Geography Notes Form 1
Geography Notes Form 1
Geography Notes Form 1
How It Works
• The tank with water is put in the open.
• Water evaporates when there is a lot of sunshine.
• Water in the tank reduces.
• The rate and amount of evaporation is got from calibrations in the
inner side of the tank in mm.
Cloud Cover
The amount of cloud cover is observed using eyes.
It’s given in oktas.
Okta=approximately 1/8 of sky is covered with clouds.
Weather Forecasting
-Prediction of the conditions of the atmosphere for a given place for
a certain period.
Methods of Weather Forecasting
Traditional Methods
- Prediction of weather based on traditional beliefs and facts.
• Plants shedding leaves indicates period of drought.
• Safari ants indicate it will rain.
• Migration of butterflies also indicates it will rain.
• Croaking of frogs during dry season indicate its going to rain.
• Flowering of certain plants indicates the onset of rainfall.
• Changes in the intensity of sunshine indicate its going to rain.
Modern Methods
-Prediction of weather using modern instruments and new
technology of collecting, transmitting, processing and analysing
weather data.
Instruments Used
1. Satellites-electronic devices which orbit the earth which collect
and transmit weather data which is interpreted by computers.
2. Radar-an instrument used to see cloud formation.
3. Sensors/radiosodes-instrument fixed on a balloon used to
measure atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity.
4. Computers-electronic device used to store, analyse and display
weather information.
Significance/Importance of Weather Forecasting
1. Helps us to be aware of natural calamities related to weather
before they occur so as to take precautionary measures.
2. Guiding tourists on when to visit national parks.
3. Helps farmers to plan their activities such as planting, harvesting,
etc.
4. Ensures air and water transport is carried out safely.
5. Helps sporting people to plan their training and competition
schedules.
6. Helps people to plan many other activities such as mining,
electricity generation, holiday events, etc.
7. Helps fishing communities to plan their activities.
Factors Hindering Weather Forecasting
1. Lack of skilled man power due to limited training facilities.
2. Lack of modern equipment leading to wrong forecasts.
3. Natural calamities such as storms and earthquakes.
4. Extreme weather conditions which may damage or displace
instruments.
5. Use of faulty instruments.
6. Human error.
7. Poor sitting of instruments.
Factors Influencing Weather
Temperature
Factors influencing temperature
1. Altitude
-Height above sea level.
• Temperature decreases with increase in height due to air at higher
altitude being thinner and hence there is less particles e.g. gases,
dust, smoke and water vapour to store heat so its rapidly lost to the
outer space.
2. Latitude
- Distance from the equator.
Temperature decreases with increase in latitude.
• Places neat equator experience high temperature due to the rays
of the sun travelling a shorter distance facing less interference from
atmospheric conditions hence more solar energy reaches the earths
surface.
Also the rays of the sun strike the earth at right angles hence solar
energy is concentrated over a small area.
• At higher latitudes the rays of the sun travel a longer distance
facing more interference from atmospheric conditions hence less
solar energy reaches the earth’s surface.
Also the rays of the sun strike the earth at an acute angle hence
solar energy is spread over a large area.
3. Aspect - Direction of slope.
• At higher latitudes slopes facing the equator have higher
temperature because they face the sun while those facing the poles
have lower temperature have lower temperature because they face
away from the sun.
4. Winds
- Transfer heat from one place to another.
• When they blow from cool areas they take the cooling effect to the
areas they blow over and when they blow from warm areas they
take warming influence to the places they blow over.
5. Distance from a Large Water Body
• Areas near a large water body experience lower temperature
during the hot season and higher temperature during the cool
season due to sea breezes, warm and cold ocean currents and wind
blowing over water which could be either warmer or cooler than the
adjacent land.
6. Cloud Cover
• Clouds reduce the amount of solar energy reaching the surface by
absorbing, scattering and reflecting solar radiation.
• When there are clear skies during the day the temperature is
higher due to the earth receiving maximum solar insolation.
• During clear nights there are very low temperatures due to a lot of
terrestrial radiation being lost to the outer space.
• Cloudy nights on the other hand are warmer due to clouds
radiating to the earth heat absorbed during the day.
7. Length of Day
• The longer the period of solar insolation the greater the quantity
of radiation a place receives and hence the more the heat that will
be generated by the earth and vice versa.
8. Solar Altitude
• At equinox when the earth is farthest from the sun the
temperature on the earth is lower due to less solar radiation
reaching the earth’s surface due to travelling a longer distance and
hence facing great interference from atmospheric conditions.
• At solstices the earth receives more solar energy due to travelling
a shorter distance and hence facing less interference from
atmospheric conditions.
9. Solar Input
• Sometimes the sun gives out more heat due to reactions being
violent causing temperature on the earth to be higher.
• When it gives out less heat the temperature on the earth is lower.
10. Surface Conditions
• Light surfaces e.g. smooth surfaces reflect sunlight and hence less
solar energy reaches the earth’s surface.
• Dark and irregular surfaces such as with vegetation absorb more
heat leading to higher surface temperatures.
Humidity
Factors Influencing Humidity
1. Temperature
• Places with high temperature experience high humidity due to high
evaporation and air having high capacity to hold moisture.
• Places with low temperature have low humidity due to low
evaporation and air having low capacity to hold moisture.
2. Source of Moisture
• Areas near water bodies e.g. Kisumu and Mombasa experience
high humidity due to evaporation of water from the water body.
• Places near thick vegetation also have high humidity due to evapo
transpiration.
• Areas far away from water bodies such as the middle of deserts
have low humidity.
• Areas receiving heavy rainfall also have high humidity.
3. Air Pressure
• There is high humidity at low altitudes because high pressure
compresses air warming it increasing its capacity to hold moisture
and also causes high evaporation.
• There is low pressure at high altitudes because air expands and
cools thus reducing its capacity to hold moisture.
4. Latitude
• Low latitudes experience high humidity due to high temperatures
resulting into high rates of evaporation and air having high capacity
to hold moisture.
• High latitudes experience low humidity due to low temperatures
resulting into low rates of evaporation and air having low capacity to
hold moisture.
Significance of Humidity/Moisture
1. Affects rain formation in such as way that places with high
humidity are likely to experience higher rainfall than those with low
humidity.
2. Regulates the heat loss from the earth’s surface by absorbing
terrestrial radiation (process in which the earth gives off heat into
the atmosphere).
3. It affects sensible temperature in that the higher the humidity the
more we experience sensible temperature.
Precipitation
-The forms in which the earth’s surface receives moisture.
1. Snow
Solid precipitation formed when tiny water droplets freeze and form
ice crystals.
The crystals may fuse to form flakes.
2. Sleet
-Precipitation which is a mixture of rain and snow.
3. Hail
Roughly spherical lumps of ice formed when super cooled cloud
droplets mould themselves around ice crystals before cooling. It
destroys crops life and house roofs.
4. Dew
-Precipitation consisting of water droplets formed on cold surfaces
at night e.g. iron roofs and glass blades.
How It’s Formed
• In a clear night there is a high ground radiation.
• Temperature of the earth’s surface fall below dew point
(temperature at which air being cooled becomes saturated).
• Excess water condenses on cold surfaces.
5. rain
-Precipitation consisting of water drops/droplets formed when tiny
water droplets merge around particles of matter and become heavy
and fall down to the earth.
Condensation
Turning of water vapour into tiny water droplets as cooling
continues below dew point. The droplets join to form clouds.
Causes of Condensation
1. Adiabatic cooling-cooling of moist air as it rises vertically.
2. Orographic cooling-cooling of moist air as it climbs a hill or
mountain.
3. Frontal cooling-cooling of warm air mass when it blows towards a
cold air mass.
4. Advection cooling-cooling as a result of moist air moving over a
cool land or sea.
How Condensation Takes Place/Cloud Formation
• Moist air rises to the condensation level (altitude where
temperature is below dew point.
• It’s cooled below dew point.
• Tiny water droplets condense around tiny particles such as dust,
smoke particles and pollen grains and salt particles (condensation
nuclei).
• The droplets merge and eventually become bigger and fall as rain.
• If moisture rises to an altitude where temperature is below 0◦c the
condensed water droplets freeze forming ice particles or super
cooled water (water which has remained in a liquid state at
temperatures below freezing point due to lack of sufficient
condensation nuclei.
• Super cooled cloud droplets may mould themselves around ice
crystals before freezing to form hail.
Types of rainfall
1. Relief/Orographic/Mountain rainfall
Rain experienced on the windward slopes of mountains or hills
formed when moist air is forced to rise over a mountain or a hill.
How it Forms
• Moist air is forced to rise over a hill or mountain.
• The temperature and air pressure decreases making it to expand.
• Air cools due to decreased temperature and decreased pressure
causing it to expand.
• Moisture condenses forming tiny water droplets (clouds).
• The tiny water droplets in clouds merge and become too heavy to
be suspended in air and fall as rain.
• Air proceeds to the leeward side with low moisture content.
• Since its heavier due to being cool it descends over that side and
gets warmed making it to hold onto the little moisture it had causing
that side to receive low rainfall (rain shadow).
1. Convectional Rainfall
- Cool local winds which blow from the valley to the hill tops during
summer afternoons.
How it Forms
• During the day hill tops are heated more than valley bottoms.
• Air over the hill tops is warmed and rises.
• Cool air over the valley move up to the hill to replace the rising
air.
Effect on weather
- Cause afternoon showers on hilly grounds.
4. Katabatic/Descending Winds
- Cold local winds which blow from hill tops to the valley during the
night.
• During the night hill tops lose heat faster than the valley.
• Air over the valley is warmed and rises.
• Cool air over the hill tops move to the valley by gravity to replace
the rising air.
Effect on Weather
- Takes chilly conditions on valley bottoms.
5. Harmattan Winds
-N.E winds which originate from Sahara and blow across W. Africa
between November and March taking dry conditions there.
6. Fohn Winds (Alps)
-Local cold winds which slide down the leeward side of the mountain
at high speed and are warmed producing a temperature rise.
Due to the high speed and temperature they are associated with
wild fires.
They are known as Chinook in Rocky Mountains, Santa Anas in
California and Mistral in France.
Factors influencing Wind Flow (Speed and direction)
1. Pressure Gradient
If the pressure difference between high and low pressure areas is
high the winds blow at high speed (strong) but if it’s low they blow
at high speed (are gentle).
2. distance between Places of High and Low Pressure
if the high and low pressure areas are near each other winds blow at
high speed but if distant from each other winds blow at low speed.
3. Rotation of the earth
Rotation of the earth deflects winds to the right in the N.
hemisphere and to the left in the S. hemisphere.
4. Frictional Force
If the surface of the earth is rugged or has obstacles such as hills,
mountains, valleys or vegetation the wind is blocked causing speed
reduction and its direction of flow is also changed.
Statistics
Statistics - numerical figures collected systematically and arranged
for a particular purpose.
Statistical data-information presented inform of numbers e.g.
1. No. of students in a school
2. Mean daily temperature of a place
3. Amount of milk produced daily from a farm
4. Amount of money earned from exports annually.
Statistical methods-techniques of collecting, recording, analysing,
presenting and interpreting statistical data.
Significance of Statistics
Illustrates relationship between 2 or more varying quantities e.g.
beans production and acreage under cultivation.
Summarises geographical information which saves time and space.
Makes comparison between components e.g. province with the
highest number of people.
Prediction of future trends of weather and climate.
Prediction of natural disasters e.g. droughts and floods.
Planning for provision of social amenities e.g. hospitals and schools.
Types of Statistical Data
primary Data
- First hand or original information from the field e.g.
Mean daily temperature from a weather station
Enumeration/census
Secondary/Derived Data
- 2nd hand information available in stored sources compiled by
other researchers e.g.
• Textbooks
• Reference books
• Maps
• Video/audio tapes
• Textbooks
• Newspapers
• Magazines
• Census reports
• Slides
• Census reports
Nature of Statistical Data
1. Discrete Data
-Which is given in whole numbers e.g.
16 elephants
1093 tonnes of wheat
2. Continuous Data
- Facts and figures which can take any value e.g.
• Fractions e.g.23 ¼
• Decimals e.g. 6.20 mm
• Values within range e.g. 0-30◦c
3. Grouped Data
- Which is non precise/exact but values range in groups e.g.
Sources of Statistical Data
1. Primary Sources
-People or places which have 1st hand or original information.
The information can be collected by observation, measuring,
counting, photographing etc.
Advantages
• Give first hand information
• The information cant be got from other sources
2. Secondary sources
-Materials in which information collected by others was stored e.g.
text books, reference books, etc.
Methods of Collecting Data (statistical Techniques)
1. Observation
-Use of eyes to observe features or weather then information is
recorded immediately e.g. cloud cover, rocks, soil, land forms,
vegetation, etc.
Advantages
Gives 1 st hand information which is reliable.
Relevant material to the study is collected.
Time saving since one doesn’t have to look for data in many places.
Disadvantages
a) Data on past activities isn’t available.
b) May be hindered by weather conditions e.g. mist and dust
storms.
c) Ineffective for people with visual disabilities.
d) Tiresome and expensive as it involves a lot of travelling because
physical presence is required.
2. interviewing
-Gathering information from people by direct discussions then
answers are recorded.
It may be face to face or on a telephone.
A questionnaire prepared in advance is used.
Guidelines
One should be polite
Warm and friendly
Respondents/ interviewees should be assured information is
confidential.
Respondent should not be interrupted when answering questions.
They should not be given clues but answers should come from
them.
Advantages
Reliable first hand information is collected.
Interviewer can seek clarification incase of ambiguity of answers.
Can be used on illiterate.
Interviewer can gauge the accuracy of responses.
Disadvantages
a) Time consuming since one person can be handled at a time.
b) Expensive and tiresome as extensive travelling is required to
meet the respondents.
c) May encounter language barrier if the respondent doesn’t speak
the same language as the interviewer.
d) A respondent may lie, exaggerate or distort facts leading to
collection of wrong information.
3. Administering questionnaires
- Set of systematically structured questions printed on paper used
on interviews or sent to respondents to fill answers.
Types
• Open-ended questionnaire-in which respondent is given a chance
to express his views. The disadvantage is that different answers are
given which are difficult to analyse.
• Closed-ended (rigid) questionnaire-in which respondents are given
answers to choose from.
Characteristics of a good questionnaire
• Short
• Uses simple language
• Systematically arranged from simple to difficult
• Clear questions
• Doesn’t touch on respondent’s privacy
Advantages
a) Comparisons can be made since questions are similar.
b) First hand information which is relevant to current trends and
situation is collected.
c) Saves money on travelling as physical presence isn’t required.
d) Saves time as all respondents are handled at the same time.
e) A lot of information can be collected.
Disadvantages
a) Difficult analysis due to different answers.
b) Some questionnaires may be sent back while blank by lazy
respondents.
c) Can’t be used on illiterate respondents.
d) Some respondents may write wrong information.
4. Content analysis
-Technique of collecting data from secondary sources.
This is by reading, watching films, viewing photographs and
listening to get what is relevant.
Advantages
a) Easy to get data if analysed.
b) Cheap as there isn’t extensive travelling
c) Saves time as all information is in one place.
d) Possible to get old data
Disadvantages
a) Difficult to verify accuracy of data
b) Data may be irrelevant to current trends
c) Up to date data may not be readily available
5. Measuring
-Determining distances, areas, height or depth using instruments
and recording.
Distance can be estimated by pacing or taking steps of equal and
unknown length.
6. Collecting Samples
-Getting a small part e.g. of soil, rock or vegetation to represent the
whole to be used to carry out tests in the laboratory.
7. Counting/census taking
- Arithmetical counting and recording.
8. Photographing
- Capturing on film or video and still photographs.
9. Digging
- Using tools such as hoe pick axe, spade or soil auger to get
samples of soil and rocks.
10. Feeling and touching
- Using fingers to feel the surfaces of soils and rocks to get their
textures.
11. sampling
- Examining by taking a sample -a part representing the whole
(population).
Types of Sampling
1. Random Sampling
- Selection of members of a group haphazardly where every item
has an equal chance of being selected e.g. to select 5 students to go
for a tour from a class:
• Class members write their names on pieces of paper
• They are folded and put in a basket
• The basket is shaken and fives papers are taken out
2. Systematic Sampling
-Selection of members of a sample from an evenly distributed
phenomena at regular intervals e.g. after every 10 items/members.
3. Stratified sampling
-Selection of members of a sample by breaking the population into
homogenous groups e.g. to select 6 students to go for a tour:
• Break the class into boys and girls
• Select 3 student from each group by random or systematic
sampling
• Combine units from each group to form the required sample.
4. Cluster Sampling
-Selection of sample by dividing the sample into clusters with
similar characteristics then a sample is taken from each cluster and
representative choices from each cluster are combined to form a
sample e.g. to sample the housing cost an estate is chosen to
represent each group and representative choices are chosen from
each estate and combined to form a sample.
Advantages
a) It’s less expensive
b) It saves time
c) It avoids bias
Disadvantages
a) A poor selected sample can lead to misleading information
b) Systematic sampling to an evenly distributed population
Experimentation
– Conducting a test or investigation to provide evidence for or
against a theory e.g. to determine the chemical composition of rocks
and soils.
Advantages
a) First hand data is obtained
b) Gives accurate results if properly conducted.
c) It can lead to further discoveries
Disadvantages
a) May be expensive as it involves use of expensive equipment.
b) May be time consuming
c) Use of defective instruments may lead to inaccurate results
d) Improper handling of equipment and chemicals may lead to
accidents
Methods of Recording Data
-Methods off storing information to avoid losing it.
1. Note Taking
-Writing in a note book what is being observed, answers during
interviews and then notes are compiled in school or office when
writing report.
2. Filling In Questionnaires
-Filling answers in questionnaires which are responses from a
respondent by an interviewer or respondent himself which he/she
then sends back.
3. Tallying
-Making 4 vertical or slanting strokes and the 5th across the 4 to
record data obtained by counting or measuring similar items.
4. Tabulation
-Drawing of tables and filling in data systematically e.g. weather
recording sheets.
M
5. Field Sketching
-Summarising information observed in the field by making a rough
drawing of landscape and labelling the essential information.
6. Mapping/Drawing Maps
-Drawing of a rough map of an area of study and labelling in words
or symbols accompanied by key.
7. Tape Recording
-Recording image of an object or landscape on a film which is
processed to get a photograph then the photographs are labelled to
avoid mix up during storage.
8. Labelling samples
-Recording conversations during interviews on audio tapes using a
tape recorder.
Permission should be got from the respondent to record his/her
responses.
Advantages
• It’s used if responses are too many to be recorded on a note book.
• It allows smooth flow of discussion as asking respondents to
repeat answers would irritate them.
Analysis of Data
-Examining the numerical figures in detail.
Techniques of analysing Data
1. Calculation of Percentages
-If in the study of a farm 10 hectares are devoted to coffee, what is
the % of the area under coffee?
10/100×10%
The table below shows the number of tourists who visited Kenya
from various parts of the world in 2006.
a) Calculate percentage increase of tourists from Africa between
2005 and 2006.
2. Measures of Central Tendency
- Outstanding general characteristics of the data.
a) Arithmetic Mean
- The average
Advantages
• Easy to calculate for a small data
• Summarises data using a single digit
• Easy to understand and interpret
Disadvantages
• Difficult to calculate for grouped data
• Affected by extreme values
b) Median
- The middle value in a set of data arranged in order.
M= (N+1)/2
(I) 20, 50, 90, 100, 150, 180, 200, 220, 240, 300, 360.
(II) 20, 50, 90, 100, 150, 180, 200, 220, 240, 300.
Advantages
• Easy to calculate in a small data set
• Easy to understand as it’s the value at the middle
Disadvantages
• Difficult to calculate in a large data set
• Doesn’t show data distribution
b) Calculation of Ranges
-Difference between the largest and smallest values. Calculate the
range of for the data above.
c) Mode
- Most frequently recurring value in a set of data.
10, 2, 5, 9, 10, 11, 20, 15, 18, 10.
The mode is 10.
Advantages
• Easy to find as no calculation is involved
• Easy to understand
Disadvantage
• Rarely used as a measure of central tendency
Statistical Presentation of Data
Field Work
-Scientific study of geography using the environment as a laboratory
or source of information.
Types of Field Work
1. Field Excursion
-Visiting an area near or far from the school to see geographical
phenomena then note down and discuss later in class.
Aim
a) Reinforce what has been learnt in class
b) Gain more geographical knowledge
c) Identify and appreciate geographical features
d) Identify problems of geographical interest
2. Field Research
-Systematic problem solving done by experts in which scientific
methods of collecting, recording and analysing data are used.
3. Field Study
-Study conducted within a neighbourhood in which one theme is
pursued e.g. ‘A study of a local farm’.
Importance of Field Work
1. Reinforces what has been learnt in class.
2. Enables one to gain more geographical knowledge.
3. It breaks the monotony of classroom work.
4. It provides learner with practical skills of collecting, recording
and analysing data and report writing.
5. Gives students an opportunity to go out and practise what they
have learnt in class.
6. Enables students to familiarise themselves with the environment
and develop a positive attitude towards it.
7. Enables students to develop a positive attitude towards manual
work.
8. Promotes development of virtues like cooperation by working in
groups.
Field Work Procedure (Steps Followed)
1. Identification of Topic/Theme
- Reason why you want to carry out field study e.g. ‘A study of rocks
around the school’
2. Identification of the Area of Study
- Determining the area to be used for study.
- Should be chosen carefully to ensure that the field study is
successful.
Conditions It Should Meet
a) Should contain sufficient information
b) Should be within a convenience distance to reduce expenses
3. Statement of Objectives
- Stating aims of carrying the field study.
- Act as guidelines to activities to be undertaken during field work.
They should be simple, brief, testable and achievable. E.g. for the
topic ‘A study of a local farm’ objectives could be stated as
follows:
• To find out methods of farming in a local farm
• To identify the cattle breeds in the farm
• To investigate the problems facing the farm.
4. Formulation of Hypotheses
- Assumptions set before field work whose validity or acceptance is
to be proved.
Types of Hypotheses
• Null Hypothesis (Ho)
- One stated in negative form e.g. ‘There is no relationship between
rainfall and crop yield’.
• Alternative/Substantive hypothesis (H1)
- One stated positively e.g. ‘most foodstuffs sold in the
neighbourhood don’t come from the immediate neighbourhood’.
Quantitative words should be used e.g. more, most, majority.
It should not be obvious.
5. Preparation of the Field Study
It involves:
a) Seek Permission from Relevant Authorities
-Seeking permission from school and authority in the area you are
visiting.
It is important to:
• To avoid being denied permission to enter there
• Enables individuals to set early the suitable date and time of visit
• Helps to arrange for a guide to conduct you around
b) Conduct Reconnaissance (Pre-Visit)
-A familiarisation tour of the intended area of study.
It is important to:
• To determine appropriate routes to be taken
• Enables to get documents from officials
• Helps one to identify the appropriate methods of data collection
• Helps to identify appropriate equipment to be used
c) Hold Discussion In Class
-Looking through formulated objectives and hypotheses.
It’s important to:
• Determine their suitability
• Make adjustments
• Decide upon data recording methods
d) Preparation of a Questionnaire
- Important where the interviewer is not able to be with respondents
for a long time.
e) Dividing Into Groups
• To ease congestion in the area of study
• To create order during field work
• To reduce fatigue among participants
• To help participants collect data within the time given
f) Preparation for Documents
• Topographical maps to show the routes you will follow
• Tables for filling in information
• Permission documents
g) Reading Through Relevant Books
- Reading about the topic and the area of study
Important in that it helps participants to know:
• The kind of data they need to collect
• The techniques to be employed in the field.
h) Preparation of a Work Schedule
-A timetable to be followed on the day of field study.
It is important to:
• Indicate the specific time when each activity should take place
• Reduce time wastage by ensuring proper time management
• Ensure all important areas are covered and none is forgotten
• Provide an estimate of total time required for study
i) Selection of Important Tools and Equipment
- Tape measure and rulers for measuring, pencils for drawing sketch
maps, notebooks for writing notes, polythene bag for sorting and
carrying samples, cameras for taking photographs, geological
hammer getting rock samples and hoe for digging to get soil
samples, etc.
6. Carrying Out the Field Study
-Setting off to go to the area of study to look for data where
techniques of collecting and recording data are applied.
Follow Up Activities
- After data is collected and recorded it’s summarised in the
following ways:
• Discussing the findings in class giving reports through group
leaders
• Writing reports in essay form
• Calculation of percentages, means, medians and modes
• Laboratory testing of samples
• Presentation of data using methods such as graphs, pie charts,
etc.
Problems Encountered in Field work
1. Language Barrier
-Inability to communicate due to the interviewer and the respondent
not sharing the same language or respondents may be illiterate and
thus unable to fill questionnaire.
The problems are:
• Data may not be collected
• Illiterate people may give wrong answers while attempting
questionnaires
• An interpreter may have to be engages who would be paid which
would raise costs.
• Answers may be distorted by the interpreter
2. Hostility
Those being approached to give answers may become harsh due to
feeling that their time is being wasted which would cause the field
study to be unsuccessful.
3. Dishonest Respondents
- Respondents giving wrong information due to suspicion fear of
shame or superstition.
4. Bad Weather
Raining heavily making it impossible to proceed with data collection
and difficulty in movement.
Becoming very hot making participants uncomfortable and thus
unable to proceed with data collection smoothly.
Becoming misty or foggy causing invisibility problems.
5. Accidents in the Field
One may fall and get inured when walking on rugged areas.
Injuries may result when using tools to get samples by cutting using
pangas or knives and digging using hoes.
6. Attacks by Wild Animals
- Participants may encounter wild animals when carrying out the
study in bushy areas e.g. snakes which may bite them, rhinos which
may charge at them, etc.
7. Inaccessibility
- physical barriers such as swamps, rivers without bridges, steep
slopes and thick vegetation may hinder participants from reaching
areas with vital information.
Minerals and Rocks
Minerals
- Inorganic substances occurring naturally at or below the earth’s
surface.
Characteristics of Minerals
1. Different degrees of hardness e.g. some are very hard e.g.
diamond while others are very soft e.g. talc.
2. Some have atoms arranged in an orderly manner to form crystals
e.g. quartz form a 6- sided prism.
3. Varying number of elements e.g. gold has one (Av) while quartz
has 2 (SiO 2 ).
4. Different abilities to allow light to pass through e.g. some are
transparent, opaque or translucent.
5. Specific colours e.g. gold is shiny yellow while copper is brown.
6. Have specific surface appearance (lustre) when they reflect light
i.e. metallic (shiny) or non-metallic (glass like).
7. Definite chemical composition or constant ratio of elements e.g.
quartz has one atom of silicon and two atoms of oxygen.
8. Tendency to break along certain lines or cleavage) e.g. flint has
cleavage like that of glass.
9. Different densities e.g. some are very heavy e.g. lead while
others are light e.g. silicate minerals.
10. Some minerals conduct electricity while others don’t e.g. copper
conducts while diamond doesn’t.
11. Some can be pressed into different shapes while others can’t
e.g. copper is malleable while flint isn’t.
Types of Minerals
Metallic minerals
Ferrous Minerals - limonite, magnetite, siderite and haematite.
Non-ferrous Minerals - copper, aluminium, gold, lead, etc.
Non-metallic Minerals - graphite, diamond, asbestos, coal, etc.
Energy minerals - petroleum, coal and uranium.
Rocks
-A consolidated material composed of grains of one or more
minerals.
Classification of Rocks
1. Igneous Rocks
-Rocks formed when molten material from the earth’s interior cools
and solidifies on or beneath the earth’s surface.
Types of Igneous Rocks a) Intrusive Igneous Rocks
-Rocks formed when magma cools and solidifies below the earth’s
surface e.g. granite, diorite, gabbro, peridotite.
-Have coarse texture as a result of slow cooling giving minerals
more time to form large crystals.
- Are classified further into two:
(i) Hypabyssal rocks - intrusive igneous rocks which are near the
earth’s surface.
(ii) Plutonic rocks
- intrusive igneous rocks which are deep below the surface.
b) Extrusive Igneous Rocks
- Rocks formed when lava solidifies on the earth’s surface.
- Have fine texture due to fast cooling giving minerals less time to
collect together to form larger crystals.
They are of two types namely:
(i) Volcanic Ejecta
- Extrusive igneous rocks formed in the following ways:
• When ash and lava ejected from underground as they fall on the
earth’s surface e.g. pumice.
• When dust and ash ejected settle on the ground and get
compressed to form a rock e.g. tuff.
(ii) Lava Flows
-Extrusive igneous rocks formed when basic lava flows over a
considerable distance then cools and solidifies e.g. basalt and
obsidian.
2. Sedimentary Rocks
-Rocks formed when particles of other rocks are laid down and
compressed into layers or when plant and animal remains are buried
and compressed and compacted.
• When they are laid down a layer is formed.
• As deposition continues additional layers are formed which
compress the lower layers into a hard mass.
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
a) Mechanically Formed Sedimentary Rocks
-Sedimentary rocks formed when weathered igneous or metamorphic
rocks are deposited and compacted e.g. sandstone and shale.
b) Organically formed Sedimentary Rocks
- Sedimentary rocks formed when animal and plant or animal
remains are buried, compressed and compacted.
Classification of Organically Formed Sedimentary Rocks
(i) Calcareous rocks-rich in calcium carbonate e.g. chalk and
limestone.
Coral rocks are formed from remains of sea polyps which extract
lime from the sea, build shells for protection, attach themselves to
each other and rocks to live in colonies, then die and shells to form
coral rocks.
(ii) Ferruginous Rocks-rich in iron e.g. ironstone.
(iii) Siliceous Rocks-rich in silica e.g. diatomite.
(iv) Carbonaceous Rocks-rich in carbon e.g. coal.
c) Chemically formed Sedimentary Rocks
- Sedimentary rocks formed when materials dissolved in water
chemically react forming new substances then water evaporated
leaving layers of those salts.
Classification of Chemically Formed Sedimentary Rocks
(i) Carbonates e.g. trona and dolomite
(ii) Sulphates-sulphate compounds
(iii) Chlorides e.g. halite
(iv) Silicates e.g. flint
(v) Iron stones e.g. haematite and limonite.
3. Metamorphic Rocks
- Rocks which have changed their physical appearance and chemical
properties as a result of subjection to great heat and pressure e.g.
• Gneiss from granite
• Slate from clay
• Marble from limestone
• Quartzite from sandstones
Distribution of Major Rocks in Kenya
Eastern Kenya region
• The major rocks are metamorphic rocks e.g. marble in parts of
Machakos and schist and gneiss in parts of Kitui.
• Volcanic rocks in Yatta plateau and Kapiti plans.
• Sedimentary rocks e.g. limestone rocks used in Bamburi for
cement manufacturing.
Coastal Region
• Major rocks are sedimentary rocks e.g. limestone used in Bamburi
for cement manufacture.
• There are volcanic rocks in Tsavo rich in ground water resources.
Northern and N.E Region
• Dominated by sedimentary sands.
• There are volcanic rocks in Mt. Marsabit and around Rift Valley.
Rift Valley and Kenya Highlands
• Dominated by volcanic rocks
• There are metamorphic rocks which have resulted from changing
of igneous rocks.
L. Victoria Basin
• Granite and gneiss dominate Western Kenya where they form high
rocky hills called granitic tors common in Kisii, Maragoli and
Bunyore areas.
• Sedimentary rocks deposited by rivers e.g. Nyando, Nzoia, Yala
and Sondu.
Significance of Rocks
1. Rocks weather to form soil which is important in agriculture.
2. Form aquifers which store ground water which forms springs
which form rivers and wells which provide water for domestic and
industrial use.
3. Some rocks are sources of building materials e.g. igneous rocks
are used to make ballast and limestone rocks are used as building
blocks and raw material in cement manufacturing.
4. Phosphate and nitrate rocks are used to make fertiliser used in
agriculture.
5. Granitic tors of W. Kenya and high volcanic peaks such as those
of Mt. Kenya are a tourist attraction which brings foreign exchange.
6. Pumice is used as a scrubbing stone.
7. A rock such as coal is used as fuel for heating, smelting of iron
and thermal electricity generation.
8. Source of minerals e.g. oil and coal is associated with
sedimentary rocks.
Mining
- Process of extracting valuable minerals from the earths surface.
Formations in Which Minerals Occur
1. Veins and Lodes
- Occurrence of minerals in crevices, cracks or faults in igneous
rocks.
• They are said to occur in veins if they occur there in small
quantities.
• Said to occur in lodes if they occur there in large quantities e.g.
zinc, copper and silver.
2. Reefs
- Veins and lodes which are exposed on the surface.
3. Seams/Layers/Beds
-Occurrence of minerals as sedimentary or as a result of
compression of accumulated organic or inorganic material e.g. coal
and halite.
4. Alluvial Deposits
-Occurrence of miner als while mixed with materials such as sand,
gravel, silt, etc.
These were minerals which were detached from the veins by
weathering and carried away by streams and rivers and got
deposited e.g. gold, diamond and platinum.
5. Weathering Products
- Minerals formed by deep weathering of rocks then leaching carried
minerals from the top to lower layers where they accumulated e.g.
aluminium, nickel, iron and manganese.
6. Oil pools/Wells
-Occurrence of minerals in pools or wells in sedimentary rocks e.g.
petroleum and natural gas.
Conditions Necessary for Formation of Petroleum
First Name
Then
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