Introduction To Memory and Key Characteristics of Memory

I N T R O D U C T I O N T O M E M O RY A N D
KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF
M E M O RY
• Introduction to Memory
– memory system is to provide the programmer
with a large storage capacity for programs and
data and to provide this information on demand
to the CPU in a timely fashion.
• Limiting factor:
– in determining how fast the CPU can execute
instructions is often the speed with which it can
fetch instructions and operands from memory.
• There are two types of memories that
communicate directly with the CPU:
– read/write random-access memory (RAM) and
– read-only memory (ROM)
• ROM:
– programmable logic device
– stored information is embedded in the solid-
state circuitry
– stored either during its manufacture or by
being programmed in later via electrical
impulses.
– Once the information has been stored in ROM,
it can be read but not altered.
• RAM:
– Random" refers to any piece of data can be
returned in a constant time, regardless of its
physical location and whether or not it is
related to the previous piece of data.
– RAM  volatile types of memory (such as DRAM
memory modules), where the information is
lost after the power is switched off.
Memory Block Diagram
• A basic memory n Data Input Lines
system is shown here: n
• k address lines are

k Address Lines Memory
Unit
decoded to address 2k k
2k Words
words of memory. 1 n Bits per Word
• Each word is n bits. Read
1
• Read and Write are Write
single control lines n

defining the simplest
n Data Output Lines
of memory operations.
MEMORY UNITS
• The capacity of a memory unit is usually stated as the total
numbers of bytes that can store.
Term Normal Usage of Power

Usage
K (Kilo) 103 210 = 1,024
M (Mega) 106 220 = 1,048,576
G (Giga) 109 230 = 1,073,741,824
T (Tera) 1011 240 = 1,099,511,627,776
KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF MEMORY
• Location
– CPU • Performance
– Internal (main) – Access time
– External (secondary) – Cycle time
• Capacity – Transfer rate
– Word size • Physical type
– Number of words – Semiconductor
• Unit of Transfer – Magnetic surface
– Word – Optical
– Block • vii. Physical
• Access methods characteristics
– Sequential access – Volatile/non volatile
– Direct access – Erasable/non erasable
– Random access
– Associative access
Key Characteristics of Memory
• Location
– CPU -> in the form of CPU registers, which
are used by CPU as its local memory
– Internal (main)- main memory
– External (secondary) -> consists of peripheral
device, such as disk and tape that are
accessible to CPU via I/O controllers
CAPACITY
• Capacity
– Word size- number of bytes
– Number of words-also depends on the number of words in
memory.
– Total capacity of internal memory can be calculated as follows:
• Total memory= Number of words in memory * word length
• Number of words=2address bus width
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
OF MEMORY (CONT..)
• Unit of transfer
– Word
• For the internal memory, the unit of transfer is equal to the
number of data lines into and out of the main memory
module. This is equal to the one word length, but it may not
be. The common word lengths are 8,16,and 32 bits.
– Block
• For external memory, the data often transferred in much
longer units than a word, and these are referred to as Blocks.
ACCESS METHODS
• The method of accessing data can be

categorized into four types :
– Sequential Access
• Memory is organized into units of data, called Records.
• Access must be made in a specific linear sequence .
• Stored addressing information is used to separate records
and assist in the retrieval process shared read/ write
mechanism is used , and this must be moved its current
location to the desired location , passing and rejecting
each intermediate record .
• Thus the time to access an arbitrary record is highly
variable.
ACCESS METHODS
– Direct Access
• As with sequential access, direct access involved a shared read write
mechanism.
• However, individual blocks or records have a unique address based on
physical location.
• Access is accomplished by general access to reach a general vicinity
plus sequential searching, counting, waiting to reach the final location.
• Again access time is variable.
ACCESS METHODS
– Random Access
• Each addressable location in the memory has unique,
physically wired- in addressing mechanism.
• The time to access a given location is independent of the
sequences of prior access and is constant.
• Thus any location can be selected at random and directly
addressed and accessed .
• The main memory systems are a random access.
– Associative access
• This is Random access type that enables

one to make a comparison of desired bit
locations within a word for specific
match and to do this for all words
simultaneously .
• Thus a word is retrieved based on a
portion of its contents rather than its
address .
• As with ordinary random access memory
each location has its own addressing
mechanism and retrieval time is
constant independent of location or prior
access patterns.
PERFORMANCE
• Access Time:
• The time required to read/write the data from /into
desired record is called Access time.
• The access time is depends on amount of data to be
read/write in the desired record .
• If the amount data is uniform for all records then the
access time is same for all records.
• Cycle Time:
• Cycle time= access time+ time required to locate desired
record.
• For Random access method ,:
– this memory cycle time is same for all records ,because the time to
access a given record is independent of the location.
• for the sequential access and direct access ,
– the memory cycle time is different because the time to locate a
given record is depend of the position of desired record with respect
to first record and access time same for all records.
PERFORMANCE
• Transfer rate:
• The rate at which the data can be transferred into or out of a
memory unit.
– For random access memory it is equal to 1/cycle

time
– For non random access memory the following
relationship holds:
• Tn =Ta +(N/R )
– Where
– Tn = Average time to read or write N bits
– Ta =Average access time
– N = Number of bits
– R = Transfer rate ,in bits per second (BPS)
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
OF MEMORY (CONT..)
• Physical Type: so popular memory

– Semiconductor
– Magnetic Surface
– Optical
• Physical Characteristics
– Volatile/non volatile-
• information decays when electrical power is lost.
– Erasable/non erasable-
• the information once record remains without deterioration
until deliberately changed.
• No electrical power is needed to retain the information.
REFERENCES
• William Stallings “Computer Organization and

architecture”, Prentice Hall, 7th edition, 2006.

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I N T R O D U C T I O N T O M E M O RY A N D

• k address lines are

single control lines n

Term Normal Usage of Power

• The method of accessing data can be

• This is Random access type that enables

– For random access memory it is equal to 1/cycle

• Physical Type: so popular memory

• William Stallings “Computer Organization and

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