Electromagnetics

ACEE4-M
Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering – TUP Manila

Module 2
Coulomb’s Law & Electric Field Intensity

Contents
• Module Focus
• Introduction
• Power Words
• Lecture Notes
A. Experimental Law of Coulomb
B. Electric Field Intensity
C. Electric Field Intensity due to a Continuous Volume Charge Distribution
C.a. Field of a Line Charge
C.b. Field of a Surface Charge
• Homework
• References

Module Focus
After working with this module, the learner should be able to,

• Identify the coulomb as the unit of charge

• Identify the connection between the type of charge on an object and the type of
interaction with other objects
• Understand Coulomb's law and the factors which effect electrical force.
• Define electric field and recognize the variables which affect the electric field intensity at
a given location.
• Differentiate the electric field intensity due to a point charge, a line charge and a surface
charge.
• Understand the concept and uses of streamlines and sketches.

Introduction
In this module, you will learn about the Experimental Law of Coulomb, its mathematical

equation in scalar form and in vector form. The tools that will be developed can be used to solve any
problem in which forces between static charges are to be evaluated. You will also learn the electric field

intensity of a point change and continuous volume charge distribution, such as the electric field

produce by a line charge and that also of a surface charge.

 Power Words
Coulomb’ Law Electric Field Electric Field Intensity Line charge

Surface charge Continuous Volume Charge Distribution Coulomb

Electric Force free space permittivity of free space mutual force

amber effect Van de Graaff Generator Law of Charges

axial symmetry

Lecture Notes
❖ WEEK - 7
A. The Experimental Law of Coulomb

Records from at least 600 B.C. show evidence of the knowledge of static electricity. The Greeks

were responsible for the term electricity, derived from their word for amber, and they spent many

leisure hours rubbing a small piece of amber on their sleeves and observing how it would then attract
pieces of fluff and stuff.

Source: courses.lumenlearning.com

Figure 1: Shows how charges are transferred when amber is rubbed in cloth

• Main interest lay in philosophy and logic, not in experimental science’

• Dr. Gilbert, physician to Her Majesty the Queen of England, was the first to do any true
experimental work with this effect.

• An officer in the French Army Engineers, Colonel Charles Coulomb, performed an

elaborate series of experiments using a delicate torsion balance, invented by himself, to

determine quantitatively the force exerted between two objects, each having a static
charge of electricity. His published result bears a great similarity to Newton’s

gravitational law (discovered about a hundred years earlier).

Page | 2
 Coulomb stated that the force between two very small objects separated in a vacuum or free
space by a distance, which is large compared to their size, is proportional to the charge on each and

inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them, or

Source: en.wikipedia.org

𝑞 𝑞
F1 = F 2 = 𝑘 𝑒 1 2 2 ( scalar form ) --------------------------- (1)
𝑟

where: F1 & F2 are the electric force, N (attractive or repulsive)

ke – Coulomb’s constant
= 8.9875 x 109 N • m2 / C2
1
=
4𝜋𝜖𝑂
𝜖𝑂 - permittivity of free space
= 8.8542 x 10 C2 / N • m2 or F/m
q1 and q2 - the signed magnitude of charges, C
r - the distance between charges, m

Source: slideplayer.com

Figure 2: Similarities between Coulomb’s Law and Universal Gravitational Law

To write the vector form of (1), we need the additional fact that the force acts along the
line joining the two charges,

Figure 3. If Q1 and Q2 have like signs, the vector force F2 on Q2 is in the

same direction as the vector R12.

and is repulsive if the charges are alike in sign or attractive if they are of opposite sign.

Page | 3
 Let the vector r1 locate Q1, whereas r2 locates Q2. Then the vector R12 = r2 − r1
represents the directed line segment from Q1 to Q2, as shown in Figure 3. The vector
F2 is the force on Q2 and is shown for the case where Q1 and Q2 have the same sign.

The vector form of Coulomb’s law is

F2 = 𝑘 𝑒 𝑄1 𝑄22 𝑎12 ( vector form ) --------------------------- (2)

4𝜋𝜖𝑂𝑅 12

where 𝑎12 = a unit vector in the direction of R12, or

𝑹𝟏𝟐
𝑎12 = = 𝒓𝟐− 𝒓𝟏
/𝑹𝟏𝟐/ /𝒓𝟐−𝒓𝟏/

The force expressed by Coulomb’s law is a mutual force, for each of the two
charges experience a force of the same magnitude, although of opposite direction.
𝑄1 𝑄2
F1 = - F2 = 𝑎21 =−
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝑎12 ------------------ (3)
2
4𝜋𝜖𝑂𝑅12 4𝜋𝜖𝑂𝑅212

➢ Sample Problem

Given two point charges Q1 = 3 × 10−4 C at A(1, 2, 3) and Q2 = −10 x 10−4 C at B(2, 0, 5)
in a vacuum. We desire the force exerted on Q1 by Q2.
z
-Q2 at B(2, 0, 5)

B aR Q1 at A(1, 2, 3)

y
o

Solution.
We use (2) to obtain the vector force. The vector R is

R = A − B = (1 − 2)ax + (2 − 0)ay + (3 − 5)az =- ax + 2ay - 2az

thus, |R| = 3, and the unit vector, aR = 1 (− ax + 2ay - 2az )

3

therefore, F 3𝑥10−4(−1𝑥10−4) 1 a + 2a - 2a ))
1 = ( (− x y z
4𝜋𝜖𝑂 (32) 3

F1 = 10ax - 20ay + 20az ------------ answer

Page | 4
 ➢ Practice Problems

1. A charge QA = −20μC is located at A(−6, 4, 7), and a charge QB = 50μC is at B(5, 8,−2) in free
space. If distances are given in meters, find: (a) RAB; (b) RAB. Determine the vector force
exerted on QA by QB if ε0 = (c) 10−9/(36π) F/m; (d) 8.854 × 10−12 F/m.

Ans. (a) 11ax + 4ay − 9az m; (b) 14.76 m; (c) 30.76ax + 11.184ay − 25.16az mN;
(d) 30.72ax + 11.169ay − 25.13az mN

❖ Week – 8

B. Electric Field Intensity

Consider one charge fixed in position, say Q1, and move a second charge slowly around,
we note that there exists everywhere a force on this second charge; in other words, this second
charge is displaying the existence of a force field that is associated with charge, Q1. Call this
second charge a test charge Qt . The force on it is given by Coulomb’s law,

z
Qt Ft

Q1

y
o
x

𝑄1 𝑄𝑡
Ft =
4𝜋𝜖𝑂𝑅2

Writing this force as a force per unit charge gives the electric field intensity, E1 arising from Q1:

𝐹𝑡
E1 = =
𝑄1
------------------- ( 4 )
𝑄𝑡 4𝜋𝜖𝑂𝑅2

E1 is interpreted as the vector force, arising from charge Q1, that acts on a unit positive test charge.
More generally, we write the defining expression:

𝐹𝑡
E= -------------------- ( 5 )
𝑄𝑡

in which E, a vector function, is the electric field intensity evaluated at the test charge location that arises
from all other charges in the vicinity—meaning the electric field arising from the test charge itself is not
included in E. The units of E would be in force per unit charge (newtons per coulomb). Again
anticipating a new dimensional quantity, the volt (V), having the label of joules per coulomb (J/C), or
newton-meters per coulomb (N ・ m/C), we measure electric field intensity in the practical units of volts
per meter (V/m). Now, we dispense with most of the subscripts in (6), reserving the right to use them

Page | 5
again any time there is a possibility of misunderstanding. The electric field of a single point charge
becomes:
𝑄1
E= 𝑎𝑅 ------------------- (6)
4𝜋𝜖𝑂𝑅2

We remember that R is the magnitude of the vector R, the directed line segment from the point
at which the point charge Q is located to the point at which E is desired, and aR is a unit vector in the R
direction. We arbitrarily locate Q1 at the center of a spherical coordinate system. The unit vector aR then
becomes the radial unit vector ar , and R is r .

Hence,

𝑄1
E= 𝑎𝑟 ------------------ (7)
4𝜋𝜖𝑂𝑟2

The field has a single radial component, and its inverse-square-law relationship is quite obvious.

If there are more than one charges, the total electric field intensity in the sum of the electric field
due to each charge,
Q1
Q2
C
Q3
• E2
A
E2
Q4
E1 ET = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + …. + En

Then the total electric field intensity

ET = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 + …. + En --------------------------------------------- (8)
➢ Sample Problem

1. In order to illustrate the application of (6), find (a) E at P(1, 1, 1) caused by a 3-nC charges
located at Q( 2, 3, 4 ) as shown in Figure 2.4.

z
Q(2, 3, 4)

C
B
• P(1, 1, 1)
A y

Solution. We find that A = ax + ay + az , B = 2ax + 3ay + 4az ,

and thus,
C = A – B = ( 1 – 2 ) ax + ( 1 – 3 )ay + ( 1 – 4 )az = - ax - 2ay - 3az .

The magnitude |C| = √(−1)2 + (−2)2 + (−3)2, = 3.742

Page | 6
 −𝑎𝑥−2𝑎𝑦−3𝑎𝑧
The unit vector aC = =- 0.267 ax – 0.534 ay – 0.802 az
3.742

𝑄1 3 𝑥 10−9
but, E = 𝑎𝑐 = (- 0.267 ax – 0.534 ay – 0.802 az )
4𝜋𝜖𝑂∣𝐶∣2 4𝜋(8.854 𝑥 10−12)(3.742)2

E = - 5.33ax – 10.661ay – 16.011az N/C or V/m --------- answer

2. Let a point charge Q1 = 25nC be located at A(3, -2, 4), Q2 = 60nC located at B( 1, 3, 2 ) and Q3
= 45 nC be at ( 2, 1, 4 ). Find ET at P( 4, 5, 7 )
E3
z E2
• E1

R1 P( 4, 5, 7 )
R3
Q3 P R2
Q1
C Q2
A
B
y

From the diagram,

R1 = P – A , R2 = P – B and R3 = P – C

and
A = 3ax - 2ay + 4az , B = ax + 3ay + 2az , C = 2ax + ay + 4az , P = 4ax + 5ay + 7az

R1 = P – A = (4 – 3)ax + (5 + 2)ay + (7 – 4)az = ax + 7 ay +3 az

∣R1 ∣ = √(1)2 + (7)2 + (3)2 = 7.681
R2 = P – B = (4 – 1)ax + (5 – 3)ay + (7 – 2)az = 3ax + 2 ay +5 az
∣R2 ∣ = √(3)2 + (2)2 + (5)2 = 6.164
R3 = P – C = (4 – 2)ax + (5 – 1) ay +(7 – 4)az = 2ax + 4 ay +4 az
∣R3 ∣ = √(2)2 + (4)2 + (4)2 = 6

for E1, 𝑄1
E = 25 𝑥 10−9 𝑎𝑥+ 7𝑎𝑦+ 3𝑎𝑧
1 𝑎𝑅 = ( )
4𝜋𝜖𝑂 𝑅12 1 4𝜋(8.854 𝑥 10−12)(7.681)2 7.681
E1 = 0.495ax + 3.471ay + 1.487az V/m

for E2, 𝑄2
E = 60 𝑥 10−9 3𝑎𝑥+ 2𝑎𝑦+ 5𝑎𝑧
2 𝑎𝑅 = ( )
4𝜋𝜖𝑂 𝑅22 2 4𝜋(8.854 𝑥 10−12)(6.164)2 6.164
E2 = 6.908ax + 4.605ay + 11.512az V/m

Page | 7
 for E3, 𝑄3
E = 45 𝑥 10−9 2𝑎𝑥+ 4𝑎𝑦+ 4𝑎𝑧
3 𝑎𝑅 = ( )
4𝜋𝜖𝑂 𝑅32 3 4𝜋(8.854 𝑥 10−12)(6)2 6
E3 = 3.745ax + 7.489ay + 7.489az V/m

ET = E1 + E2 + E3 = (0.495ax + 3.471ay + 1.487az ) + (6.908ax + 4.605ay + 11.512az)

+ (3.745ax + 7.489ay + 7.489az)

ET = 11.148ax + 15.565ay + 20.488az V/m --------------- answer

➢ Practice Problem

A charge of −0.3μC is located at A(25,−30, 15) (in cm), and a second charge of 0.5μC is at B(−10,
8, 12) cm. Find E at: (a) the origin; (b) P(15, 20, 50) cm.

Ans. 92.3ax − 77.6ay − 94.2az kV/m; 11.9ax − 0.519ay + 12.4az kV/m

❖ Week – 9

C.Electric Field Intensity due to a Continuous

Volume Charge Distribution

➢ Field Arising from a Continuous Volume Charge Distribution

If we now visualize a region of space filled with a tremendous number of charges separated by
minute distances, we see that we can replace this distribution of very small particles with a smooth
continuous distribution described by a volume charge density. We can do this only if we are
uninterested in the small irregularities (or ripples) in the field as we move from electron to electron. This
is really no limitation at all, because the end results for electrical engineers are almost always in terms of
a current in a receiving antenna, a voltage in an electronic circuit, or a charge on a capacitor, or in
general in terms of some large-scale macroscopic phenomenon.

We denote volume charge density by ρν, having the units of coulombs per cubic meter (C/m3).

The small amount of charge ΔQ in a small volume Δν is

ΔQ = ρν Δν----------------------------------------------------------- (9)

and we may define ρν mathematically by using a limiting process on (9),

ρν = lim 𝛥𝑄 ------------ (10)

𝛥𝑣→0 𝛥𝜈
The total charge within some finite volume is obtained by integrating throughout that
volume,

Q=∫ 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑉 ------------- (11)

𝑣

Only one integral sign is customarily indicated, but the differential dV signifies integration
throughout a volume, and hence a triple integration.

Page | 8
 C.a. Field of a Line Charge

Consider an infinite line charge lying along the z – axis as shown.

At point P,

𝑑𝑄
dE = 𝑎𝑟 ------------- (12)
4𝜋𝜖𝑂𝑟2

To simplify solution, symmetry should always be considered first in order to determine two
specific factors: (1) with which coordinates the field does not vary, and (2) which components of the
field are not present. The answers to these questions then tell us which components are present and
with which coordinates they do vary.

From the diagram, consider the following points:

D. If we move around the line charge, varying φ while keeping ρ and z constant, the line
charge appears the same from every angle. In other words, azimuthal symmetry is
present, and no field component may vary with φ.

E. if we maintain ρ and φ constant while moving up and down the line charge by
changing z, the line charge still recedes into infinite distance in both directions and
the problem is unchanged. This is axial symmetry and leads to fields that are not
functions of z.

F. if we maintain φ and z constant and vary ρ, the problem changes, and Coulomb’s law
leads us to expect the field to become weaker as ρ increases. Hence, by a process of
elimination we are led to the fact that the field varies only with ρ.

Now, which components are present? Each incremental length of line charge acts as a point
charge and produces an incremental contribution to the electric field intensity which is directed away
from the bit of charge (assuming a positive line charge). No element of charge produces a φ
component of electric intensity; Eφ is zero. However, each element does produce an Eρ and an Ez
component, but the contribution to Ez by elements of charge that are equal distances above and below
the point at which we are determining the field will cancel. Then the only component that is present is
the ρ component.

Referring to the diagram,

dQ is at ( 0, φ, z ) and point P is at ( ρ, φ, 0 )

Page | 9
then r = (ρ – 0 )aρ + (φ – 0)aφ + (0 – z)az
or r = ρaρ + φaφ – zaz

but since the field at point P has no φ component

then r = ρaρ – zaz , r2 = ρ2 + z2 and r = √𝜌2 + 𝑧2

𝜌 𝑎𝜌 − 𝑍𝑎𝑧
and ar = and dQ = ρLdL = ρLdz
√𝜌2+𝑧2

𝑑𝑄 𝜌𝐿𝑑𝑧 𝜌 𝑎𝜌 − 𝑍𝑎𝑧
from (12) dE = 𝑎𝑟 = ( )
4𝜋𝜖𝑂𝑟2 4𝜋𝜖𝑂(𝜌2+ 𝑧2) √𝜌2+𝑧2

(ρaρ – zaz )
𝜌𝑑𝑧
= 3
4𝜋𝜖𝑂(𝜌2+ 𝑧2)2

but the z – component cancels out

𝜌 𝜌𝐿𝑑𝑧
dE = 3 aρ
2 2
4𝜋𝜖𝑂(𝜌 + 𝑧 ) 2

Integrating,
𝜌𝜌𝐿 +∞ 𝑑𝑧
∫ 𝑑𝐸 = ∫−∞ 3
4𝜋𝜖𝑂 (𝜌2 + 𝑧 2)2
from the integral,

𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥
∫ (𝑎2+ 𝑥2)𝑛 = . aρ
2
2 𝑎 ( 𝑛−1) (𝑎2+ 𝑥2)(𝑛−1)

for a=ρ , x = z and n = 3/2

then

E =
𝜌𝜌𝐿 ∫+∞
−∞
𝑑𝑧 3 = 𝜌𝜌𝐿
[ 23
1
.
𝑧 ] aρ
3
4𝜋𝜖𝑂 (𝜌2+ 𝑧2)2 4𝜋𝜖𝑂 2𝜌 ( − 1)
2 (𝜌2 + 𝑧 2 )(2−1)

𝑧
or E = .[ 1
] aρ
𝜌𝐿

4𝜋𝜖𝑂𝜌 (2)
(𝜌2+ 𝑧2)

applying the limits for z from +∞ to -∞

lim ( +∞
) = 1 and lim ( −∞
) = -1
𝑧→+∞ √𝜌2+(+∞)2 𝑧→−∞ √𝜌2+(−∞)2

𝜌𝐿 2𝜌𝐿
then E = [(1) – (-1)] =
4𝜋𝜖𝑂𝜌 4𝜋𝜖𝑂𝜌

𝜌
or -------------------------------------------------------------------
E= 𝐿
aρ (13)
2𝜋𝜖𝑂𝜌

Page | 10
 Note that the field falls off inversely with the distance to the charged line, as compared with the
point charge, where the field decreased with the square of the distance.

❖ Week - 10
C.a. Field of a Surface Charge

Consider an infinite surface charge lying along on the x-y plane as shown.

At point P,

𝑑𝑄
dE = 𝑎𝑟
4𝜋𝜖𝑂𝑟2

Referring to the diagram,

dQ is at ( ρ, φ, 0 ) and point P is at ( 0, 0, z )

then r = (0 - ρ)aρ + (0 - φ)aφ + ( z – 0)z

or r = - ρaρ - φaφ + zaz

but since the field at point P has no φ component

then r = - ρaρ + zaz , r2 = ρ2 + z2 and r = √𝜌2 + 𝑧2

−𝜌 𝑎𝜌 + 𝑍𝑎𝑧
and ar = , and dQ = ρSdA and dA = ρdρdφ
√𝜌2+𝑧2

dQ = ρSρdρdφ

𝑑𝑄 𝜌𝑠𝜌𝑑 𝜌𝑑𝜑 −𝜌 𝑎𝜌 + 𝑍𝑎𝑧

from (12) dE = 𝑎𝑟 = ( )
4𝜋𝜖𝑂𝑟2 4𝜋𝜖𝑂(𝜌2+ 𝑧2) √𝜌2+𝑧2

Page | 11
 𝜌𝑠𝜌𝑑 𝜌𝑑𝜑
= 3 (- ρaρ + zaz )
4𝜋𝜖𝑂(𝜌2+ 𝑧2)2

but the ρ – component cancels out

𝜌𝑠 𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜑
dE = 3 zaz
4𝜋𝜖𝑂(𝜌2+ 𝑧2)2

Integrating,
𝜌𝑠𝜌𝑧 ∞ 2
𝜋 𝜌𝑑𝜌𝑑𝜑
∫ 𝑑𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜖 ∫ ∫ 3 az
0 0
𝑂 4𝜋𝜖𝑂 (𝜌2+ 𝑧 2)2

2𝜋𝑧𝜌𝑠𝜌 ∞ 𝜌𝑑𝜌 𝜌𝑠𝜌𝑧 ∞ 𝜌𝑑𝜌

E= ∫0 3 az = ∫0 3 az
4𝜋𝜖𝑂 (𝜌2 + 𝑧 2)2 2𝜖𝑂 (𝜌2 + 𝑧 2)2

𝜌𝑠𝑧𝜌 ∞ 3 2 𝜌𝑠𝜌 1 ∞ 3
= 2 2−
=
2 2−
∫ (𝜌 + 𝑧 ) 2 𝜌𝑑𝜌 ∙
2𝜖𝑂 2 ∫0
(𝜌 + 𝑧 ) 2 2𝜌𝑑𝜌 az
2𝜖 0 𝑂 2

3
2 2 − +1
𝜌 𝑠𝜌 1 (𝜌 + 𝑧 ) 2 𝜌𝑠𝜌 1
= 2𝜖 2 [ 3 ] = 2𝜖 [− ] az
1

𝑂 −2+ 1 𝑂 (𝜌2+ 𝑧2)2

applying the limits for ρ from 0 to ∞

1 1 1
lim ( ) = 0 and lim ( )=
𝜌→∞ √(∞)2+𝑧2 𝜌→0 √0 2+𝑧2 𝑧

𝜌𝑆𝑧 1 𝜌𝑆𝑧 1
then E = [ -(0) + ] =
2𝜖𝑂 𝑧 2𝜖𝑂𝜌 𝑧

𝜌𝑠
E = az , since az is normal to the surface
2𝜖𝑂

𝜌
E= 𝑠
aN
then, ------------------------------------------------------------- (14)
2𝜖𝑂

From the equation, for a surface charge, the field is constant in magnitude and direction. It is
just as strong a million miles away from the sheet as it is right off the surface. In light analogy, a uniform
source of light on the ceiling of a very large room leads to just as much illumination on a square foot on
the floor as it does on a square foot a few inches below the ceiling.

Page | 12
 Homework
1. Three point charges are positioned in the x-y plane as follows: 8 nC at y = 5 cm, −10
nC at y = −5 cm, and 20 nC at x = −5 cm. Find the required x-y coordinates of a 20-
nC fourth charge that will produce a zero electric field at the origin.

2. Point charges of 2 nC and −2 nC are located at (0, 0, 0) and (2, 1, 2), respectively, in
free space. Determine the vector force acting on each charge.

3. Point charges of 30 nC each are located at A(2, 0, 0), B(−2, 0, 0), C(0, 2, 0), and D(0,−2,
0) in free space. Find the total force on the charge at A.

4. Eight identical point charges of Q C each are located at the corners of a cube of side
length a, with one charge at the origin, and with the three nearest charges at (a, 0, 0), (0,
a, 0), and (0, 0, a). Find an expression for the total vector force on the charge at P(a, a,
a), assuming free space.

5. Let a point charge Q1 = 30 nC be located at P1(4,−2, 7) and a charge Q2 = 50 nC be at

P2(−3, 4,−2). (a) If ϵ = ϵ0, find E at P3(1, 2, 3). (b) At what point on the y axis is Ex = 0?

6. A 5-μC point charge is located at A(4, 3, 5) in free space. Find Eρ, Eφ, and Ez at P(8, 12,
2).

7. A charge of −2 nC is located at the origin in free space. What charge must be

located at (2, 0, 0) to cause Ex to be zero at (3, 1, 1)?

8. A charge Q0 located at the origin in free space produces a field for which Ez = 1 kV/m
at point P(−2, 1,−1). (a) Find Q0. Find E at M(1, 6, 5) in (b) rectangular coordinates; (c)
cylindrical coordinates; (d) spherical coordinates.

References
1. Hayt, W. H. Jr. and Buck J. A, Engineering Electromagnetics, McGraw-Hill, 8th Edition

2. Grossman, S. I. Calculus. 3d ed. Orlando, Fla.: Academic Press and Harcourt Brace
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