Chapter 24

The theory of matrices and

determinants
Why it is important to understand: The theory of matrices and determinants
Matrices are used to solve problems in electronics, optics, quantum mechanics, statics, robotics, linear
programming, optimisation, genetics, and much more. Matrix calculus is a mathematical tool used in
connection with linear equations, linear transformations, systems of differential equations, and so on,
and is vital for calculating forces, vectors, tensions, masses, loads and a lot of other factors that must be
accounted for in engineering to ensure safe and resource-efficient structure. Electrical and mechanical
engineers, chemists, biologists and scientists all need knowledge of matrices to solve problems. In computer
graphics, matrices are used to project a three-dimensional image on to a two-dimensional screen, and to
create realistic motion. Matrices are therefore very important in solving engineering problems.

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• understand matrix notation

• add, subtract and multiply 2 by 2 and 3 by 3 matrices
• recognise the unit matrix
• calculate the determinant of a 2 by 2 matrix
• determine the inverse (or reciprocal) of a 2 by 2 matrix
• calculate the determinant of a 3 by 3 matrix
• determine the inverse (or reciprocal) of a 3 by 3 matrix

The coefficients of x and y in the simultaneous

24.1 Matrix notation equations
Matrices and determinants are mainly used for the solu- x + 2y = 3
tion of linear simultaneous equations. The theory of
matrices and determinants is dealt with in this chap- 4x − 5y = 6
ter and this theory is then used in Chapter 25 to solve  
1 2
simultaneous equations. become in matrix notation.
4 −5
The coefficients of the variables for linear simul-
taneous equations may be shown in matrix form. Similarly, the coefficients of p, q and r in the equations

Higher Engineering Mathematics. 978-0-415-66282-6, © 2014 John Bird. Published by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.
 276 Higher Engineering Mathematics

1.3 p − 2.0q + r = 7 (b) Adding the corresponding elements gives:

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
3.7 p + 4.8q − 7r = 3 3 1 −4 2 7 −5
⎝4 3 1⎠ + ⎝−2 1 0⎠
4.1 p + 3.8q + 12r = −6
1 4 −3 6 3 4
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1.3 −2.0 1 3+2 1 + 7 −4 + (−5)
become ⎝3.7 4.8 −7⎠ in matrix form. = ⎝4 + (−2) 3 + 1 1+0 ⎠
4.1 3.8 12 1+6 4 + 3 −3 + 4
⎛ ⎞
The numbers within a matrix are called an array and 5 8 −9
the coefficients forming the array are called the ele- = ⎝2 4 1⎠
ments of the matrix. The number of rows in a matrix 7 7 1
is usually specified by m and the number of columns
by n and
 a matrix referred to as an ‘m by n’ matrix. (ii) Subtraction of matrices
2 3 6
Thus, is a ‘2 by 3’ matrix. Matrices cannotbe If A is a matrix and B is another matrix, then ( A − B)
4 5 7
is a single matrix formed by subtracting the elements of
expressed as a single numerical value, but they can often
Section E

B from the corresponding elements of A.

be simplified or combined, and unknown element val-
ues can be determined by comparison methods. Just as
there are rules for addition, subtraction, multiplication Problem 2. Subtract
   
and division of numbers in arithmetic, rules for these −3 0 2 −1
(a) from
operations can be applied to matrices and the rules of 7 −4 −7 4
matrices are such that they obey most of those governing ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
2 7 −5 3 1 −4
the algebra of numbers.
(b) ⎝−2 1 0⎠ from ⎝4 3 1⎠
6 3 4 1 4 −3

24.2 Addition, subtraction and To find matrix A minus matrix B, the elements of B are
multiplication of matrices taken from the corresponding elements of A. Thus:
   
2 −1 −3 0
(a) −7 −
(i) Addition of matrices 4 7 −4
 
Corresponding elements in two matrices may be added 2 − (−3) −1 − 0
=
to form a single matrix. −7 − 7 4 − (−4)
 
5 −1
Problem 1. Add the matrices =
−14 8
   
2 −1 −3 0 ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
(a) and 3 1 −4 2 7 −5
−7 4 7 −4
(b) ⎝4 3 1⎠ − ⎝−2 1 0⎠
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 1 4 −3 6 3 4
3 1 −4 2 7 −5
⎛ ⎞
(b) ⎝4 3 1⎠ and ⎝−2 1 0⎠ 3−2 1 − 7 −4 − (−5)
1 4 −3 6 3 4 = ⎝4 − (−2) 3 − 1 1−0 ⎠
1−6 4 − 3 −3 − 4
⎛ ⎞
(a) Adding the corresponding elements gives: 1 −6 1
    =⎝ 6 2 1⎠
2 −1 −3 0
+ −5 1 −7
−7 4 7 −4
 
2 + (−3) −1 + 0
= Problem 3. If
−7 + 7 4 + (−4)    
  −3 0 2 −1
−1 −1 A= ,B= and
= 7 −4 −7 4
0 0
 The theory of matrices and determinants 277

  Hence 2 A − 3B + 4C
1 0      
C= find A + B − C −6 0 6 −3 4 0
−2 −4 = − +
14 −8 −21 12 −8 −16
   
−1 −1 −6 − 6 + 4 0 − (−3) + 0
A+B = =
0 0 14 − (−21) + (−8) −8 − 12 + (−16)
 
(from Problem 1) −8 3
    =
27 −36
−1 −1 1 0
Hence, A + B − C = −
0 0 −2 −4
  When a matrix A is multiplied by another matrix B,
−1 − 1 −1 − 0
= a single matrix results in which elements are obtained
0 − (−2) 0 − (−4)
  from the sum of the products of the corresponding rows
−2 −1 of A and the corresponding columns of B.
=
2 4 Two matrices A and B may be multiplied together,
provided the number of elements in the rows of matrix
Alternatively A + B − C A are equal to the number of elements in the columns of

Section E
matrix B. In general terms, when multiplying a matrix
     
−3 0 2 −1 1 0 of dimensions (m by n) by a matrix of dimensions (n by
= + − r ), the resulting matrix has dimensions (m by r ). Thus
7 −4 −7 4 −2 −4
a 2 by 3 matrix multiplied by a 3 by 1 matrix gives a
  matrix of dimensions 2 by 1.
−3 + 2 − 1 0 + (−1) − 0
=    
7 + (−7) − (−2) −4 + 4 − (−4) 2 3 −5 7
  Problem 5. If A = and B =
−2 −1 1 −4 −3 4
= as obtained previously find A × B
2 4
 
C C12
Let A × B = C where C = 11
C21 C22
(iii) Multiplication C11 is the sum of the products of the first row elements
When a matrix is multiplied by a number, called scalar of A and the first column elements of B taken one at a
multiplication, a single matrix results in which each time,
element of the original matrix has been multiplied by
the number. i.e. C11 = (2 × (−5)) + (3 × (−3)) = −19
  C12 is the sum of the products of the first row elements
−3 0
Problem 4. If A = , of A and the second column elements of B, taken one
7 −4 at a time,
⎛ ⎞
  1 0
2 −1 i.e. C12 = (2 × 7) + (3 × 4) = 26
B= and C = ⎝ ⎠ find
−7 4 −2 −4 C21 is the sum of the products of the second row
2 A − 3B + 4C elements of A and the first column elements of B, taken
one at a time,
For scalar multiplication, each element is multiplied by
the scalar quantity, hence i.e. C21 = (1 × (−5)) + (−4 × (−3)) = 7
    Finally, C22 is the sum of the products of the second
−3 0 −6 0
2A = 2 = row elements of A and the second column elements of
7 −4 14 −8
    B, taken one at a time,
2 −1 6 −3
3B = 3 = i.e. C22 = (1 × 7) + ((−4) × 4) = −9
−7 4 −21 12  
    −19 26
1 0 4 0 Thus, A × B =
and 4C = 4 = 7 −9
−2 −4 −8 −16
 278 Higher Engineering Mathematics

Problem 6. Simplify Problem 8. Determine

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
3 4 0 2 1 0 3 2 2 0
⎝−2 6 −3⎠ × ⎝ 5⎠ ⎝2 1 2⎠ × ⎝1 3 2⎠
7 −4 1 −1 1 3 1 3 2 0

The sum of the products of the elements of each row of The sum of the products of the elements of each row of
the first matrix and the elements of the second matrix, the first matrix and the elements of each column of the
(called a column matrix), are taken one at a time. second matrix are taken one at a time. Thus:
Thus: ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 0 3 2 2 0
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎝2 1 2⎠ × ⎝1 3 2⎠
3 4 0 2
⎝−2 6 −3⎠ × ⎝ 5⎠ 1 3 1 3 2 0
7 −4 1 −1 ⎛ ⎞
[(1 × 2) [(1 × 2) [(1 × 0)
⎛ ⎞ ⎜ + (0 × 1) + (0 × 3) + (0 × 2) ⎟
(3 × 2) + (4 × 5) + (0 × (−1)) ⎜ ⎟
= ⎝(−2 × 2) + (6 × 5) + (−3 × (−1))⎠ ⎜ + (3 × 3)] + (3 × 2)] + (3 × 0)]⎟
⎜ ⎟
(7 × 2) + (−4 × 5) + (1 × (−1)) ⎜[(2 × 2) [(2 × 2) [(2 × 0) ⎟
Section E

⎜ ⎟
⎛ ⎞ ⎜
= ⎜ + (1 × 1) + (1 × 3) + (1 × 2) ⎟
⎟
26 ⎜ + (2 × 3)] + (2 × 2)] + (2 × 0)]⎟
= ⎝ 29⎠ ⎜ ⎟
⎜[(1 × 2) [(1 × 2) [(1 × 0) ⎟
−7 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ + (3 × 1) + (3 × 3) + (3 × 2) ⎠
⎛ ⎞ + (1 × 3)] + (1 × 2)] + (1 × 0)]
3 4 0 ⎛ ⎞
11 8 0
Problem 7. If A = ⎝−2 6 −3⎠ and = ⎝11 11 2⎠
7 −4 1
⎛ ⎞ 8 13 6
2 −5
B = ⎝ 5 −6⎠, find A × B
−1 −7 In algebra, the commutative law of multiplication states
that a × b =b × a. For matrices, this law is only true in
a few special cases, and in general A × B is not equal
The sum of the products of the elements of each
to B × A
row of the first matrix and the elements of each col-
umn of the second matrix are taken one at a time.  
2 3
Thus: Problem 9. If A = and
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ 1 0
 
3 4 0 2 −5 2 3
⎝−2 B= show that A × B = B × A
6 −3⎠ × ⎝ 5 −6⎠ 0 1
7 −4 1 −1 −7
   
⎛ ⎞ 2 3 2 3
[(3 × 2) [(3 × (−5)) A×B = ×
1 0 0 1
⎜ + (4 × 5) +(4 × (−6)) ⎟  
⎜ ⎟
⎜ + (0 × (−1))] +(0 × (−7))] ⎟ [(2 × 2) + (3 × 0)] [(2 × 3) + (3 × 1)]
⎜ ⎟ =
⎜[(−2 × 2) [(−2 × (−5)) ⎟ [(1 × 2) + (0 × 0)] [(1 × 3) + (0 × 1)]
⎜ ⎟  
⎜
= ⎜ + (6 × 5) +(6 × (−6)) ⎟ ⎟ 4 9
⎜ + (−3 × (−1))] +(−3 × (−7))]⎟ =
⎜ ⎟ 2 3
⎜[(7 × 2) [(7 × (−5)) ⎟    
⎜ ⎟
⎝ + (−4 × 5) +(−4 × (−6)) ⎠ 2 3 2 3
B×A= ×
+ (1 × (−1))] +(1 × (−7))] 0 1 1 0
 
⎛ ⎞ [(2 × 2) + (3 × 1)] [(2 × 3) + (3 × 0)]
26 −39 =
[(0 × 2) + (1 × 1)] [(0 × 3) + (1 × 0)]
= ⎝ 29 −5⎠  
−7 −18 7 6
=
1 0
 The theory of matrices and determinants 279
   
4 9 7 6
Since  = , then A × B = B × A
2 3 1 0 12. D×F
13. Show that A × C = C × A

Now try the following Practice Exercise

24.3 The unit matrix
Practice Exercise 105 Addition,
subtraction and multiplication of matrices A unit matrix, I, is one in which all elements of the
(Answers on page 846) leading diagonal (\) have a value of 1 and all other ele-
ments have a value of 0. Multiplication of a matrix by
In Problems 1 to 13, the matrices A to K are: I is the equivalent of multiplying by 1 in arithmetic.
   
3 −1 5 2
A= B=
−4 7 −1 6
  24.4 The determinant of a 2 by 2
−1.3 7.4 matrix
C=
2.5 −3.9  

Section E
a b
⎛ ⎞ The determinant of a 2 by 2 matrix is defined
4 −7 6 c d
D = ⎝−2 4 0⎠ as (ad − bc)
5 7 −4 The elements of the determinant of a matrix are
⎛ ⎞
written
 between

Thus,
vertical lines.
the determinant
3 −4
3 −4

3 6 2 of is written as


and is equal to
E = ⎝ 5 −3 7⎠ 1 6 1 6

−1 0 2 (3 × 6) −(−4 × 1), i.e. 18 − (−4) or 22. Hence the

determinant of a matrix
can
be expressed as a single
⎛ ⎞
3 −4

3.1 2.4 6.4   numerical value, i.e.

= 22
F = ⎝−1.6 3.8 −1.9 ⎠ G=
6 1 6

−2
5.3 3.4 −4.8
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ Problem 10. Determine the value of
  4 1 0

−2
3 −2

H= J = ⎝−11⎠ K = ⎝0 1⎠

5
7 1 0
7 4

In Problems 1 to 12, perform the matrix operation

stated.
3 −2

= (3 × 4) − (−2 × 7)

7 4

1. A+ B
2. D+E = 12 − (−14) = 26

3. A− B

+ j) j 2

4. A+ B −C Problem 11. Evaluate

(1 − j 3 (1 − j 4)

5. 5 A + 6B

6. 2D + 3E − 4F
(1 + j ) j 2

− j 3 (1 − j 4)
= (1 + j )(1 − j 4) − ( j 2)(− j 3)
7. A×H
= 1 − j 4 + j − j 24 + j 26
8. A×B
= 1 − j 4 + j − (−4) + (−6)
9. A×C
since from Chapter 22, j 2 = −1
10. D×J
= 1− j4+ j + 4 − 6
11. E×K = −1 − j 3
 280 Higher Engineering Mathematics

Multiplying the matrices on the left-hand side, gives

5∠30◦ 2∠−60◦
   
Problem 12. Evaluate

a + 2c b + 2d 1 0
3∠60◦ 4∠−90◦
=
3a + 4c 3b + 4d 0 1

5∠30◦ 2∠−60◦
Equating corresponding elements gives:


◦ ◦

3∠60◦ 4∠−90◦
= (5∠30 )(4∠−90 ) b + 2d = 0, i.e. b = −2d
◦ ◦
− (2∠−60 )(3∠60 ) 4
and 3a + 4c = 0, i.e. a = − c
3
= (20∠−60◦ ) − (6∠0◦ ) Substituting for a and b gives:
⎛ ⎞
= (10 − j 17.32) − (6 + j 0) 4
⎜ − c + 2c −2d + 2d ⎟  
⎜ 3 ⎟ 1 0
= (4 − j 17.32) or 17.78∠−77◦ ⎜   ⎟=
⎝ 4 ⎠ 0 1
3 − c + 4c 3(−2d) + 4d
3
Now try the following Practice Exercise ⎛2 ⎞
 
c 0
i.e. ⎝3 ⎠= 1 0
Section E

Practice Exercise 106 2 by 2 determinants 0 1

(Answers on page 846) 0 −2d
  2 3 1
3 −1 showing that c = 1, i.e. c = and −2d = 1, i.e. d = −
1. Calculate the determinant of 3 2 2
−4 7 4
Since b = −2d, b =1 and since a =− c, a =−2
2. Calculate
 the determinant of
 3
−2 5    
1 2 a b
3 −6 Thus the inverse of matrix
3 4
is
c d
that is,
⎛ ⎞
3. Calculate
 the determinant
 of −2 1
−1.3 7.4 ⎝ 3 1⎠
2.5 −3.9 −
2 2

j2 − j 3

There is, however, a quicker method of obtaining the

4. Evaluate

(1 + j ) j
inverse of a 2 by 2 matrix.
 


p q

2∠40◦ 5∠−20◦
For any matrix the inverse may be


r s
5. Evaluate

obtained by:

7∠−32◦ 4∠−117◦

  (i) interchanging the positions of p and s,

(x − 2) 6
6. Given matrix A = , (ii) changing the signs of q and r , and
2 (x − 3)
determine values of x for which | A | = 0 (iii) multiplying this new
 matrix
 by the reciprocal of
p q
the determinant of
r s
 
24.5 The inverse or reciprocal of a 1 2
Thus the inverse of matrix is
2 by 2 matrix 3 4
⎛ ⎞
  −2 1
The inverse of matrix A is A −1 such that A × A−1 = I , 1 4 −2
the unit matrix.  =⎝ 3 1⎠
 4 − 6 −3 1 −
1 2 2 2
Let matrix A be and let the inverse matrix, A−1
3 4
  as obtained previously.
a b
be
c d Problem 13. Determine the inverse of
−1 I ,  
Then, sinceA × A =    3 −2
1 2 a b 1 0
× = 7 4
3 4 c d 0 1
 The theory of matrices and determinants 281
 
p q (ii) The sign of a minor depends on its position
⎛ within
⎞
The inverse of matrix is obtained by inter-
r s + − +
changing the positions of p and s, changing the signs the matrix, the sign pattern being ⎝− + −⎠.
of q and r and

multiplying

by the reciprocal of the + − +

p q

determinant

. Thus, the inverse of Thus
⎛ the signed-minor
⎞ of element 4 in the matrix
r s
1 2 3

⎝4 5 6⎠ is −
2 3
= −(−6) = 6
   
8 9

3 −2 1 4 2 7 8 9
=
7 4 (3 × 4) − (−2 × 7) −7 3
⎛ ⎞ The signed-minor of an element is called the
2 1
  cofactor of the element.
1 4 2 ⎜ 13 13 ⎟
= =⎜ ⎟
26 −7 3 ⎝ −7 3 ⎠ (iii) The value of a 3 by 3 determinant is the
26 26 sum of the products of the elements and their
cofactors of any row or any column of the
corresponding 3 by 3 matrix.
Now try the following Practice Exercise There are thus six different ways of evaluating a 3 × 3

Section E
determinant – and all should give the same value.
Practice Exercise 107 The inverse of 2 by 2
matrices (Answers on page 846) Problem 14. Find the value of
 

3 −1
3 4 −1

1. Determine the inverse of

−4 7
2 0 7

⎛ ⎞
1 −3 −2

1 2
⎜ 2 3⎟⎟
2. Determine the inverse of ⎜ The value of this determinant is the sum of the products
⎝ 1 3⎠
− − of the elements and their cofactors, of any row or of any
3 5 column. If the second row or second column is selected,
  the element 0 will make the product of the element and
−1.3 7.4
3. Determine the inverse of its cofactor zero and reduce the amount of arithmetic to
2.5 −3.9
be done to a minimum.
Supposing a second row expansion is selected. The
minor of 2 is the value of the determinant remain-
ing when the row and column containing the 2 (i.e.
the second row and the first column),

is covered

up.
24.6 The determinant of a 3 by 3
4 −1

matrix Thus the cofactor of element 2 is

i.e. −11
−3 −2

The sign of element 2 is minus (see (ii) above), hence

(i) The minor of an element of a 3 by 3 matrix is the cofactor of element 2, (the signed-minor)


is +11
the value of the 2 by 2 determinant obtained by
3 4

Similarly the minor of element 7 is

i.e. −13,
covering up the row and column containing that 1 −3

element. ⎛ ⎞ and its cofactor is +13. Hence the value of the sum
1 2 3
of the products of the elements and their cofactors is
Thus for the matrix ⎝4 5 6⎠ the minor of
2 × 11 +7 × 13, i.e.,
7 8 9

element 4 is obtained ⎛by⎞covering the row

3 4 −1

1
2 0 7

= 2(11) +0 +7(13) =113

(4 5 6) and the column ⎝4⎠, leaving the 2 by

1 −3 −2

7

2 3
The same result will be obtained whichever row or
2 determinant

, i.e. the minor of element 4
8 9
column is selected. For example, the third column
is (2 × 9) − (3 × 8) =−6 expansion is
 282 Higher Engineering Mathematics

2 0

3 4

3 4

(−1)

− 7
+ (−2)

Now try the following Practice Exercise
1 −3

1 −3

2 0

= 6 + 91 + 16 = 113, as obtained previously. Practice Exercise 108 3 by 3 determinants

(Answers on page 847)

1 4 −3

Problem 15. Evaluate

−5 2 6

1. Find the matrix of minors of

−1 −4 2
⎛ ⎞
4 −7 6


⎝−2 4 0⎠

1 4 −3

5 7 −4
Using the first row:

−5 2 6

−1 −4 2
2. Find the matrix of cofactors of






⎛ ⎞

2 6

−5 6

−5 2

= 1

− 4

+ (−3)
4 −7 6
−4 2
−1 2
−1 −4
⎝−2 4 0⎠
= (4 + 24) − 4(−10 + 6) − 3(20 + 2) 5 7 −4

= 28 + 16 − 66 = −22 3. Calculate the determinant of

Section E

⎛ ⎞

1 4 −3

4 −7 6

Using the second column:

−5 2 6

⎝−2 4 0⎠

−1 −4 2
5 7 −4

−5 6





8 −2 −10

= −4

+ 2
1 −3
−(−4)
1 −3

−1 2

−1 2

−5 6
4. Evaluate

2 −3 −2

6 3 8

= −4(−10 + 6) + 2(2 − 3) + 4(6 − 15)

5. Calculate the determinant of
= 16 − 2 − 36 = −22 ⎛ ⎞
3.1 2.4 6.4
Problem 16. Determine the value of ⎝−1.6 3.8 −1.9⎠

j2 (1 + j ) 3

5.3 3.4 −4.8

j2

(1 − j ) 1 j

2 j

0 j4 5
6. Evaluate

(1 + j ) 1 −3

5 − j4 0

Using the first column, the value of the determinant is:

3∠60◦

j2 1

1 j

(1 + j ) 3
7. Evaluate

0 (1 + j ) 2∠30◦

( j 2)

− (1 − j )


0 2 j5

j 4 5

j4 5

8. Find the eigenvalues λ that satisfy the follow-

(1 + j ) 3

ing equations:
+ (0)

1 j

(2 − λ) 2

(a)
=0
= j 2(5 − j 24) − (1 − j )(5 + j 5 − j12) + 0 −1 (5 − λ)

= j 2(9) − (1 − j )(5 − j7)

(5 − λ) 7 −5

(b)

0 (4 − λ) −1

= 0
= j 18 − [5 − j 7 − j5 + j 27]
2 8 (−3 − λ)

= j 18 − [−2 − j 12] (You may need to refer to Chapter 1, pages

◦ 10–14, for the solution of cubic equations).
= j 18 + 2 + j 12 = 2 + j 30 or 30.07∠86.19