ANIMAL NUTRITION AND DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

OUTLINE:

I. Animal Nutrition
 Concept of calories from food
 Nutritional requirements of animals
 Carbohydrates
 Proteins
 Fats
 Essential Nutrients
– Essential amino acids
– Essential fatty acids
– Vitamins
– Trace Elements or Minerals
 Food uptake in cells via the three types of endocytosis
 Phagocytosis
 Pinocytosis
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 Different types of animals based on feeding mechanisms
 substrate-feeders
 filter-feeders
 fluid-feeders
 bulk-feeders
 Different kinds of digestive compartments in animals
 Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms
 Gastro vascular cavity or incomplete digestive system
 Complete digestive system
 Accessory organs for digestion in a complete digestive system
 Liver
 Gallbladder
 Pancreas

II. Digestive system

 Main stages of food processing
 Organs involved in food processing in the human digestive system
 Gastrointestinal Tract (GI) Tract or Alimentary canal
– Mouth/ Oral cavity
– Pharynx
– Esophagus
– Stomach
– Small intestine
– Large intestine or colon
– Rectum
– Anus
 The Accessory Digestive Organs
– Teeth
– Tongue
– Salivary glands
– Liver
– Gall bladder
– Pancreas
 Summary of the mechanisms of digestion and absorption
 How nutrients are delivered into cells
 Regulation of digestion

Objectives:

To define nutrient and cite the nutritional requirements of animals.

To enumerate feeding mechanisms in animals.
To distinguish different kinds of digestive compartments in animals.
To enumerate and describe the main stages of food processing.
To describe the organs involved in food processing in the human digestive system and their roles.
To summarize the mechanisms of digestion, absorption, and delivery of nutrients into cells.
To trace the pathway of food processing in a mammalian/human digestive system.
I. Animal Nutrition

*Nutrient – refers to any substance required for the growth and maintenance of an organism.

1. Concept of calories from food

A Calorie is a unit of energy that indicates the amount of energy contained in food. It specifically refers to the amount of
heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg (2.2 lb.) of water by 1oC (1.8oF). The greater the number of Calories
in a quantity of food, the greater energy it contains (Johnson and Raven, 1996).

2. Nutritional requirements of animals

A. Carbohydrates – serve as a major energy source for the cells in the body. These are usually obtained from grains,
cereals, breads, fruits, and vegetables. On average, carbohydrates contain 4 Calories per gram.

B. Proteins – can also be used as an energy source but the body mainly uses these as building materials for cell
structures and as enzymes, hormones, parts of muscles, and bones. Proteins come from dairy products, poultry, fish,
meat, and grains. Like carbohydrates, proteins also contain 4 Calories per gram.

C. Fats – are used to build cell membranes, steroid hormones, and other cellular structures; also used to insulate nervous
tissue, and also serve as an energy source. Fats also contain certain fat- soluble vitamins that are important for good
health. Fats are obtained from oils, margarine, butter, fried foods, meat, and processed snack foods. They contain a
higher amount of energy per gram than carbohydrates or proteins, about 9 Calories per gram.

D. Essential Nutrients – include substances that animals can only get from the foods they eat because they could not be
synthesized inside the body. These include:

D.1. Essential amino acids – needed for synthesis of proteins and enzymes; among the 20 amino acids, eight
could not be synthesized by humans: lysine, tryptophan, threonine, methionine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine and
valine.

D.2. Essential fatty acids – used for making special membrane lipids; an example is linoleic acid in humans.

D.3. Vitamins – organic molecules required in small amounts for normal metabolism; examples include fat-
soluble Vitamins A, D, E, K, and water-soluble Vitamins B, B2, B3, B12, C.

D.4. Trace Elements or Minerals – inorganic nutrients needed by the body in minute amounts; these form part of
enzymes, body tissues, and body fluids; examples include: iodine, cobalt, zinc, molybdenum, manganese, selenium.

3. Food uptake in cells via the three types of endocytosis

A. phagocytosis – engulfment of organic fragments or big particles,

Example: pseudopod formation in Amoeba.

B. pinocytosis – uptake of extracellular fluid by a cell using small vesicles derived from the plasma membrane.

C. receptor-mediated endocytosis – this relies on membrane receptor recognition of specific solutes which are then
taken up by the cell via receptor-coated pits.

4. Different types of animals based on feeding mechanisms

A. substrate-feeders – animals that live in or on their food source.

Examples: earthworms that feed through the soil where they live in; caterpillars that eat through the leaves where they live
on.

B. filter-feeders – include many aquatic animals which draw in water and strain small organisms and food particles
present in the medium.
Examples: whales and coelenterates

C. fluid-feeders – suck fluids containing nutrients from a living host.

Examples: mosquitoes, leeches, head lice, aphids

D. bulk-feeders – eat relatively large chunks of food and have adaptations like jaws, teeth, tentacles, claws, pincers, etc.
that help in securing the food and tearing it to pieces.
Examples: snakes, cats, man

5. Different kinds of digestive compartments in animals

A. Food vacuoles in unicellular organisms – these fuse with lysosomes that contain hydrolytic enzymes.
Example: food vacuole in protozoa like Paramecium
B. Gastro vascular cavity or incomplete digestive system – composed of a single opening through which food is taken
in and where wastes are disposed of; it is a saclike body cavity.
Examples: in the cnidarian Hydra and in flatworm Planaria

C. Complete digestive system – essentially like a tube with an opening at one end for taking in food (mouth) and an
opening at the other end where unabsorbed waste materials are eliminated (anus). In between the mouth and anus, are
specialized organs that carry out transport, processing, and absorption of digested nutrients.
Example: human

6. Accessory organs for digestion in a complete digestive system

A. liver – secretes bile for emulsifying fats

B. gallbladder – stores bile produced by the liver

C. pancreas – secretes enzymes that break down all major food molecules; secretes buffers against HCl from the
stomach; secretes the hormone insulin for control of glucose metabolism

II. Digestive System

 Processing of food

 Mechanical (physical)
 Chew
 Tear
 Grind
 Mash
 Mix

 Chemical
 Catabolic reactions
 Enzymatic hydrolysis
 Carbohydrate
 Protein
 Lipid

1. Main stages of food processing

A. Ingestion – the act of eating or feeding; this is coupled with the mechanical breakdown of food into smaller pieces
allowing for a greater surface area for chemical digestion.

B. Digestion – breakdown of food into particles, then into nutrient molecules small enough to be Chemical digestion by
enzymes involves breaking of chemical bonds through the addition of water, i.e., enzymatic hydrolysis.

C. Absorption – passage of digested nutrients and fluid across the tube wall and into the body fluids; the cells take up
(absorb) small molecules such as amino acids and simple sugars.

D. Elimination –expulsion of the undigested and unabsorbed materials from the end of the gut.

2. Organs involved in food processing in the human digestive system

2.1. Gastrointestinal Tract (GI) Tract or Alimentary canal = “tube within a tube”

2.1.A. Mouth/ Oral cavity

- it is where food is initially chewed into shreds by the teeth, and mixed with saliva by the tongue. Saliva is
secreted into the mouth by three pairs of salivary glands located above the upper jaw and below the lower jaw.

2.1.B. Pharynx
- the region in the back of the throat that serves as the entrance to the esophagus that connects to the stomach
and trachea (windpipe) that serves as airway to the lungs. To block breathing as food leaves the pharynx, a flap-like
valve (the epiglottis) and the vocal cords close off the trachea.
2.1.C. Esophagus
- connects the pharynx with the stomach. No digestion takes place within the esophagus but the contractions
within its muscular wall propel the food past a sphincter, into the stomach. The rhythmic waves of contraction of the
smooth muscle wall of the esophagus are called peristaltic contractions or peristalsis. The esophagus is about 25 cm
(10 in.) long.

*deglutition (swallowing)

*Swallowing reflex

1. The soft palate back to close off the nasopharynx (leads to

the nose)
2. The trachea moves up under the epiglottis - a flap that
covers the glottis (opening to air passages)
3. A bolus of food enters the esophagus because of blocked air
passage

*Peristalsis
• A rhythmic contraction pushes the bolus along the
digestive tract
• Begins in the esophagus & continues in all organs of
the digestive tract

*Sphincters
• A point where the esophagus enters the stomach
• Muscles that encircle tubes and act as valves

2.1.D. Stomach
- a muscular, stretchable sac located just below the diaphragm. It has three important functions. First, it mixes
and stores ingested food. Second, it secretes gastric juice (a combination of HCl and acid-stable proteases) that helps
dissolve and degrade the food, particularly proteins. Third, it regulates the passage of food into the small intestine.

- the churning action of the stomach together with the potent acidity of the gastric juice convert food into a thick,
liquid mixture called chyme.

*Chyme - a soupy liquid that leaves the stomach and enters the small intestine through a pyloric sphincter

• 3 muscle layers of the stomach

– Oblique
– Circular
– Longitudinal

• Regions of the stomach

– Cardiac sphincter
– Fundus
– Antrum (pylorus)
– Pyloric sphincter

• Stomach is considered as vascular

Secretions in the stomach:

• Mucus:
Viscous and alkaline
– Protects from acidic chyme and enzyme pepsin
– Irritation of stomach mucosa causes greater mucus
• Intrinsic factor: parietal cells. Binds with vitamin B12 and helps it to be absorbed. B12 necessary for DNA
synthesis
• HCl:
– Kills bacteria
– Stops carbohydrate digestion by inactivating salivary amylase
– Denatures proteins
– Helps convert pepsinogen to pepsin
 • Pepsinogen: chief cells. Pepsin catalyzes breaking of covalent bonds in proteins.
• G-cells: secrete the hormone gastrin which stimulates HCl secretion from parietal cells

2.1.E. Small intestine

- approximately 6 meters long which extends from pyloric
sphincter and is composed of three regions: the duodenum, jejunum,
and ileum

- it is where most enzymatic hydrolysis of the macromolecules

from food occurs. The complete digestion of carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins occurs in the duodenum, about the first 25 cm. of the small
intestine. The rest of the small intestine is devoted to absorbing water
and the products of digestion into the bloodstream.

- Absorption of the end products of digestion takes place in the

ileum, the surface area of which is increased by villi and microvilli
(finger-like projections that increase surface area for absorption).

2.1.F. Large intestine or colon

- much shorter than the small intestine, about 1 meter.

- It concentrates and stores undigested matter by absorbing mineral ions and water. A small amount of fluid,
sodium, and vitamin K are absorbed through its walls.

- Unlike the small intestine, it does not coil up and does not have villi and has only one- thirtieth of the absorptive
surface area of the small intestine.

- Many bacteria live and thrive within the large intestine where they help process undigested material into the final
excretory product, feces.

Regions:

 Cecum
 Ascending colon
 Transverse colon
 Descending colon
 Sigmoid colon
*Vermiform appendix-attached to the cecum
2.1.G. Rectum
- a short extension of the large intestine and is
the final segment of the digestive tract. It is where the
compacted undigested food from the colon are pushed
via peristaltic contractions. The distention of the
rectum triggers expulsion of feces.

2.1.H. Anus
- the terminal opening of the digestive system
through which feces are expelled.

2.2. The Accessory Digestive Organs – not in the tube path

2.2.A. Teeth

- tearing or shredding of food into smaller pieces

*Mastication - Chewing

2.2.B. Tongue

- composed of skeletal muscles that mixes the chewed food with

saliva that forms bolus (a mass of food for swallowing)
*Taste buds

2.2.C. Salivary glands

- located at the sides of the face, below

and in front of ears (parotid gland), beneath the
tongue (sublingual gland), and beneath the floor
of the oral cavity (submandibular gland)

* Saliva- neutral pH; contains antibacterial

agents

* Salivary amylase- an enzyme that begins

process of starch digestion

2.2.D. Liver

- largest gland in the body that is located at the upper right section of the abdominal cavity

Functions:

• Bile production: 600-1000 mL/day. Bile salts (bilirubin),

cholesterol, fats, fat-soluble hormones, lecithin
– Neutralizes and dilutes stomach acid
– Bile salts emulsify fats. Most are reabsorbed in the ileum.
– Secretin (from the duodenum) stimulates bile secretions,
increasing water and bicarbonate ion content of the bile
• Storage
– Glycogen, fat, vitamins, copper and iron. Hepatic portal
blood comes to liver from small intestine.
• Nutrient interconversion
– Amino acids to energy producing compounds
– Hydroxylation of vitamin D. Vitamin D then travels to
kidney where it is hydroxylated again into its active form
• Detoxification
– Hepatocytes remove ammonia and convert to urea
• Phagocytosis
– Kupffer cells phagocytize worn-out & dying red & white
blood cells, some bacteria
• Synthesis
– Albumins, fibrinogen, globulins, heparin, clotting factors

2.2.E. Gall bladder

- stores bile produced by the liver

2.2.F. Pancreas

- lies deep in the abdominal cavity; behind the stomach

that has both an endocrine and an exocrine function

*As an endocrine gland- it secretes insulin & glucagon

(hormones that keep blood glucose level within normal limits)

*As exocrine gland - neutralizes acidic chyme from the

stomach

- pancreatic cells produce pancreatic juice

with sodium bicarbonate

*Pancreatic amylase- digests starch

3. Summary of the mechanisms of digestion and absorption

A. Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth but could not continue in the stomach due to the acidic pH that destroys
the amylase. It resumes in the small intestine where the resulting monosaccharides are absorbed.

B. Proteins are digested in the stomach and small intestine. Resulting amino acids are absorbed in the small intestine
where they leave the intestinal cell and enter the blood through a facilitated diffusion carrier in the plasma membranes on
the opposite side.

C. Fat digestion occurs entirely in the small intestine. Although fatty acids and monoglycerides enter epithelial cells from
the intestinal lumen, it is triglycerides that are released on the other side of the cell and carried by blood capillaries to be
transported throughout the body.

D. Most water-soluble vitamins are absorbed by diffusion or active transport. Fat-soluble vitamins follow the pathway for
fat absorption.

4. How nutrients are delivered into cells

A. Substances pass through the brush border cells that line the free surface of each villus by active transport, osmosis,
and diffusion across the lipid bilayer of plasma membranes.

B. The nutrients then proceed into the internal environment and pass to the blood which is collected into the hepatic portal
vein leading to the liver.

C. After flowing through the liver, the blood carrying the nutrients passes into the hepatic vein which carries the blood
back to the heart to be distributed to the different body tissues.

5. Regulation of digestion

A. The digestive system of animals is regulated in part by other organ systems, especially the nervous and endocrine
systems.

B. The nervous system exerts control on the digestive system in two ways:

I. regulation of muscular and glandular activity by the local nerves in the alimentary canal; and

II. long-distance regulation by the brain.

C. Hormones regulate the rate of digestion.

Place your answers on the separate sheet provided at the end of this activity.
I. Label the diagram

salivary
glands
epiglottis mouth
esophagu tongue
s
liver

liver stomach stomach

transverse
colon
descending
colon
small intestine

appendix
gallbladde pancreas anus rectum
r
 II. Answer what is/are asked on the following:

Pathway of food through the alimentary canal

mouth  1. pharynx  esophagus  2. stomach  duodenum  3. jejunum  ileum  4. cecum  ascending colon
 transverse colon  descending colon  5. sigmoid colon  rectum  anus

6)The body is capable of catabolizing many substances  A) protein
as sources of energy. Which of the following would be  B) starch
used as an energy source only after the depletion of  C) sucrose
other sources? D) glucose
A) fat in adipose tissue E) maltose
B) glucose in the blood
C) protein in muscle cells 14) Which of the following is true of bile salts?
D) glycogen in muscle cells A) They are enzymes.
E) calcium phosphate in bone B) They are manufactured by the pancreas.
C) They emulsify fats in the duodenum.
7)Some nutrients are considered ʺessentialʺ in the diets  D) They increase the efficiency of pepsin action.
of certain animals because ___. E) They are normally an ingredient of gastric juice.
A) only those animals use the nutrients.
B) they are subunits of important polymers. 15)How does the digestion and absorption of fat differ 
C) they cannot be manufactured by the organism. from that of carbohydrates?
D) they are necessary coenzymes. A) Processing of fat does not require any digestive 
E) only some foods contain them enzymes, whereas the processing of
carbohydrates does.
8) Which of the following is a fat-soluble vitamin? B) Fat absorption occurs in the stomach, whereas 
A) vitamin A carbohydrates are absorbed from the small intestine.
B) vitamin B12 C)Carbohydrates need to be emulsified before they can 
C) vitamin C be digested, whereas fats do not.
D) iodine D) Most absorbed fat first enters the lymphatic system, 
E) calcium whereas carbohydrates directly enter the blood.
E)Only fat must be worked on by bacteria in the large int
9)To leave the digestive tract, a substance must cross a  estine before it can be absorbed.
cell membrane. During which stage of food processing 
does this take place? 16)Which of the following would probably contribute to 
A) ingestion constipation? A substance that ____.
B) digestion A) contains plenty of fiber.
C) hydrolysis B) promotes water reabsorption in the large intestine.
D) absorption C)speeds up movement of material in the large intestine.
E) elimination D) decreases water reabsorption in the large intestine.
E) stimulates peristalsis.
10)Intracellular digestion of peptides is usually 
immediately preceded by which process? 17)The pH of the gastric juice of the stomach is about 2 
A) hydrolysis due to the formation of HCl. 
B) endocytosis Where does this formation of HCl occur?
C) absorption A) in the chief cells of the stomach
D) elimination B) in the parietal cells of the stomach
E) secretion C) in the transformation of pepsinogen to pepsin
D) in the lumen of the stomach
11)Which of the following describes peristalsis in the dig E) in the secretions of the esophagus
estive system?
A) a process of fat emulsification in the small intestine 18)Which of the following occurs when digestion of orga
B)voluntary control of the rectal sphincters regulating  nic molecules results in more energy-
defecation rich molecules than are immediately required by the 
C)the transport of nutrients to the liver through the  animal?
hepatic portal vessel A) The excess is eliminated.
D)a common cause of loss of appetite, fatigue, and  B) The excess is stored as starch.
dehydration C) The excess is stored as glycogen.
E)smooth muscle contractions that move food through  D) The excess is oxidized.
the alimentary canal E) The excess is hydrolyzed.

12)After ingestion, the first type of macromolecule to be  19)Oblique layer of muscles is only present in this part of

worked on by enzymes in the human digestive system is the digestive tract.
____. A) esophagus
A) protein. B) stomach
B) carbohydrate. C) intestines
C) cholesterol D) pharynx
D) nucleic acid. E) mouth
E) glucose.
20)Which of the following organs is incorrectlypaired with 
13) What is the substrate of salivary amylase? its function?
A) stomach - protein digestion D) small intestine - nutrient absorption
B) oral cavity - starch digestion E) pancreas - enzyme production
C) large intestine - bile production

III. Enumerate at least 2 diseases/disorders associated with the digestive system

Format: 1.A. Name of disease/disorder
B. Short description
C. Possible cause/s
D. Possible cure or remedy
E. Reference
ANIMAL NUTRITION AND DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ACTIVITY

NAME: ARNOBIT, Ivan Louis C. M2

SECTION: 11 STEM-H

I. LABELING II. ANSWER WHAT IS/ARE ASKED

1. mouth A. Pathway of food through the alimentary canal
2. tongue 1. pharynx
3. salivary glands 2. stomach
4. epiglottis 3. jejunum
5. esophagus 4. cecum
6. liver 5. sigmoid colon
7. stomach B. Multiple Choices
8. transverse colon 6. C
9. descending colon 7. C
10. small intestine 8. A
11. appendix 9. D
12. rectum 10. B
13. anus 11. E
14. stomach 12. B
15. pancreas 13. B
16. gallbladder 14. C
17. liver 15. D
16. B
17. D
18. C
19. B
20. C

III. Enumerate at least 2 diseases/disorders associated with the digestive system

1.
A. Hemorrhoids
B. They are swollen veins due to the inflammation of the blood vessels at the end of your digestive tract.
Sometimes the walls of these blood vessels stretch so thin that the veins bulge and get irritated. They can be painful
and itchy. They are rarely dangerous since they can often go away on their own.
C. Causes include chronic constipation, diarrhea, straining during bowel movements, and a lack of fiber in your diet.
D. They can be treated by eating more fiber, drinking more water, and exercising. Over-the-counter creams and
suppositories may provide temporary relief. However, if cannot be treated through home remedies, medical
consultation is advised for hemorrhoidectomy.
E. https://www.everydayhealth.com/digestive-health/common-digestive-conditions-from-top-bottom/
https://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/understanding-hemorrhoids-basics#1

2.
A. Celiac Disease
B. It is a serious sensitivity to gluten which damages your villi, the finger-like protrusions in your small intestines that
help you absorb nutrients from the foods you eat. Symptoms of celiac disease includes abdominal pain and
bloating, diarrhea, constipation, vomiting, and weight loss.
C. Ingestion of gluten-containing products
D. The only treatment is completely avoid eating gluten.
E. https://www.everydayhealth.com/digestive-health/common-digestive-conditions-from-top-bottom/
https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases