PRELIMS BIOLOGY – yrielleeeee Organelles

Biology - Smaller organ-like parts

- Biology is known to be the study of life and Cell Organelle
every organism needs to follow a certain
- Small organ-like structure present inside the
order to be classified as living. Perhaps, the
cell which has particular structural makeup
most compelling evidence of life is the cell.
and performs a specific function
The Cell Theory
Structure Examples
Cell Single-membrane Golgi, Lysosome,
Organelles Smooth and Rough
- smallest structural unit of an organism that Endoplasmic
is capable of independent functioning. All Reticulum, Vesicles
living organisms, like small insects, the and Vacuoles.
plants around you or the person sitting next Double-membrane Nucleus,
to you are made up of cells. Organelles Mitochondrion, and
- The building blocks of life plastids.
Organelles without Ribosome and
6 Cell Theory (3 original) membrane Centrioles.
1. The cell is the most basic unit of life that
can perform fundamental functions. Cell organelles carry out specific functions that are
necessary for the normal functioning of the cell.
2. All living things are made up of cells. These functions are many and varied, ranging from
hormone and enzyme production to providing
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
energy for the cell.
4. The cells contain hereditary information
Organelles effectively compartmentalize a cell’s
in the form of DNA which can be passed on from
activity, improving efficiency and protecting cell
cell to cell during cell division.
contents from harsh chemicals.
5.All cells have basic chemical composition.
6. Energy flow occurs within cells.

Scientist Discovery Cell Theory

Zaccharias Jansen First
-
(1597) Microscope
Anton Van
Leeuwenhoek Animacules -
(1665)
Robert Hooke
Cell -
(1666)
Rene Joachim
Henri Dutrochet Osmosis 1st
(1824)
Cell Membrane/Plasma Membrane
Matthias Schleiden nd
Plant Cells 2
(1838) - Function: Regulates materials entering and
exiting the cell.
Theodor Schwann
Animal Cells 3rd - Structure: Two layers of phospholipids,
(1839)
proteins
Rudolf Virchow Blastema 3rd
Cytoplasm Lysosomes
- Function: All cells contents that lie between - Function: packets of enzymes that break
the cell membrane and the nucleus. down materials in a cell.
(organelles + cytosol) - Structure: small membrane-bound
o Cytosol – liquid portion/non- organelles
organelles
Mitochondria
- Structure: made up of fluid and organelles
except for nucleus. - Function: produce energy for the cell – site
of cellular respiration. “powerhouse”
Nucleus
- Structure: Double membrane-bound, kidney
- Function: Control Center. Regulates DNA shaped.
and RNA actions
Golgi Apparatus
- Structure: membrane bound, contains DNA
- Function: Packages, labels and ships
Nuclear Envelope
proteins out of the cell.
- Function: Regulates what enters or exits the - Structure: Pancake-shaped layered
nucleus. organelle
- Structure: Double layer of lipids
Cytoskeleton
Nucleolus
- Function: Provide support and structure for
- Function: Produces RNA, which are used to the cell.
make all proteins. o Microfilaments
- Structure: Inside nucleus, separate from o Microtubules
DNA. - Structure: Tubules
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) Centrioles (Animals Only)
- Function: information on how to make - Function: microtubules that help divide the
proteins. cell during cell division.
o Chromatin – unorganized DNA - Structure: Tubules
(normal state)
Cilia and Flagella
o Chromosomes – organized DNA
(present before cell division) - Function: Provides movement for the cell or
- Structure: Made up of nucleotides, locked in objects moving by the cell
the nucleus - Structure:
o Flagella – 1 long fiber
Endoplasmic Reticulum
o Cilia – many short fibers
- Function: transportation route for proteins
o Rough ER – has ribosomes Chloroplasts (Plants Only)
o Smooth ER – no ribosomes - Function: site of photosynthesis (converting
- Structure: tubes and channels sun and CO2 into sugar)
- Structure: Membrane bound organelles that
Ribosomes
contain chlorophyll
- Function: makes proteins.
Cell Wall (Plant Cells Only)
- Structure: small circular organelles
- Function: Provides support for the cell and
Vacuoles & Vesicles
the plant.
- Function: storage for water, nutrients or - Structure: Made of cellulose.
waste
- Structure: small membrane-bound organelle
 - Chromosomes are duplicated (S-phase) but
cannot be seen individually because they
Cell Cycle
have not yet condensed.
- Somatic cells (nonreproductive cells) have
Mitosis
two sets of chromosomes
- Gametes (reproductive cells: sperm and Prophase
eggs) have half as many chromosomes as
- The chromatin fibers become more tightly
somatic cells
coiled, condensing into discrete
- Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of
chromosomes observable with a light
chromatin, a complex of DNA and protein
microscope.
that condenses during cell division.
- The nucleoli disappear
- A nucleosome is a section of DNA that is
- Each duplicated chromosome appears as
wrapped around a core of proteins.
two identical sister chromatids joined at their
- Eukaryotic cell division consists of: Mitosis,
centromeres and, in some species, all along
the division of the nucleus and cytokinesis,
their arms by cohesion (sister chromatid
the division of the cytoplasm
cohesions)
- Gametes are produced by a variation of cell
- The mitotic spindle (shape) begins to form.
division called meiosis.
It is composed of the centrosomes and the
- Meiosis yields non-identical daughter cells
microtubules that extend from them. The
that have only one set of chromosomes, half
radial arrays or shorter microtubules that
as many as the parent cell.
extend from the centrosomes are called
Two general phases asters (stars).
- The centrosomes move away from each
- Mitotic phase (mitosis and cytokinesis)
other, propelled partly by the lengthening
- Interphase (cell growth and copying of
microtubules between them.
chromosomes in preparation for cell
division). Prometaphase
Interphase (90% of the cell cycle) - The nuclear envelope fragments
- The microtubules extending from each
1. Growth Phase 1(G1):
centrosome can now invade the nuclear
- During this phase, the cell grows rapidly,
area.
while performing routine metabolic
- The chromosomes have become more
processes (protoplasmic synthesis). It also
condensed.
makes proteins needed for DNA replication
- The kinetochore, a specialized protein
and copies some of its organelles in
structure, has now formed at the
preparation for cell division. A cell typically
centrosome of each chromatid (2 per
spends most of its life in this phase.
chromosome)
2. Synthesis Phase(S):
- Some of the microtubules attach to the
- During this phase, the cell’s DNA is copied
kinetochores, becoming “kinetochore
in the process of DNA replication.
microtubules,” which jerk the chromosomes
3. Growth Phase 2(G2):
back and forth.
- During this phase, the cell makes final
- Non-kinetochore microtubules interact with
preparations to divide. For example, it
those from the opposite pole of the spindle,
makes additional proteins and organelles.
lengthening the cell.
- A nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus
- The nucleus contains one or more nucleoli Metaphase
- Two centrosomes have formed by
- The centrosomes are now at the opposite
duplication of single centrosome.
poles of the cell
Centrosomes are regions in animal cells
- The chromosomes have all the metaphase
that organize the microtubules of the
plate, a plane that is equidistant between
spindle. Each centrosome contains two
centrioles.
 the spindle’s two poles. The chromosomes’ Summary
centromeres lie at the metaphase plate.
The mitotic spindle is an apparatus of microtubules
- For each chromosome, the kinetochores of
that controls chromosome movement during
the sister chromatids are attached to
mitosis. During prophase, assembly of spindle
kinetochore microtubules coming from
microtubules begins in the centrosome, the
opposite poles.
microtubule organizing center. The centrosome
Anaphase replicates, forming two centrosomes that migrate to
opposite ends of the cell, as spindle microtubules
- Shortest stage of mitosis, often lasting a few
grow out from them. An aster (a radial array of
minutes.
short microtubules) extends from each centrosome.
- Begins when the cohesion proteins are
The spindle includes the centrosomes, the spindle
cleaved. This allows the two sister
microtubules, and the asters. During
chromatids of each pair to part suddenly.
prometaphase, some spindle microtubules attach to
Each chromatid thus becomes an
the kinetochores of chromosomes and begin to
independent chromosome
move the chromosomes. At metaphase, the
- The two new daughter chromosomes begin
chromosomes area ll lined up at the metaphase
moving forward opposite ends of the cell as
plate, the midway point between the spindle’s two
their kinetochore microtubules shorten.
poles. In anaphase, sister chromatids separate and
Because these microtubules are attached at
move along the kinetochore microtubules toward
the centromere region, the centromeres are
opposite ends of the cell. The microtubules shorten
pulled ahead of the arms moving at a rate of
by depolymerizing at their kinetochore ends.
about 1 mu per minute
- The cell elongates as the non-kinetochore
microtubules lengthen
Cell Transport
- By the end of the phase, two ends of the
cell have equivalent – and complete – Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and
collections of chromosomes proteins
Telophase Phosphilipids
- Two daughter nuclei form in the cell. - Most abundant lipid in the plasma
Nuclear envelops arise from the fragments membrane
of the parent cell’s nuclear envelope and - Amphipathic molecules, containing
other portions of the endomembrane hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
system.
- Nucleoli appear Fluid Mosaic Model
- The chromosome become less condensed - States that a membrane is a fluid structure
- Any remaining spindle microtubules are with a mosaic of various proteins embedded
depolymerized in it
- Mitosis, the division of one nucleus into two
genetically identical nuclei, is now complete Fluidity of Membranes

Cytokinesis - Phospholipids in the plasma membrane can

move within the bilayer
- The division of the cytoplasm is usually well - Most of the lipids, and some proteins, drift
under way by the late telophase, so the two laterally
daughter cells appear shortly after the end - Rarely does a molecule flip-flop transversely
of mitosis across the membrane
- In animal cells, cytokinesis involves the
formation of a cleavage furrow, which Membrane
pinches the cell in two.
- Collage of different proteins embedded in
the fluid matrix of the lipid bilayer
Proteins Membrane Structure Results in Selective
Permeability
- Determine most of the membrane’s specific
functions - A cell must exchange materials with it’s
surrounding, a process controlled by the
Peripheral Proteins
plasma membrane
- Bound to the surface of the membrane - Plasma membranes are selectively
permeable, regulating the cell’s molecular
Integral Proteins traffic
- Penetrate the hydrophobic core - Hydrophobic (non-polar) molecules, such as
hydrocarbons, can dissolve in the lipid
Transmembrane Proteins bilayer and pass through the membrane
rapidly
- Integral proteins that span the membrane
- Polar molecules, such as sugars, do not
Hydrophobic Regions cross the membrane easily

- Integral protein Transport Proteins

- Consist of one or more stretches of
- Allow passage of hydrophilic substances
nonpolar amino acids, often called into
across the membrane
alpha helices
- Specific for the substance it moves
Six Major Functions of Membrane Proteins
Channel Proteins
a. Transport
- Some transport proteins have hydrophilic
b. Enzymatic activity
channel that certain molecules or ions can
c. Signal transduction
use as a funnel
d. Cell-cell recognition
e. Intercellular joining Aquaporins
f. Attachment to the cytoskeleton and
extracellular matrix (ECM) - Facilitate the passage of water

Carbohydrates Role (cell-cell) Carrier Proteins

- Cell recognize each other by binding to - Other transport proteins bind to molecules
surface molecules, often carbohydrates, on and change shape to shuttle them across
the plasma membrane the membrane
- Membrane carbohydrates may be Passive Transport
covalently bonded to lipids (forming
glycolipids) or more commonly to proteins - Diffusion of a substance across a
(forming glycoproteins) membrane with no energy investment
- Carbohydrates on the external side of the
Diffusion
plasma membrane vary among species,
individuals, and even cell types - Tendency for molecules to spread out
- Membranes have distinct inside and outside evenly into the available space
faces - Although each molecule moves randomly,
- The asymmetrical distribution of proteins, diffusion of a population of molecules may
lipids, and associated carbohydrates in the exhibit a net movement in one direction
plasma membrane is determined when the - At dynamic equilibrium, as many molecules
membrane is built by the ER and Golgi across one way as cross in the other
Apparatus direction
Concentration Gradient
- The difference in the concentration of a
substance from one area to another
 - No work must be done to move substances Flaccid
down the concentration gradient
- If a plant cell and its surroundings are
- The diffusion of a substance across a
isotonic, there is no net movement of water
biological membrane is passive transport
into the cell; the cell becomes flaccid (limp),
because it requires no energy from the cell
and the plant may wilt
to make it happen
Plasmolysis
Osmosis
- In a hypertonic environment, plant cells lose
- Diffusion of water across a selectively
water; eventually, the membrane pulls away
permeable membrane
from the wall, a usually lethal effect
- Water diffuses across a membrane from the
region of lower solute concentration to the Active Transport
region of higher solute concentration
- Uses energy to move solutes against their
Tonicity gradients
- Moves substance against their
- The ability of a solution to cause a cell to
concentration
gain or lose water
- Requires energy, usually the form of ATP
Isotonic Solution - Performed by specific proteins embedded in
the membranes
- solute concentration is the same as that
- Allows cells to maintain concentration
inside the cell; no net water movement
gradients that differ from their surroundings
across the plasma membrane
Facilitated Diffusion
Hypertonic Solution
- Still passive because the solute moves
- solute concentration is greater than that
down its concentration gradient
inside the cell; cell loses water
- Some transport proteins, however, can
Hypotonic Solution move solutes against their concentration
gradients
- solute concentration is less than that inside
the cell; cell gains water Sodium-Potassium Pump

Hypertonic or hypertonic environments create - One type of active transport system

osmotic problems for organisms - Major electrogenic pump

Osmoregulation Membrane Potential

- the control of water balance, is a necessary - voltage difference across a membrane

adaptation of life in such environments
Voltage
Protist Paramecium
- created by differences in the distribution of
- which is hypertonic to its pond water positive and negative ions
environment, has a contractile vacuole that
Electromagnetic Gradient
acts as a pump
- two combined forces that drives the
Cell walls
diffusion of ions across a membrane
- help maintain water balance o chemical force (ion’s concentration
gradient)
Turgid o electrical force (the effect of the
- A plant cell in a hypotonic solution swells membrane potential on the ion’s
until the wall opposes uptake movement
Electrogenic Pump Ligand
- transport protein that generates voltage - any molecule that binds specifically to a
across a membrane receptor site of another molecule
Proton Pump
- main electrogenic pump of plants, fungi, and
bacteria
Cotransport
- occurs when active transport of a solute
indirectly drives transport of another soluble
Gradient of Hydrogen Ions
- Plants commonly use the gradient of
hydrogen ions generated by proton pumps
to drive active transport of nutrients into the
cell
Exocytosis
- transport vesicles migrate to the membrane,
fuse with it, and release their contents
- Many secretory cells use exocytosis to
export their product
Endocytosis
- In endocytosis, the cell takes in
macromolecules by forming vesicles from
the plasma membrane
- Endocytosis is a reversal of exocytosis,
involving different proteins
- There are three types of endocytosis:
o Phagocytosis ("cellular eating")
o Pinocytosis ("cellular drinking")
o Receptor-mediated endocytosis

Phagocytosis
- cell engulfs a particle in a vacuole
- The vacuole fuses with a lysosome to digest
the particle
Pinocytosis
- molecules are taken up when extracellular
fluid is "gulped" into tiny vesicles
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
- binding of ligands to receptors triggers
vesicle formation