2

. cost a sint, ct), where a, c > 0.
.. . (1) = (
EX.UIPLE 32 Find the curvature oflbe hehx ' .. [De1'.,. ~, - .· B' sc.nri Allied Courses 2015}
" vmv. . PA/ .

· • ♦. ula in this examp. le:

We'll use the fotlow mg curvature 10nn ·
SOLU TION
. ~ r'(t}·x r"(t) ~
K(t) = !r'(t) f
We have
and r"(t) = ( -a cost, -a sint, 0)
r'(t} = ( -a sint, a cost, c)
I. j k
2
-asint acqst C = (a c sin t }i - ·{acco st) j +a k
r'(t} x r "(t) =
-a cost ~asin t 0
2
⇒
~r'(t) x r"(t)i = J(acs int) +(-ac cost)
2
+a 4

2
Ja'c 2 (sin' 1-i-Cos' I}+ a4 =)a c + a' =a)a'-+ 1:
2 2
=

Also, ir'{t)I = J(-a sintf +(a cost}2_ + c .

2

= )a2 sin 2 t + a2 cos2 t+c = .Ja 2 2

+c
2
·

So,

I Note 1 Note that the value of K for the helix is independent oft, which
constant curvature.
means that the helix has

r.idius a wiili
Note 2 In the curvature fommla for helix, if c == 0, the helix becomes a circle of
K = Ila .

The next example shows that the curvatu~e of a straight line is zero.
 . ·J82 •·•-•., Calculus
E..-XA.i,trLE-33 Show that the curvature of a straight line is zero.

SOLUTION \Ve saw earlier in Example... that a line in space can be parametrized in terms of arc
length as
r(s) =r0 +su

where the terminal point of r1 is _a point on·the line and u is a unit vector parallel to the line. Since
rO and u are constant, their derivatives with respect to s .are .zero, and hence

⇒ r"(s) = .!!_ (r') = .!!_(u) = 0

ds ds .

K(s) = lr"(s)I = 0.

Principal Unit Normal Vector

Let C be a smooth curve that is parametrized by the vector-valued function
r(t) = (/(t), g(t), h(t)).
In Section 7 .3, we defined ·the unit tangent vector T (t) by
r'(r)
T(t) = II r'(t) I
Further, recall from Theorem 7.2 that if a vector-valued function r (I) has constant length, then
r(t) and r'(t) are ·orthogonal vectors. Since T(t} is a unit vector (and consequently bas the
constant length I), T (t) must be orthogonal to T '(t) for each t. We call T '(t) the normal vector to
Cat t. If T '(t) ~ 0, we can normalize T '(t) to obtain a unit vector
T'(i)
N (t) = IT'(I) II
that is nonnal to C and points in the same direction as T '(t). We call N (t} the principal unit
normtl vector to Cat t, or simply the unit normal vector.

DEFINITION Principal Unit Normal Vector

Let c be a smooth curve that is parametrized by th: vect or•valu~d fun~tion r (t). T~e-principal
1
unH normal vector at a point / on the curve at which T (I) ~ 0 1s a unit vector having the s.:;un~
diree,tioo as T '(t) and is defined by
T'(t)
N(t) !T'(t)I
- ----- _____ .. -- ------- -- -- ---- ___- --- -
:2:

.,.
. --- - -- -
Remark 1 1b e unit non nal vector is defined only at points where T '(1 ) ~ 0.
t
 Vector-Valued Functions 183 .

Remark 2 ln two dimensions, tJ1erc are two unit vectors that are orthogonal to T(t) and in three
dimensions there are infinitely many unit vectors orthogonal to T(t) (Figure 7.7).
y z

I
~ ---+------------~x >-----------_,.y

I
l
X

FIGURE 7.7
1.
It can be seen that the principal unit normal vector, N, always points "inward" toward the concave
J
1 side of the curve. That is, N(t) always points in the direction in which the curve is turning (see
j
Figure7.8)
~
I
I
FIGURE 7.8
\ --
~ EXAMPLE 34 Find T(t) and N(t) for the helix r(t) = ( a cost, a sin t, c t) for - oo < t < oo,
where a > 0 and c > 0.

SOLUTION We have

r '(t) = ( -a sin t. a cos I , c )

lr'(r)I = J( - asint)i + (acos1)2 +ci ~ J,i (si112(+co.;-Gj r-, 2 == Jd! + ci

1 he unit tangent vector is :
r ' (, ) ( - u sin I • a r <?S ~:~)
T(I) =;; P<,)-j ;.; -- J,~? -t ,. ~

. . _- . , For this wr tic sr dct e nll ine

We c~w now calcul arc the pnm:1pa 1 unit nonn.11 I.Cl: 10 1· ·• ·
184 Calculus

(-a cost.--:-a.s.in t, o)
. T'(t)- =
.Ja2 +cl
J(-~acost}2 + (-asin tf a
IT'(t)I =
.Ja2 +c2
The principal unit nonnal vector is therefore
· T'(t) · .. . . .
N -(t} = ;r;(t)J = (-\ost , -sint, o) =. .~cos ti - sintj .

z
Note Note that the k compo nent of the principal ·unit vector,
N (t), for the nelix is zero for every value oft, so this.vector ·
·is always paraHel to the iy-p1ane. Further, it can be shown .
that this vector acrnally points inward t~ward- the
z~axis, in
the direction in which the curve is turning (Figure 7 .9}.

X y

FIGURE 7.9
7.9 THE UNIT BINO RMAL VECTOR
, the unit tangen t
Thus far we have introdu ced two unit vectors _a t a point on a curve, ~amely
vector T (t) that pomts in the directio n of motion and the unit normal vector
N (t) that points in the .
directio n in. which the curve is turning. We now introdu ce a third' unit vector
that is orthogo nal to
T(t) and N (t).

DEFINITION Bi norma l Vector

Let C be a smooth curve that is parametrized by the vector-valued function

r (t}. The binorm al
vector to ·c at t, denote d by B(t),.is defined to be

B(t) = T(t) X N(t)

T{t) and N(c)
Dy definition, the vector B(t) is orthogonal to both T{t) and N(t). Further, since
In fact,
are both unit vectors and orthogonal, it follows that B(t) is also a unit vector.

IB(t).I ~ IT(t) xN(t) f=IT( t)IIN (t)lsi nJ=t

 185
,
<tit-

Vector- Value d Funct ions

These three mutua lly ortho gonal unit vectors T, N ·and B
TNB frame or the Frcnc t fram e in honor of the French mathe
fomi ·a frame of reference, called the
matic ian Jean Frede ric· Frenet *
*~
1

( I 8 l 6-190 0). As we move along a curve , this frr.me, alway

s' cente red at the po int, move s and
twists along with ~ as show n in Figur e 7.10.

i.
X

FIGURE 7.10
circul ar helix :
EXAJ\iPLE 35 Find the unit norm al and binon nal vectors for· the

•
r ( t) = cos t i + sin t j + t k

·SOL UTIO N· We have

•
r'(t} = -sint i + costj + k

~ r'(t) I = J(-si nt) + (cost}2 + I ~ ✓2

2

•
⇒

. r '(t) · l ( . ;· . . k)
T(t} = II r'(t)I = ·✓2 -smt , + cost J +

. .
l ( - cos II - Sill t J ')
T , ( t) = ✓2 :~

I T'(I) I = }z J(-coslJ2 + (-sin t)

2
= ~
'The aonna l vecto r is :
T'(t) . . . .
N (t) ==
!T'(t) I =
. - cost, - sm t J
.
J
~
The bioormal vecto r is:
i j k
~ j
sin, cost )
:;: -,
sint. cost . l k.
- - - 1 + -.- ,
B(t) = T(I) X N(t) = - Ji
- cost
✓
-sint
2· fi
0
✓2 J2 ✓2
~1
1:J
 186 Calculus
DEFINITIONS Normal and Osculating Planes
The plane de_tennined by the nonnal and binonnal vectors N (t) and B (t) at a point Pon a curve
C is called the normal plane of Cat P.
The plane determined by the nonnal and binonnal vectors T( t) and N (t) at a point Pon a curve
C is called the osculating plane of Cat P.
By definition, t,he nonnal plane of a curve at a point consists of all lines that are orthogonal to the
tangent vector T at the given point on the curve: .

DEFINITION Osculating Circle

The osculating circle (or the circle of curvature) at a point Pon a plane curve C where K# 0
is the circle of radius p = 11 K (the reciprocal of the curvature) that
• lies in the osculating plane of C at P
• has the same tangent as the curve has at P
• lies on the concave or inner side of C (toward which N points)

The osculating circle is the circle that "best fits" the curve at P in the sense that it shares the same
tangent, normal and curvature at P (see Figure 7.11)
p T

FIGURE 7.11
The radius of curvature of the curve at Pis defined to be the radius of the osculating circle at P.
Toe center of curvature of the curve at P is defined as the center of the osculating circle at P.

Note According to Example 23, the radius of curvature at P is given by

I l
radius of curvature =P= K = curvature at P

2
EXAMPLE 36 Find the osculating circle of the parabola)' -.= x at the origin.

SOLlJfION We parametrize the parabola using the parameter t = ·x :

r (t) == ( I, I 2 ) = I i + I 2 j

⇒
r'(t) = i +_2tj · lr'(t)I ; ~
r'(t) I • 21 •
1
1
T(I) :; lr'(t)I :: J1 +~ti + ~ 4?
 181

Vector~ Valued Fun ctio ns 1.

J1+ 41 (2)- (21 )
2 JI+ 41 2 Bl
j
_• . . 2
1 1
= - ·-2 · J/2 SI, + 1+4 t 2
T'( I) 2
. (1+41 ) _

. 4I • i(1 _+41
2
)-s12 •

=- . 3/2 I + 312 J
2 2
.· . (1~41 ) · · · (1+41 ] ·.

41 · . 2 . .
= 3/2 I _+ · . 2
3/2 ] .
2
(1+41 ) . (1+41 ) · .

2
i.e., T'(t ) = 312 (-21 , 1)
2
(1+41 ) . _ _

2 . ~ ·2
II T'(t ) ff = . /4 t + 1 =--
12
⇒
ff II (1+4°i2)3'2V . 1+4

Thus the principal unit normal vector is :

T'(t ) I ( )
I N(t ) = 1/T'(t)II = J1+4t2 -2t , l

i: and the curvature is given by

21(1+4~i) - 2'
IIT'(t)II -
K(t ) = lr'(t)~ - J1+ 4t 2 _ - (1+41 2 }3' 2
At the origin, t = 0, so the curvature is K(O)
= 2. Therefore, the radius of curvature for t = 0 is .
.
. · ·
1 1 atur e is located p = lfl unit in the
p= K =• Further, N(O) = <0, l }, so the certer of curv
2
of unit norm al vector N(O) (i.e., along they-axis}. We draw tpe curve and the osculating
direction
circle in Figure 7.12.
y

osculatin2.., y= x l·
circle

I
0

FIGURE 7.12
188 ..
t ,. I ~ •:1 ;_:·.•
•,
. '•. _C.aJcu/1!.,'i
7.10 TORSION .

Let ·s be are arc length parameter for a smooth vector-valued function , (s) in. space and that
dT' .. . dN . · .. · . ·
-;j; and ds exist.at each point on the curve. By definition, the binormal vector is given by

B(s) = T(s} x N(s)

Differentiating both sides '!Yith respect to s, yve obtain
dB dT \ . . : ·dN
- = - x N + T x-
ds ds . · ds

Since the vector N points in the direction of dT, therefore, dT x N = 0 and hence
ds ds
· dB . dN
- =1x-
ds ds
. dB . · ·
From this it follows that ds is orthogonal to T since a cross product is orthogonal to each of its
· dB
factors. Further~ since Bis a unit vector, it has constant length and hence -ds is also orthogonal
· ·
dB
to B. Thus, it follows. that -;f; is orthogonal to the plane detennined by Band T. Consequently,
dB dB
ds is paral~hoN. Therefore, -;f; is a scalar multiple of N. Toe negative of this scalar is called

the torsion of, (s} and is denoted r (lowercase Greek letter "tau"). Thus,

dB
=-rN
ds
ObseFVe that

aB
= --·N
⇒ T
ds
DEF~tllON Torsion

If C is a smooth curve in space that is parametrized by arc length, then the torsion of C,
·denoted by r = r(s ), is defined as

dB
r(s) = - -;f; · N.
. dB ·
The torsion r = - - · N can be thought of as the rate at which the osculating plane rums about
· ds
 189
lf c!or• Valued F1111 ctio11s
• ·· · · L lt · · numerical measure of the
the unit tangent vector T as the pomt moves along tnc curve. is a .
tendency for the curve fo twist out of the osculating plane.
· th · · be positive negative or
, '
Remark Unlike the curvature K, which is never negative, e torsion may
zero.

Computational Formula for Torsion

The following fonnula may be used to calculate _tbe torsion of a curve r(t}_= ( x(t), y(t), z(t})

r = r;. '\;.
y
y
II r'(t) -x r"(t)t'
provided r '(t} x r"(t) ~ 0.

~..,
Note The dots in the above fonnula denote d~fferentiation with respect to t, one derivative for
. dx .. d2 X and ... . -d3x3 • s·1m1·1 arly, o th
· er nota t"ions are

.,
each dot. Th us, x means - , x means - x means
dt . dt '2 dt ~ -
interpreted.

EXAMPLE 37 Find the torsion r for the helix : .

r(t) =(acost}i+(asint}j+ctk. a,c ~ 0, a2 + ·c2,;:. 0

SOLUTION The parametric equations for the h~lix are:

= a cost, y
'
= a sint,
.,
f•t~·

z = ct

.,
X

⇒ x =..., a sin t y = a cost z =c ~

.,
i = - a cost y =-asint z =;;O
x= a sinl y = - a cost z =O

r:.
y
y
y
i
z
"i' '
-asint . acost
= -a cost
asint
-asint
-a cost
·1: = 2 ..1)=
c(a' cos t + a' sin
2
ca' ., ..,.ff
i I..

Also, r'(t) = (-a sint).i + (a cost)j + ck t\;

.

and cos t)i + (-a sin t)j

. I
r "(t) =:= (- a
i~'---;
'l J.J
·Q
j
i k\ . .
r'(t) ~ r"(t) ;:: ·-asint a cost ~ = (acs.int)i - (a c cost)j +a 2 k g , .
- a cos t -asint

~ ,1
I·

,,d;" '
Partial Derivatives

EXAMPLE 20 Findsy1 iffl«. y, z) =2-3xyz +x

SOLUTION We first differentiate with respect
to the variable x; ie
with respect to z:

S-6xyz+y2
Jy-6xz + 2y
n-6z

Juyxt. - 6
KEKERCISEEXERCISE8:2
1. Find the first-order partial derivatives of the following functious
2ry-n+ +y* (in) z log (r?-) (ii) z (5x +
=
=

() z sin?(x-3y) (vi)z =ysin xy (vi) z= y+C

Oz 0z
following functions
Oy for each of the
2. Find A and

x*-* *22
(ii)z =

ev +log (xy) (ii) =

z
(i) z =

3. In the foflowing problems, findf, and

() S o ) = 3ry +x +3y?

4. In the following problems, find s , and s

) So,y, z) = ry+yz' + yz ) fr, y, )
5. Find all the second-order partial derivatives of the following f.
(i) S.y) =a-2y
(9S)=2x2
(iv) S%, ) =x sin(r*y) (v) S.y)= log(r*y)

6. Verify that axoy r 1or

for

(i)2 3x'y + 4xy2 - (i) z (

(iii) z = e' +x logy +y log x iv) z=x sin

fr
7. Findif the equation ry +z'r-2yz
=
0 defines z as a

variables x and y and the partial derivative exists.

 Calcuhis
216

if , ) - (0, 0)
8. Let Sx,) = +
if (x, y) = (0, 0)
0,
exist at the origin.
(a) Show that both partial derivatives/, andf,
at the origin.
(6) Prove that fis not continuous

Zxy
i f (a, )=(0, 0)
9. Let fa, y)={+2
0 if (z, y)= (0,0)
Show that f,0, 0) and f,0, 0) exist, both fis not differentiable at (0, 0).

[Hint: Show that fis not continuous at (0, 0}

ANSWERS
Oz
1. () =6ry -, 2x -2y+4y
dy

12 (5x +4y)
(im)=5 (Sx 4y*, + =

(v) 2sin(-3y)cos(x-3y). -6sin(r -3y)cos(x-3y)

(vi) y cos.xy, = ycosay +sin xy
8y
(vit). 2ysinx 2cosx
Ox y+cos x ôy (+cosx)
2. ( 9 * "
dx
= (i) 2 +n-, - -2
oy

(iv)

3. () -6ry+ Sx, ,= 6ry +6y

(in)s, =y* ' . ,=*log re
 Partial Derivaives 217

4.
5-2y +yz. s=*+?+z, ,=3? ty ) s-
5. ( , - 4 12xy, y12xy, y12y

(i)4 e - , S,-4e-, y -4e- lyy4e2-y

(it)-y'sinxy, S,=-rysinxy + cos.ry, s , x ysinxy + cosxy, fyy sinxy

(G)4 sin(r'y) + 6xy cos(ry) y - 2 'ysin(ry) + 3x cos(r)

- 2 y sin(ry) + 3r cos( y)
yysintr
2
( 2' xy0,
(vi)=(xy+2)ye*", I, (ay + 2Jxe",
= (y+ 2)xe"", y=re*y-2
7. yt:

8.4 DIFFERENTIABILITY

Recall that a functionfof one variable is differentiable at a point x provided the limit

S') =

lim = lim tAr)-f)

Ax+0 Ax
exists. From this, it follows that if Axz is close to 0, Ay can be approximaited byf"(r) Ax, that is,
Ay»f ) Ax
In fact, for
Ax close to 0, the error Ay -f'r) Ar in this approximation will have magnitude
much smaller than that of Ax because

lim y-ft%Ar
Ax- Ar
. lim-ft%)= s%)-S9) =0
Ax-0Ax
Since Ar is just the distance between the points, and +Ax, it follows that when the two points
are close together, the magnitude of the error, Ay-f') Ax, in the approximation will be much
smaller than the distance between the two points. We now extend this idea to functions of wo
variables
Suppose that z = f(%. y) is defined in a disk containing (o Y) and that , o Y) and sl» Yo
exist. We use the symbol a7, called the increment of, to denote the change in the value off/that
results when (x, y) varies from its initial position (o» y) to some new position (r, t Ax, y, tAy).
Thus

Az f,t Ax, y t Ay) -ft yo)

(
 Calculus
218
As an analogy with the single-variable case, let us make the following approximation

Az Soy) Ax +f,o Y) Ay
For Ax and Ay close to 0, we would like the error
Az

in this approximation to be much smaller than the distance (Ax+(Ay? between ( Y) and

+Ax, y,+ Ay). This can be guaranteed by requiring that

lim 0,
(Ax, Ay)(0, 0)
yAx+(Ay
which becomes our definition of differentiability for functions of two variables.

DEFINITION Differentiability
A functionz=f%, y) is said to be differentiable at (g ) provided f.To» Yo) and 1,eo» Yo)
both exist and

lim Az-S Vo)Ax-s,Go» o)Ay

= 0
(Ax,y)(0, 0) (Ax+(Ay*
EXAMPLE 21 Prove that f (x, y)=7+2 isxdifferentiable at (0, 0)
SOLUTION We have Az = f(0 + Ax, 0 + Ay)-f(0, 0)
f(Ax, Ay) - 0 = (Ax)+ (4y}

S.) = 2
Also and ,.y) 2
S, (0, 0) = 0 and
, (0, 0) =
0

Az-,0,0)Ax S,0,0)Ayax)+{0y) kan +(Ay

-

Ax +(Ay (Ax +(0y

Az-S0, 0)Ax-s,(0, 0)4y lim (Ax y)* =0
lim
(Ax,Ay)-(0, 0) (Ax,ay)--(0,0

Hencefis differentiable at (0,0).

define
Remark Iffis differentiable at (ro Y) and if we
(Az-S,% Y,)Ax-S,(, Yo)Ay if (Ax, Ay) » (0,0)

c e{Ax, Ay) ax+(a)*

if (Ax, Ay) = (0, 0)
0,
 Partial Derivatives 219
then it follows immediately from the definition of differentiability thai .
}-

Furthermore, from the definition ofe, we have

z S()ax+s,(%, %)Ay+el[ar a
wherec>0 as (Ax, Ay) -> (0, 0). In otherwords, iffis differentiabie he change
Az=f,+ax, y, Ay) -stY) infcan be expressed
+ as

Az S ( ) a x +,(4. »)Ay +ey(axf +ln

wheree 0 as (Ax, Ay) -> 0.
The next theorem (proof omitted) provides simple conditions for a functioi differentiable
at a point.

THEOREM 8.7 Conditions Implying Differentiability

If the partial derivatives f, andf, of a functionfx. y) exist and are coi a point, then
fis differentiableat that point.
For example, consider the function fx. y) r2-xy +y2. Since
=

S 2x-y and ,=-x+ 2y

are defined and continuous everywhere, we conclude from Theorem ifferentiable
everywhere.

THEOREM 8.8 Differentiability Implies Continuity

Ifa function f. y) is differentiable at
o y), then fis continuous at (z,
Proof. We are given thatf is differentiable at (r, Y). To prove that is at (o Yo), we
must show that

lim Sx. y) St%. o)

=

(.)-)
or, equivalently, *ax, Yo +Ay} s(o»
=

(ax,ay)(0,0 o
or,
lim
(Ax,Ay)(0,0) S
+Ax, yo +Ay) -

f{0.
i.e lim Az =0
(Ax, Ay)(0, 0)
Because fis assumed to be differentiable at (Wo. Yo), we may express

Az S. yo)Ar+ s,(To. o)Ay ey(a- +

where e- 0 as (Ax, Ay) -> (0, 0).

 Calcuhis
220
0+0+0 = 0
lim Az =

(Ax, Ay)(0,0)

8.5 THE CHAIN RULE for

of a single variable gives the foBlowing rule
Recall that the chain ule for functions
a composite function.
differentiating
are differentiable
functions, then y
Chain Rule : If y=f(x) and x=g), where fand g
The
is indirectly a differentiable function of 1, and

dy dr
dr dt
Each version depends
For functions of two or more variables, the chain rule has several versions.
on bow many variables are involved.
is, in
where z= f(x,y) and each of the variables x and y
The first version deals with the case

means that z is indirectly a function of t, z Sg0),h{t),

function of a variable 1. This
tum, a

and the chain rule gives a formula for differentiating z as a function of t.

THEOREM 8.9 The Chain Rule for Functions of Two Independent Variables (First Version)
and
Suppose that z= f(x,y) is a differentiable function of r. and y, where x= gt)
r and
both differentiable functions of t. Then z is a differentiable function of
y= h{t) are

oz dr 0z dy
dta d y dt
rule contains three types of variables:
Note 1 The first version of the chain
z is the dependent variable.
variables.
and y are called intermediate
tis an independent variable.

diagram (Figure 8.4) as follows

Note 2 To remember the chain nule, its helpful to draw a tree

We draw two branches from the dependent variable z to the intermediate

vaniables x and y to indicate that z is a function of x and y. Then we draw a
branch each from x and y to the independent variable t. On each branch, we C
write the corresponding partial derivative or ordínary derivative as the case

02
may be. To find,we simply find the product of the derivatives along
dt
cach path that connects to t and then add these products.
FIGURE 8.4
 221
Partial Derivatives

EXAMPLE 22 If 2= ", where x= cost and y= sint, find

the chain rule, we have

SOLUTION Using

dz czdr da dy
ox dt dt

2xy(-sin)+2x'y(cos/)

2 costsin' +2sint cost

and y in terms of t)
(substituting the expressions for
x

2sintcost(cos*1-sin*

sin 2t cos2

THEOREM 8.10 The Chain Rule for Functions of Three Independent Variables
is
is differentiable and and z are differentiable functions of 1, then w a
fw=f, y,z) x, y
differentiable function of t and

dw ow dx ow d+, dt
ow dz
dt ox dt dy dt
instead of two in the
Note Note that there are three intermediate variables Ow
case of chain rule for
functions of three independent variables. To
tree diagram is drawn as shown in
remember the new equation, simiBar
w to t.
Figure 8.5 with three routes from
dw
EXAMPAE 23 Use the chain nule to find
dt
if dt dt
wxy* 2, xCOSt, y Sint, FIGURE 8.5

independent variables, have

the chain rule for three
we
SOLUTION Using
dwow dr dw dy Ow dz

dt ar dt dt
( )(-sin1) + (r) (cosi)+ (1)(1)
+
(sin 1) (-sin/) + (cost) (cost)
(Substituting the expressions for x and y in terms of )
= - sin t cosr +1

= 1+ cos 2t
222 Calculus
d
1 + cos 0 1 +1 2
dt )=0
We now consider the situation where z= S(x,y) but each of x and y is a function of two
variables s and : x= g(5,t), y= h(s,1). Then z is indirectly a function of s and 1, and we

wish to findand
ds

THEOREM 8.11 The Chain Rule for Functions of Two Independent Variables and Two
Intermediate Variables (Second Version)
Suppose that z =ft. y) is a differentiable function ofx and y, where x = gs, ) and y= h{s, ) |
are differentiable functions ofs and t. Then

Oz Ox
and
Cz z ôx,z oy
Os x Os ôy Os

Note 1 The second version of the chain nule contains three types of variables:

zis thedependent variable.

x and y are intermediate variables.

s and are independent variables.

Note 2 The tree diagram to remember the chain rule for this case is depicted in Figure 8.6. We
draw two branches from the dependent variable z to the independent variables x and y to indicate
that z is a function of x and y. Then we draw branches from x and y to the independent variables

s and . On each branch, we write the corresponding partial derivative. To compute using
the partial
the tree diagram, we simply find the product of
then add
derivatives along each path that connectsz to s and
theseproducts
dz dx dz dy
x Os Oy ôs

FIGURE 8.6
Similarly, we find by using the paths from z to t.

Ss 3t, find and

?+)y, where x =4s + 2 and y
= -

EXAMPLE 24 If z=

have
SOLUTION Using the chain rule, we
 Partial Derivatives

Os Oxa ds
(3x4)+
y (3rX4)+(2yX5)
=
12x

12(4s+2)*+10(5s-3/)
=
12(16s+16st i.

=
192s+1925t +48 +50s-30t

Also . (3x)y2)+(2yX-3) =6:-

645+2) -6(5s-3) 6(16s +41? +16st)
=

96s2+24t+96st-30s+18t

THEOREM 8.12 The Chain Rule for Functions of TwoIndepende

Intermediate Variables

Suppose that w =f y. z) is a differentiable function ofx, y and a.

), and z =
k{s, 1) differentiable functions of s and t, then
are w ia*

respect to s and 1, given by the formulas

w ôx ôw y wand Ow = Ow
---t--
Ox
Os Ox os dy ôs Oz ôs ot

The tree diagrams for both formulas are shown in Figure 8.7.

ar
d

FIGURE 8.7
Ow OW
EXAMPLE 25 Expressandin tems ofs and rif
Os
S
wxt 2y+zi, y=s +log , : *2
 Calculus
224
have
SOLUTION Using the chain rule,
we

os Oy os
;}+ex2)+ (2x)
+4s +(45)(2) (Replacing z by 2s)

+ 12s

ow w ,
Also, O

-ax9-
Differentiation of an Implicit Function
Fx, y) form =
0 that defines y
The chain rule can be used differentiate an equation of the
to

as a differentiable function of x.
That is, y flx), where
=
F(x. s«))= 0 for all x in the
implicity of the chain rule to differentiate both
domain off. IfF is differentiable, we can use first version
Since both r and y are functions of x, we
sides of the equation F(x, y) =0 with respect to x.
have

OF dr OF dy0
dr

dx dy obtain
However, 1. So solvingthe above equation for,
dx
we

dx

OF1ôx 0. ..(1)
dx Flôy F, provided.F, #

This is best illustrated with the help of following examples.

EXAMPLE 26 Use Formula 1 to find

y ifr*-y -cosxy 0.

sOLUTION Taking Fx. y) =12-y2- cosxy, we have

dydx F 2x + ySinxy
F , - 2 y + xsin xy

dy
EXAMPLE 27 If *+ y= a*, lind
dx

SOLUTION Given +y'=d

Partial Derivatives 225

x+y'-a* =0

Writing F(x,y)= x +y -a', we have

F, y + y ' logy and F,=r logx+xy

yx+ylogy
F logx+ry

EXAMPLE 28 If ax+2hxy +by +2gr+ 2fy +c=0, find

ind

SOLUTION Let F(7,y) = ar +2hxy +by +2gr+2fy+c, then

F 2ax+ 2hy+ 2g = 2(ar+ hy* g)

and F 2hx+ 2by+ 2/ = 2(hx* by+

ax +hy +8
dy
d h x +by+S
EXERCISE83 :3 24
1. Find dz if z =x-3y2 + 20, wherex =2costandy = 2 sint.

dz
2. Find if z =xy, where x = cost and y= sint.

az
3. Find if z = +y, where x = att andy = 2at.

4. F i n d i f z=x siny, where r = t and y = 4

5. Find where=
cos? andy sin?,a
= =

z
6. Let z sin 2rcos 3y, wherex =s + fand y=s-t Evaluateand
7. Let z=xy - x'y, where r= s t 1andy=s - t. Evaluateand
os

8. Let z =e**), wherex =stand y=s+t. Evaluateand

os
226 Calculus

9. Let Sa,y, 2) = x?y3 + , where r =s, y =s?, and z = s'. Evaluate and
ds

10. Let
Sa,y, 2)=xy +z, where x =s, y-st, and z =
2. and
Evaluateand
11. Given the following equations, dy
evaluateAssume that each equation implicitly definesy
dx
as a diferentiable function of x.
(a) r2-2?-1 =0 (6) sinxy + ty2-x= 0 (c)x-2y2 +xy=0
ANSWERS
dz = -16sin 21 dz
1.
dt
2. COs 2
dt
3. dt
4a +2) 4.
4.
dz
=21sin 4 +12rf cos 4
dt
5. dw
dt
6.
= 2cos(2s+0))cos(3(5-)) -3sin(2(s+0)sin (3(s-)
Os

2 c o s ( 4 s +1)) cos(3(s-1)) +3sin(2(s+1)) sin (3(s-1))

7. 2s-3s
25-3s-25t + and Z=--21+2st +3
8s
8. ((+1)e"
st+5+ and (s+1)e'*s+!
Os

9.9. 7+8s and 6s?+45P

Os
10. =3si and s +21
Os
y cos y-1| () ty
11. (a) d (b) dx x cos xy + 2ny (c) dx -4y

8.6 DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVES AND

GRADIENTS
derivative to the more general notion ofa
In this section we extend the concept of a partial
derivatives , and f, of a function f(, y)
directional derivative. We have seen that the partial
how
directions parallel to the x-and y-axes. We will now see
represent the rates of change off in
rates of change off in other directions.
directional derivatives can be used to investigatc
of a function s(x. y) at a point (. o)
Suppose we wish to find the instantaneous rate of change
unit vector uu,it u,j that has its
initial point at ( ) (sec Figure 8.8).
in the direction of a
 Calculis Partial Derivatives 227

defines y

FIGURE 8.8
The unit vector u detemines a line in the xy-plane that can be expressed as

r() =rt su, 1)

where s is a
parameter and r Xity,J.
Since u is a unit vector, r() is the arc length parametrization of the line with the parameter s
measuring from the starting point ( ) . Expressed parametrically, Eq (1) becomes

x Xt s and

AS S increases from its starting point, the point (x, y) moves alongI in the direction of u. On the
line 1, the variable
z
=f%t su, y t su,)
is a functior of s. The derivative o f z with respect to s evaluated at s = 0 gives the
s =0
instantaneous rate of change of ftx, y) in the direction of the unit u at the point (r Ya

DEFINITION Directional Derivative of a Function of Two Variables

Let f be a function ofx and y and let u = u i + u j be a unit vector in the y-plane. The

directional derivative offat ( y) in the direction of 4, denoted by D,ft, Y). is defined as

lim +Su4.yo tsu2)-Sto.o)

S0 S

provided the limit exists.

EXAMPLE 29 Find the directional derivative off.y) = 2r+y at (-1, 1) in the direction of the

unit vector u
otion of a
S , yo +su,)- So.
on S(x. y) Yo)
SOLUTION D(-1, 1) = lim o
see how
.

S-1+s+s.-s(-1, 1)
änt (o o = lim
S
gure 8.8). 0
 Calcuhus
228

lim
s-0

lim
s0

= lim
-2 6-2--2
s0

directional derivative.
Note For functions of three variables, we have an analogous definition of

DEFINITION DirectionalDerivative ofA Function of Three Variables

t be a unit vector. The
Let fz, y, z) be a function of x, y, and z, and let u u, i + uj uk
=

denoted by DJE» Yo» Fo, 15

directional derivative of fin the direction of (o Yo 7),
u at

defined as

Jo tSu Yo +S2, 2o +Su3)-J Go: Vo»20)

S0

provided the limit exists.

The following theorem provides an efficient formula to compute the directional derivative of a
differentiable function in terms of the first-order partial derivatives.

THEOREM 8.13
(a) Iff yyis differentiable at ( y), and ifu =u, itujis a unit vector, then the irectional
derivative D,s%Y) exists and is given by

i+ is a unit vector, then

(b) If f(x. y z) is diferentiable at ( Y» zo), and if u u, u,jt u,k
=

the directional derivative D,f» Yo Z) exists and is given by

EXAMPLE 30 Find the directional derivative offt, y)=+y at (1,2) in the direction ofthe unit

vector

SOLUTION The partial derivatives offare:

S. ) = 2x+y
 229
Parrial Derivatives

S(1 2)= 4 1, 2) =1
in the dircction of u is:
Thus, the directional derivative offat (1,2)

D, (1, 2) =
S0, 2) 4, +,0,2) u2

direction of
EXAMPLE 31 Fimd the directional derivative offt y) 2xy - 3y at (5, 5) in the
=

y=4i+3j.
SOLUTION A unit vector in the direction ofv is:

The partial derivatives offare:

So.)= 2 ,a. )
=
2r-6y
10 , 6 ,5)= -20
S(6,5)
=

(5, 5) in the direction of v is:

Thus, the directional derivative of f at

D.S6, 5)-, 6, 5)4, +1,5, 5) 44 - (10)

Note Note that in the preceding, example we used a unit vector to specify the direction of the
directional derivative. This is necessary in order to apply Theorem 8.13.

EXAMPLE 32 Find the directional derivative offtu. y, )-x'-yx+z? at the point (2,-1, 1)
in the dirction of the vector y = 3 i - j + 2k.

SOLUTION The partial derivatives offare

S,ay 2) = 3x*z-2xy, Sy, z)=-x,S y,2) =x'+2
S , 2 , - 1 , 1) - 16,
s,2,-1, 1)=-4, S2,-1, 1) 10 =

The vector v is not a unit vector, so we nomalize it to get the unít vector:

Thus, the dirctional derivative offat (2, -1, 1) in the direction ofv is
D, f2,-1, 1) =s,2,-1, 1)u, +/,02, -1, )4, +S,2, -1, 1}4
72
14
230 Calculus
DEFINITIOON Gradient
(o) 1fis a differentiable function ofx and y, then the gradient off, denoted by V/. y), is |
(a)
defined by
Sr. y) =S,a ) i+1,(t. v)j
(6)Iffis a differentiable function ofx, y, and z, then the gradient off, denoted by Vf(x,y, z),
is defined by

y , 2)=I, )i+s,a, y,) j +S%. z) k

THEOREM 8.14 Directional Derivative as a Dot Product

(a) Iffx. y) is differentiable at (r y, then the directional derivative of fat (Y) in the
direction of the unit vector u is

(6) Iff7 y, z) is differentiable at (ro Yo), then the directional derivative offat( Yo 75)
in the direction of the
unit vector u
is.

EXAMPLE 33 Find the directional derivative offx, y)= e

the vector
cos y at (0, t/2) in the direction of
y= 5i- 2j.
SOLUTION A unit vector in the direction v is:

The partial derivatives offare:

I , (x. y) = cosy , C y) = - esiny

S 0, T/2) 0
I, (0, T/2) =
-1
The gradient offat (0, T/2)is:
S0, T/2)-0, n/2) i +,0, /2)j = -j

The directional derivative offat (0, n/2) in the direction of v is therefore

5 2

Remark If the unit vector u makes an angle 0 with the

positive x-axis, then we can write
cosit sin0j and hence the formula in 8.13
Theorem becomes
D,fYo) s, Go« Yo) cos0 +, g Y)sin0
Partial Derivatives
231
EXAMPLE 34 Find the directional derivative off(x. y)= e*"at
(-2, 0) in the direction of the unit
vector that makes an angle of r/3 with the positive x-axis.

SOLUTION The unit vector u that makes an

angle of 3 with the positive x-axis is:

- cosisinj
3
The partial derivatives offare:

S, )= yey , a ) xe
J-2, 0) = 0
E2, 0) =
-2
The directional derivative is therefore

D.S-2,0) =

f.(-2,0) cos+,-2,0) sin

Properties of Gradients
We have seen that the directional derivative
IS
off (x, y) at (r,o Y in the direction of the unit vector

D, So Y) = Vfo» Yo) u =||Vfl YI l«| cos IVSoo Yl cos0

i.e. DSo IS Yo| cos6, (1)
where is the angle between the vectors u and
value of
VSWy). From this, it follows that the maximum
D,Sat the point (To Yo) isIVT»Y)| and this maximum value occurs wben 0- 0, that
is, when u is in the direction of
Vfo Y). Geometrically, this means that the function f(x, y)
increases most rapidly in the direction of
Vfat (o Y) and the maximum value of in this derivative
direction is
v/t L
Similarly, it follows from Eq. (1) that the
minimum value of D. fat the point (. Y) is
-IVfYl and this minimum value occurs when 0 r, that is, when u points in the direction
opposite to Vf%»Y).Geometrically, this means that the function f (r,y) decreases most
in the direction of -Vfat rapidly
(o y), and the minimum value of the derivative in this direction is

Finally, in the case when u points in the direction orthogonal to Vf y), then the angle between
) and u is n/2 and thus D, f Y=0. In other words, the directions of zero change
infat (o ) are the directions orthogonal to
Vf( Y).
A similar analysis applies to functions of three variables. We summarize these observations in the
following theorem.
 Calcuhus
232
Directional Derivative
THEOREM 8.15 Properties of
differentiable function of two or three variables and let P denote the point (ro. Ya
Let fbe a
Then
or Fo Yor Fo, respectively.
offat P, the derivative in the
derivatives of Vfat
direction
(a) Among all possible directional most rapidly
in its domain,Sincreases
has the maximum value. That is, at each pointP
Pin the direction of the gradient vector Vf. The value of the directional derivative in this

direction is |Vf1
derivative in the direction opposite
(6) Among aH possible directional derivatives offat P, the
to that of Vfat P has the minimum value. That is, at each point P in its domain,fdecreases
direction
most rapidly in the direction of-Vf. The value of the directional derivative in this
isVS
is
(c) The directional derivative offat P in any direction u orthogonal to a gradient Vf(* 0)
zero. That is, the directions of zero change infat P are the directions orthogonal to Vat P.

EXAMPLE 35 Find the directions in whichft. y) =*-42-9

(a) Increases most rapidly at the point P(1, -2).

(b) Decreases most rapidly at P(1, -2)

()What are the directions of zero change infat P(1,-2)?
sOLUTION () The function increases most rapidly in the direction of Vfat (1, --2). Since
f ) = ) i +sa%, y)j = 2xi -8yj

The gradient off at (1, -2) is

1,-2) 2i+16j
The unit vector in this direction is

VS(1,-2)
sO,-212/654+16/)=it

Therefore, the function increase most rapidly in the direction ofthe unit vector u = 8
(6) The function decreases most rapidly in the direction of -Vfat (1, -2). which is
8
-u

(c)The directions ofzero change in/at (1, -2) are the directions orthogonal to Vf(1, -2)

n 65 and
V65
 233
Partial Dematives
directional
)= x2e and P- (-2, 0). Find the maximum value of a
EXAMPLE 36 Let f(x. maximum value occurs.
denivative at P, and find the unit vector in the direction in which the
The
SOLUTION The maximum vahie of the directional
derivative at P(-2, 0) is || Vf(-2, 0)I
gradient offis:
ft. y)-r. y)i +ft. y)j
=
2re"i+ r'e'j
Evaluating at (-2,0) the gradient is:
-2,0)-4i+4j I-2, 0)l 4+4 =v32 =4/2
is 4/2, and it occurs in the
Therefore, the maximum value ofthe directional derivative at P(-2,0)
direction of Vf(-2, 0). The unit vector in this direction is:

Vf-2,0) (-4i+4j)=-5
S-2,0) 4/2

EXAMPLE 37 Find a unit vector in the direction in whichf( y)=

in that direction.
(a) Increases most rapidly at P(1, 1). Also, find the rate of change offat P
find the rate of change offat P in that direction.
(b) Decreases most rapidly at P(1, 1). Also,
SOLUTION (a) The function increases most rapidly in the direction of Vfat (1, 1). The gradient
offis
Sx, ) = x . y)i + s l V)j = x i t y i

Evaluating at (1, 1), the gradient is:

S0, 1) = i +j 1 ,1)| = VP+F = V

The unit vectorin this direction is:

S0.1)

The rate of change at P in this direction is VS(1, 1)| = Vh.

(b) The function decreases most rapidly in the direction of -Vfat (1, 1), which is -i -

The unit vector in this direction is

i-j
I-i-
The rate of change at P in this direction is -IVS(, 1) = -V2.

EXAMPLE 38 Find the dircetions in which the function f(r. y. z) = log ay + log yz + log xz
increases and decreases most rapidly at Po(l, 1, 1). Then find the directional derivative of the
function in these directions Delhi Univ. GE-1, 2015)
 Calculus
234
the direction of fat (1, 1, 1). Since
SOLUTION The function increases most rapidly in

The gradinent off at (1, 1, 1) is

fx, y z) =2i+2j+2k
The unit vector in this direction is

IVs0.1.D2i+2j+26)= j+k)
Therefore, the function increases most rapidly in the
direction ofunitvector u= i+j+k).
The directional derivative offat (1, 1, 1) in this direction is
therefore

D,S(1, 1, 1) = S1, 1, 1) u = 23
1, 1), which is
The function decreases most rapidly in the direction of -Vfat (1,
-

+j+)
The directional derivative offat (1, 1, 1) in this direction is therefore

DS1, 1, 1)
=
VS1, 1, 1) (-u)= -23
The following theorem lists some useful properties of
the gradient.

THEOREM 8.16 Algebra Rules for Gradients

Letfand g be two differentiable functions ofx and y,
and let k be a scalar. Then the following|
rules of gradient hold.
Constant Multiple Rule
1. V(k =k Vf
2. V + 8) = f + Vg Sum Rule
Difference Rule
3. V-8)=f-Vs
4. VUs)=/SVg +g VS Product Rule

Quotient Rule
s.
Show that
EXAMPLE 39 Iff, y) = x -y and g(x, y)= 3y.

-/g Delhi Unix. GE-1, 20161

)VUg)= gVf +/Vg
SOLUTION () We have
(8 ( r - y) 3y 3xy - 3y
Partial Derivatives

VUs) - Ve), i + V8),j = 3yi + (3x - 6y)j

Also, S
.i+/,j-i-j and Vg=8,it
SVg+gVS (x -y) (3) + 3yli-)=3yi+(3x- 6y
=

From (1) and (2), conclude that

we
VUg) = gVf+J V&
ii) We have

(-)-"
Also, gVE -B-9--y3i]=3
From (3) and (4), we conclude that v = 2-Vg
g
EXAMPLE 40 Letfx. y) = x-y and g(z, y) = xy. Evaluate eac

(a) V(2/ (b) Vf + 8) (c) Vf-8)

SOLUTION We have

VS S,i+S,j =
i-j and Vg
(a) V(2) -2 vf = 2 ( i -j) = 2i-2j

(b) V + g) = Vf+ Vg = (i-)+oitx) = (1 +y)i + (

(c) V - g) = VS-Vg ( i - ) - o i + x ) = (1 -y)i -(1

Vg) -fVg +8VS

=
(r-y)0itx)+ y(i-)
=
2x
(d)

&-fVs i-)-tr-Myi«
(e) g

8.7 TANGENT PLANES AND NORMALLINES

D
In this section we shall discuss the problem of finding tan
three-dimensional space.
 Calcuhus
236

Consider asmooth curve C:r= (x(), y(0), z(1))that lieson the surface surface
on S: Fx y, z)=c
the level
we have S,
of a differentiable function F Because the points of C lie
Flxt), y(), z(0) =c

we have
Differentiating both sides of this equation with respect to 1,

aF dx OF dy dF dz 0 (Chain Rule
ox dt ôy dt 0z dt

0
of,
VF r')

i.e.. VFla, y, 2) Pl) =0

This means that at any point on the curve, the tangent vector is ortbogonal to the gradient. Now,
fix a point Poro» Yor Fo) on the level surface S and assume that VF z)0. Let C be any
smooth curve on the surface passing through Po We have shown that the vector tangent to C at
P,is orthogonal to VFlYo: 7) Po.
at Since arbitrary, we conchude that the same is true
Cwas
for all smooth curves on S that pass through Po In other words, the tangent vectors at Pg for all
these curves are orthogonaB to VFr.Vo» Fo) and hence they all lie in the plane through P, norma
to VFYo. We call this plane the tangent plane at Po on the level surface F(r, y, x)= c.

Since
is a normal vector to the tangent plane and Po(ro-Yo, Z) is a point in the plane, we can write the
equation of the tangent pBane as

Fp Yo o)t-z)+ F»Yo -,)-y) + Fg.Yo, 7)(-)= 0

The normal line to 5 at Po is the line through Po perpendicular to the tangent plane at Po The
direction ofthe normal line is therfore given by the gradient vector VF.Vo.7,). The parametric
equations for the normal line to the surface Flx, y, 2)= cat Potry» yo, 7) are

Tangent plané to Fx, y, z)=c at P,Fy» Io» Zg)

Normal line to
Flx, y, z)= c at
Pot Yo

EXAMPLE 41 Find the equations of the tangent plane and normal line to the ellipsoid
+4+? = 18
at the point P1, 2, 1).
 237
Partial Derivanives
level surface (with c
=
18) of the function
SOLUTION The cllipsoid is the
Fx.y ) r + 4 + 2
2)= 8y Fy 2)= 2
F y. 2)= 2x F. .
F1,2, 1)= 16 F1,2, 1) =2
F1,2, )=2

Thus, the gradient of fat P,(1, 2, 1) is: + 2k

F(1, 2, 1)k 2i + 16j
=

S1, 2, 1)
=

F(1,2, 1)i + F(1,2, 1)j +

the tangent plane

surface Flr, y, z)=18 at Po. So,
The gradientvector Vf(1,2, 1) is normal to the
at Pg has the equation
0 x+8y+z
=
18
2x-1)+16(y-2) +2(z- 1) Or,
=

Tbe normal line to the surface at P, has equations

z =1+21
x=1+21, y=2+16,
line to the surface
EXAMPLE 42 Find the equations of the tangent plane and normal
+2xy-y2 +z2= 7.

at the point P(l, -1, 3). Delhi Univ. GE-1, 2015}

Then
SOLUTION Flx. y. z)= x+2xy-y +
Let
2z
Fx,y.2) 2x+2y F ,y, 2)
=
2x-2y F y, 2) =

F(1,-1,3)0 F,-1, 3 - 4 F(1,-1, 3) =

6

The gradient of F at (1, -1, 3) is:

4j+ 6k
F(1,-1, 3)i + F(1,-1, 3)j + F{(1,-1, 3)k
=

f(1, -1, 3) =

The gradient vector Vf(1, -1, 3) is normal to the surface F(, y z) = 7. Therefore, the tangent,

plane to the surface at Po(1,-1, 3) has equation

0(r-1)+4(y+ 1)+ 6(z-3) 0
=
or, 2y+3 =
7

The normal line to the surface at Po1, -1, 3) has equations

'z = 3 + 6t
x=1 y=-1+ 41,

Tangent Planes To Surfaces of the Form z =

fx, y)
We now consider a special case in which it is required to find an equation for the tangent plane to
a surface of the form z =Sl«, y) at a point Polg. y, Z), whre Z0 So y). Notice that thg
define
equation 2=f(x, y} is equivalent to f(x, y)-z 0. Thus, if we
=

Fr,y, 2) =f(x, y) -
z

then the surface z f ( x , y) can be treated as the level surface (with c = 0) of F. The partial
238 Calculus
derivatives of F are:
F y. )= f ) . Fa, y, ) =,a, y). Fx,y, z)=-1
Evaluating at (o Y'Z0), we have

The formula

for the plane t¡ngent to the level súrface at (o Yo. 2,) therefore reduces to

Tangent Plane to a Surface z =

flx, y) at (Mo, Yo. f Yo))
Ifflx, y) is differentiable at the point (o Y, then the equation of the plane tangent to the
surface zf%, y) at the point (o»
Yo So Y)) [or Fos Yi) 15
So Yo)-x) +,o)o-y)-e-Fo) =
0 .(1)
EXAMPLE 43 Find an equation-for the plane tangent to the surfacez =xy2 at the point (1,2,4).
SOLUTION The
given surface is of the form z=f(%. y), where f(, y) x*. =

The partial derivatives offare:

Say) = S y) = 2y

S1, 2) =
4 4
1, 2) =

Hence, using formula (1), the equation of the tangent plane is

S0,2)x-1) +f01,2)0-2)--4)
i.e., 4(x- 1) +40-2)--4) - 0 or 4x+4y-z = 8

EXERCISEB4 B4 20KN
1. Find equations of the tangent plane and normal
line to the following surfaces at the given
points.
(9++z=9, Po1,2, 4) (i) x+ y2t?-3, P,(1, 1, 1)
(ii') xy + xz + yz -- 12 = 0, P(2,2.2) (iv) ry + 2x:2 8, P,1,0,2)

()2=*y, Po2, 1,4) (vi) z =

e" sin 3x + 2, P(n/6,0, 3)
2. Find an equation for the plane that is tangent to the following surfaces at the given points.
(i) z x cosy-ye', Po0, 0, 0) i)e"sin 3x +2, Pon/6, 0, 3)
(ii) z = log (x ).
P1.0, 0) (iv)=r e , Po-1, 1, 1)
 239
Partial Derivatives

2 EANSWERS
) Tangent plane : 2x +4y +z= 14; Normal line:x = 1 21, + y= -1 41, z = 3 +6t
+
1.
(i) Tangent plane :x+y+z=3 ; Normal line :x =1 + 2, y= 1 +21, z = 1+21

(ii) Tangent plane:x +y +z=6; Normal line:r =2+ 4, y=2+ 41, z =2+ 4t
(iv) Tangent plane : 8x + y + 8z = 24; Normal line :x =1 + 8, y= t, z=2+8t
Normal line : x =2-41, y= 1-41, z=4+t
(v) Tangent plane:-4x-4y +z=-8;
(vi) Tangent plane: 3y-z-3; Normal line:x =r/6, y=3t, z=3-!

2. () x-y-z = 0 (G) 3y-z=-3

(ii) 2x-z-2 0 (iv)x +y +z=-1

8.8 EXTREME VALUES AND SADDLE POINTS

In an earlier chapter we considered the problem of finding local extrema (local maxima, local

minima) of a function of one independent variable. We now study the anaiogous problem of
local extrema for functions of two variables.
is said to have local maximum at the point (a, b) if
Definition. A function z =f%, y) a

Sla, b) 2 s &, )
for all (x, ) that are sufficiently close to (a, b). A local minimum is defined similarly.
A local maximum or a local minimum is referred to as a local extremum.

It may be recalled that we used derivatives to find local maxima and local minima of functions
involving a single independent variable. For example, it was proved that ify =f) has a local
maximum or a local minimum at x =a,thenf" (o) = 0. Similarly, if z =f(%, y) has a local
maximum or local minimum at (a, b), then the two first-ordered partial derivatives of z are zero
at (a, b). That is,

S(a, b) =0 and , (a, b) = 0

Definition. A point (a, b) for which S, (a, b) S, (a, b)

= = 0 is called a critical point of
= f , y)
Just as in the case of function of one variable, a critical point can give rise to a local maximum,
a local minimum or nothing.
local maximum local minimum is caled
Definition. A critical point that is neither a nor a

saddle point.
studied,
We now sate a test (omitting the proof), similar to the second-derivative test previously
a local
that gives conditions which determine whether a critical point yields a local maximum,
minimum or a saddle point.
Second Derivative Test for Local Extrema

Given
 Calcuhas
240
Step 1. Find, a. y) and , 6. ).
0 and S, (s, y)
=
0. Let (a, b} be a
point (s) by solving , (, y)
=

Step 2 Find the critical

critical point
Step 3. Findf,, (». v), S,, . y) and , (. y)
Consider AC- B. Then
Step 4. Define A =s, (a, b), B.=S, (a, b) and C =S, (a, b).
maximum at (a, b).
(i) fAC-R> 0 and A< 0,fhas a local
(a, b),.
(ii) fAC-P>0 and A> 0.fhas local minimum
a at

(ii) fAC- B <0,fhas a saddle point at (a,b

(iv) FAC-B
=
0, no conchusion can be drawn and further analysis is required.
be Further,
AC - B2>0, then neither A nor C can
zero.
Note It may be noticed that when
both A and C will be positive or negative together.
The foHowing examples illustrate the procedure

EXAMPLE 44 Examine the following functions for local maxima and minima:

()z =fz, y) = 6ay-*-y (i) z = f (x, y) = 10x + 20y 21-3x -2y

SOLUTION O Given z =
f(%, y) =
6ry x - -

S 6y 3x -
and s, =
6x - 3y*
For critical points, we have

S0, i.e, 6y 3r2 0

=

and =0, ie, 6x-3y =0

for and y, find that critical points are (0, 0) and (2, 2).
Solving these x we

Now 6x, 6, -6y

At (0, 0), A S , (0, 0 ) - 0 , B (0, 0) = 6, C - , ( 0 , 0) = 0

Thus AC B= -36< 0. Hence (0, 0) is a saddle point.

At (2, 2), A =1, (2, 2) = - 12, B - , ( 2 , 2) = 6, C-,,(2, 2) =- 12

108>0. Since at (2, 2), A 12 < 0 and AC - B2> 0, it

Thus AC- B2 144 36 = -
= -

follows that there is a local maximum at (2, 2). At this point the value of the function is

S(2, 2) 6 (2) (2)-(2P-(2P =

8.

(i) Given =fx, y) =

10x + 20y -

2 3r2 -

2y
and y ady = 20-2 - 4y
S 10 2y 6x
For critical poínts, we solve the ejuationsf,= 0 , , = 0, which are
 241
Partial Derivatives
i.e. 6x +2y= 10
10 2y- 6x 0
=

2x + 4y= 20
i.e.
20 2r4y = 0
Now
Oa solving, we get (0, 5) as the only eritical point.

6, - 2-
f 4

: B=-2, C=-4
At (0, 5), A = 6,
at (0, 5). The
there is local maximum .

Thus AC-B
=
24-4 20> 0. Since A = - 6 <0, a

value of the function at this point is

2 (5} =
50.
(5) - 2 (0) (5)-3 (0)2
-

S0, 5) 10 (0) + 20
for local extrema.
EXAMPLE 45 Examine the function =f(r, y) - + = 27x 4

SOLUTION We have 3x2+27 and 8y

Oy
for and y:
For criticaB points, we solve the following system x

- 3x2+27 = 0
- 8y = 0

the critical points. Now

This gives x =
+ 3 and y =
0. Thus (3, 0) and (-3, 0) are

02= 6x, o' 0, = -8

ox Oy

C- 8, that AC - B =
144> 0.
At (3, 0) A = - 18, B 0, so

Since A = -
18 < 0, it follows that (3, 0) is a local maximum point.
8, that AC - B =-
144< 0.
At (-3, 0) A = 18, B 0, C -
so

SinceAC-B <0, it follows that (-3, 0) is a saddle point.

Absolute Maxima and Minima on Closed Bounded Regions

y) on a closed and
of a continuous function f(x,
procedure for finding the absolute
extrema
The
bounded region R is outlined below

Step 1 Finds, ands,

0 and s, =
0.
points of R wheref,
=
Find all the interior
Step 2
Step 3 Evaluate at cach of the points obtained
in Step 2.
Find all the boundary points of R wherefhas locaB maxima and local minima.
Step 4
Step 5 Evaluate /at cach of the points obtained in Step 4.
242 Calculus
Step 6 The largest of the numbers evaluated in Steps (3) and (5) is the absolute maximum value
offon R and the smallest number is the absolute minimum value..
EXAMPLE 46 Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of
Sa, y) =2+2x+2y--¥
the
on
triangular region in the first quadrant bounded by the lines x =0, y= 0, y=9-x.
SOLUTIOON The triangular region R in the first
quadrant bounded by the lines x =0, y=0,
y=9-x is drawn as shown in
Figure 8.9. We bave
S, 2 2x
I2-2y
Since fis differentiable, the absolute maximum and minimum
values of f can occur at points either inside the triangle or on
the boundary of R. B(O, 9)
(a) Finding points inside the triangle wherefmay have local y=9-x
maxima and minima
For local maxima and
minima, we have
S 2-2x =0, ,=2-2y 0
x = 1,
y=1

Thus, (1, 1) is the only point inside the triangle where y=0 A(9, 0
has an extreme value. The value
fs
offat (1, 1) is
S0, 1) =4. FIGURE 8.9

(b) Finding points on the boundary of R wheref has local maxima and minima
To find such points on the boundary, let us consider one side of
the triangle at a time.
() On the segment OA, y = 0. The function

S y) =fx, 0) = 2 +2x-

may be regarded as a function

now
of x defined on the close interval 0 x s 9. Its extreme
values may occur at the endpoints
r =0 where S0, 0) =2
and where S9,0) 2+ 18-81= -61
and at the interior points wheres"x, 0) =
2-2x =
0. The only interior point where fra, 0) =
0
isx = 1, where

St, 0) =/1, 0) =
3.
(i) On the segment OB, x = 0 and

Se, y) =f(0, y) = 2 + 2y -

We know from the symmetry offin x and y and from the analysis we just caried out that the
candidates on this segment are
S 0 , 9) = - 6 1 , S0, 1)- 3
S0,0)-2,
Partial Derivatives 243

(iin) We have already accounted for the values of fat the endpoints ot As. look
at the interior points of AB. Withy* 9-x, we have

Sa y) =2+2x +2(9 -x) -r-(9-x}= -6!

Setting f(, 9-x)= 18-4x = 0 gives x= . At this valie o:
x

92-9
y-9-5 and S )- 1i}
Thus, we have the following candidates for absolute maximum and minimuiti vaiues

4, 2, -61, 3, -41/2
alue is - 61 and it
The largest amóng all these values is 4 and it occurs at (1, 1). The smalle:*
occurs at (0, 9) and (9, 0).

EXERCISE 8:5
1. Examine the following functions for local maxima and minima:

() So) -2ty--y (i) ftx 3

(ii) fz, y) =r+y -3x (iv) Sr, )
(v) S, y) 3x2 -y2 +
=
(vi) f y
-9x + 1
(vii) f(x, y) =* +3y + 4x-9y +3 (vii) fx, 7
2. Show that the function f(r, y) = 3x+ - 3 x y has a local minim.

Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of fr, y)=2r- , +1 on the
3.
closed triangular plate in the first quadrant bounded by the ine x* 2x
iE-1, 2015]
4. Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of fx, y)=x22 ens2d triangular
~x
plate in the first quadrant bounded by the linesx=0, y=0, y +

ANSWERSANSWERS
1, () Local maximum at (2/3, 2/3))

(in) Local maximum at (0, 0), saddle points: (3, 6)

and (3, - 6)
(ii) Local minimum at (3/2, 0)
(0, 0), (1,0) a*rd
(iv) Local maximum at (1/3, 1/3), saddle points at

(v) Local maximum at (-2, 0) and saddle point at (0, 0)

(vi) Saddle point at (0, 0)

(vi) Local minimum at (-2, 3/2)

(viii) Local minimun at (6, -

3).

3. Absolute maximum : I at (0, 0); Absolute minimum: -5 at ( 2)

4. Absolute maximum: 4 at (0, 2); Absolute minimum : 0 at (0, 0).

 DELHI UNIVERSITY

COURSES-2015

ELECTIVE
FOR HONS.
GENERIC
PAPER:GE-I CALCULUS

SEMESTERI

Maximum Marks: 75
three sections
Time: 3 Hours
questionsfrom
each
of the
Do anyfve
five marks.
Each questionis of
definition to show that
Y Using c-8
as x 1 .

at x=0.
a linearization of : S)=
Find I-x

2r
}For the function fx) =* +
which fis
and the intervals over
which fis increasing
() Find the intervals over

decreasing
(i) Also find points of inflexion, ifany.

Find the asymptotes of the following

function : S()=-
increased from 2 m to 2.02 m :
The radius of a circle is
differentials.
i) Estimate the resulting change in area using
estimate as a percentage of the circle's original area.
(i) Express the

find:lim
sin x-coSx as
Use L'Hôpital's rule to

Section II
Find its volume
The circe x +y* =a* is rotated about the r-axis to generate a sphere.
Find the length of thecurve y =r', 0SxI.
3
ds
Evaluate J - 1 3
-127
10.Graph the curver=l -cos 9 and identify its symmetries.
havg
on a hang glider is spiraling upward due to rapidly rising air on a path
A person
position vector
r()= Jcos ti + 3sintj + ?k
E.2
Calculus
Find:
() the velocity and acceleration vectors
(i) the glider's speed at any time t.
(ii) the times, if any, when the glider's acceleration is
orthogonal to its velocity.
12. Solve the initial value
problem :
Differential equation: -+40i+0j+(20)*
Initial value: r(0)i+ jj

Section IlI
13. Without finding T and N write the acceleration of motion, when:
r()= (sin t-t cos t)i +(cos+ tsin )j, t>0
inthe form:
a a T + aN

14. Show that the function:

f(,y) =
2x y has no limit as (, y)
+
-> (0, 0).
Ow
15. Express and in terms
OS of r and s if

w
x+2y+z, x
= y =*+hs and z= 2r
16. Find equations for:

(a) Tangent Plane

(b) Nomal line at the point Po(1, -1, 3), to the given surface
x2+2xy-y2+z2=7.
17. Find the directions in which the function
S y , 2) = In(y) + In(yz) + In(z)

increases, decreases most rapidly at Po(1, 1, 1). Then find the directional derivatives of the
function in these directions.
18. Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function
Sx.y) 2 - 4x +y2-4y + 1
the tnangular region in the first quadrant, bounded by the lines

x =0, y= 2, y = 2r.
 DELHI UNIVERSITY
cOURSES-2016
HONS.
GENERIC ELECTIVE FOR
PAPER:GE - ICALCULUS

SEMESTERI Maximum Marks: 75

Time: 3 Hours
the three sections.
Do any five questions from each of
Each question is five marks. of
lim (3i-7) 2
Use e-8 definition to show that
=

., x3

equations of the asymptotes for the curve f(x)

=

Find the

3. Find the linearization of f (r)= sin x at xp.

Forfx) =x3- 3x +3
Identify where the extrema of f occur.

down.
up and where it is
concave
(ii) Find where the graph is concave

1-sinx
L'Hôpital's rule to find lim
5 Use
xT12 1+cos 2x
the
bounded by the curve y x2+ 1 and the line y - x +3 is revolved about
=
=

The region
x-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.

Find the length ofthe astroid x= cos, y= sin', 0 i s 2.

Section II
of
8. State Limit Comparison Test. Using the Limit Comparison Test, discuss the convergence

9. ldentify the symmetries of the curve and then sketch the graph of r
=sin 2q.
problem for r as a vector function oft
10. Solve the initial value

Differential equation d
32k
Initial Conditions
r(0)=100k and dr = 8i +8j
dt )o
11. Find the curvature of the helix

r(0)= (acos/)i + (asin )i + btk, a,b 2 0, a*+b * 0

12. Write the acceleration vector a = a, T+ a,N at the given value ofr without finding T and

Nfor the position vector given by

r(0)=(tcost)i+ (1sint)i+r*k, t=0
 Calcuhus

E4

(x.y)+ (0,0)
13. Sbow that St,y)={r +y
(x.y)= (0,0)}
the origin.
is continuous at every point except at

Sy)=y+2vr
-2/
14. If
x-yy
(i) Find the domain of the given functionf(ry).

(i) Evaluate (7,)(0,0)

lim Sx,y)
Section III

using chain rule, when u = In2,

y=1.
15. If z =5 tanr and x = e" + In v, findand
Cu bv
and decrease most rapidly at the
16. Find the directions in which the given functionfincrease
function in those directions.
given point Pa Then, find the derivative of the

Sxy,z) =
-yz, R(4, 1, 1).
y
17. Find the parametric equations for the line tangent to the curve of intersection of the given

surfaces at the given point.

Surfaces: x+y+ 22 =4, x=1
Point (1,1, 1, 1).
18. Find equations for the

(a) Tangent plane and

Normal line at the point P, on the given surface
(b
2-2x2-2y2- 12 0; P(1,-1, 4)
19. Find the absolute maxima and minima ofthefunction ft,y) =x +y on the closed
triangular plate bounded by the lines x = 0,y = 0,y + 2x = 2 in the first quadrant.

20. Iffa.y) =

x cosy + ye', find ayox y

and

dxcy
21. f , y) = x - y and gl», y) = 3y. Show that

8)= 8Vf+fVg

(ii)