Topic 1

Power supply unit

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 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES
(CLO)
CLO1. explain correctly the principles of electronic
circuits by using block diagram or circuit diagram (C4 -
Analysis)
CLO2. conduct the construction of electronic circuits
application during practical works based on the theory
and principle operation of the circuits. (P4 - Mechanics)
CLO3. deliver an oral presentation to display good
communication skills. (A2 – Response to phenomena)

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LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this topic students should be able to:

1.1 Explain the operation of a DC power supply circuit

1.2 Explain applications of rectifiers

1.3 Explain applications of filter

1.4 Explain applications about voltage regulator

1.5 Explain applications about voltage divider

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 Power Supply

• All electronic circuits need a power source to

work.
• For electronic circuits made up of transistors
and/or ICs, this power source must be a DC
voltage of a specific value.
• A battery is a common DC voltage source for
some types of electronic equipment
especially portables like cell phones and
iPods.
• Most non-portable equipment uses power
supplies that operate from the AC power line
but produce one or more DC outputs.
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Power supply unit

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 Power supply unit
The functions of power supply unit is
to convert the signal form AC input
power to DC power. A power supply
unit built with five major parts:
transformer, rectifier, filter, regulator
and voltage divider.

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Block diagram of dc power
supply

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 Function of each block
• Transformer – Reduce the value of the input ac
voltage.
• Rectifier – A circuit that converts ac voltage to dc
voltage
• Filter – The main task of filter is to convert the
voltage at pulse to the voltage rippled
• Regulator – Voltage regulator circuit is used to
reduced the difference to zero
• Voltage divider – Circuit is needed in power
supplies for electronic equipment requires.
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Output waveform from each block

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 Transformer
• Built from two winding transformer primary
and secondary loops. Network is to
separate the secondary circuit of the ac
supply lines high. This isolation can
prevent a user from the secondary ac
voltage electric shock high. Separation of
the primary circuit is able to avoid the
effects of damage received in the
secondary winding circuit.
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 Transformer
• Transformer has a primary winding and
secondary winding. The ratio of the
number of turns in the primary to the
secondary number of turns is the
transformer turns ratio.

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Transformer

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 Transformer

Voltage ratio is proportional to the voltage induced in

the primary to the secondary winding turns.

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 Transformer
• When the number of secondary winding
turns slightly compared to primary, lower
secondary voltage from the voltage in the
primary. Secondary voltage can be
calculated.

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Transformer

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Function of Transformer

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 Question

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 Solution

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 2/12013
Diode
• What is the
function of diode?

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 Functions of diode
• Switch
• Clipper
• Rectifier
• Clamp

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 2.1 Understand the Characteristics of
diode as a semiconductor

Schematic diagram and physical

structure of a diode

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 OPERATION DIODE DURING
FORWARD & REVERSE BIASED

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 APPLICATIONS OF DIODE
1. RECTIFIER
Rectifier is the circuit that used one or more diode to
convert the AC voltage to the pulsating dc voltage

There is 3 type of rectifiers :-

i) Half wave rectifier

ii) Full wave rectifier
iii)Bridge rectifier

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 Half-wave rectifier

Output Voltage
Input Supply Voltage Half-wave rectifier

Operation
During the positive circle of input supply, diode D is in forward
biased and act as close switch. So the current can flow through it. ,
producing an output voltage as shown above.
During the negative circle of the input supply, diode is reverse
bias and act as open switch, so the current can’t flow through diode.
No voltage appears at output.
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 How Rectifiers Work
• The simplest form of rectifier is
the half wave rectifier shown.
• Only the transformer, rectifier
diode, and load (RL) are shown
without the filter and other
components.
• The half wave rectifier produces
one sine pulse for each cycle of
the input sine wave.
• When the sine wave goes
positive, the anode of the diode
goes positive causing the diode
to be forward biased. The diode
conducts and acts like a closed
switch letting the positive pulse
of the sine wave to appear
across the load resistor.

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 How Rectifiers Work (continued)
• When the sine wave goes
negative, the diode anode will
be negative so the diode will be
reverse biased and no current
will flow.
• No negative voltage will appear
across the load. The load
voltage will be zero during the
time of the negative half cycle.
• See the waveforms that show
the positive pulses across the
load. These pulses need to be
converted to a constant DC.

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The output DC voltage of a half wave rectifier can be
calculated with the following two ideal equations

rms – root mean square

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 Question
• A half-wave rectifier circuit to the input
voltage 20 Vp-p, 50 Hz. Assuming no
voltage drop across the diode, calculate: -

i) the output signal voltage rectifier

ii) the output signal frequency

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 Solution
• Vm = 20 Vp-p
= 10 Vp

then VK = 10 Vp

Output signal frequency = Frequency of the input signal

= 50 Hz

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 Full-wave rectifier
V V

For single-phase AC, if the transformer is center-tapped, then two

diodes back-to-back (i.e. anodes-to-anode or cathode-to-cathode)
can form a full-wave rectifier..

A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform

to one of constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output.
Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input
waveform to DC (direct current), and is more efficient.
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The average (av) and root-mean-square (rms) output voltages
of an ideal single phase full wave rectifier can be calculated
as:

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Full Wave Rectifier

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 R

Input supply Output voltage

Consider the first half-cycle, when the source voltage polarity

is positive (+) on top and negative (-) on bottom. At this time,
only the top diode is conducting; the bottom diode is blocking
current, producing only positive half-cycle of the input supply
appears at load as shown at the above figure

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During the next half-cycle, the AC polarity reverses. Now, the
other diode (bottom) and the other half of the transformer's
secondary winding carry current to the load resistor, producing
the same polarity of voltage as before (Figure below)

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 2.2 Know diode
applications as rectifiers

Full-wave rectifier bridge rectifier

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During positive half-cycle Load voltage

D1

D3
RL

D1 and D3 conduct, allowing the current

flowing to the load, RL. Load voltage appears at
load as shown at above figure.
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During negative half-cycle Load Voltage

D2

D4
RL

D2 and D4 conduct, allowing the current

flowing to the load, RL. Load voltage appears at
load as shown at above figure.

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 Question
• A full-wave rectifier circuit to the input
voltage 20 Vp-p 50 Hz. Used transformer
has a turns ratio 2:1. Assuming no voltage
drop across the diode, calculate: -

i) the output signal voltage rectifier

ii) the output signal frequency

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 Solution

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 Bridge Rectifier
• Another widely used rectifier is
the bridge rectifier. It uses four
diodes.
• This is called a full wave rectifier
as it produces an output pulse
for each half cycle of the input
sine wave.
• On the positive half cycle of the
input sine wave, diodes D1 and
D2 are forward biased so act as
closed switches appearing in
series with the load.
• On the negative half cycle,
diode D1 and D2 are reverse
biased and diodes D3 and D4
are forward biased so current
flows through the load in the
same direction.
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 6/1/2013

FILTER
• The main task of the filter is to convert the
voltage pulse to a.t. rippling. The best filter
circuit is a filter that can reduce as much
as possible the value of Vr pp dc voltage
produced by rippling.

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 How the Filter Works
• A large capacitor is connected
across the load resistor. This
capacitor filters the pulses into a
more constant DC.
• When the diode conducts, the
capacitor charges up to the
peak of the sine wave.
• Then when the sine voltage
drops, the charge on the
capacitor remains. Since the
capacitor is large it forms a long
time constant with the load
resistor. The capacitor slowly
discharges into the load
maintaining a more constant
output.
• The next positive pulse comes
along recharging the capacitor
and the process continues.

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 Ripple

• The capacitor does a good job of smoothing the

pulses from the rectifier into a more constant DC.
• A small variation occurs in the DC because the
capacitor discharges a small amount between the
positive and negative pulses. Then it recharges.
This variation is called ripple.
• The ripple can be reduced further by making the
capacitor larger.
• The ripple appears to be a sawtooth shaped AC
variation riding on the DC output.
• A small amount of ripple can be tolerated in some
circuits but the lower the better overall.
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 Ripple voltage
• The output of rectifier circuit is the
pulsating DC voltage .The resulting
pulsating dc signal smooth the output
voltage, we used filter circuit. Figure below
shows the output wave before and after
the filter circuit.

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Ripple voltage

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 Types of filter
There are 4 main types of filter:-

• i)Filter capacitor
• i) Resistor capacitor (RC filter)
• ii) Inductance capacitor (LC filter)
• iii) π type filter

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RC filter diagram

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 RC filter
• Is an electric circuit composed of resistors
and capacitors driven by voltage or
current source

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 Operation of RC filter
• When a circuit consists of only a charge
capacitor and a resistor. The capacitor will
discharge its stored energy through the
resistor. The voltage across the capacitor
can be found by kirchoff’s current law.
Where the current through the capacitor
must equal the current through the
resistor.

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 LC filter

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 LC filter
• LC filter can also called resonant circuit.
• The purpose of LC is to oscillate with
minimal damping. When connected
together, they can act as an electrical
resonator, an electrical analogue of a
tuning fork, storing electrical energy
oscillating at the circuit's resonant
frequency.
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 Operation of LC filter
A capacitor stores energy in the electric
field between its plates, depending on the
voltage across it, and an inductor stores
energy in its magnetic field, depending on
the current through it.

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 Operation of LC filter
• If a charged capacitor is connected across
an inductor, charge will start to flow
through the inductor, building up a
magnetic field around it and reducing the
voltage on the capacitor. Eventually all the
charge on the capacitor will be gone and
the voltage across it will reach zero.
However, the current will continue,
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 Π filter

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 Π filter
• Combination C and LC filter
• PI-TYPE FILTERS use both capacitive
and inductive filters connected in a pi-type
configuration. Because of the combination
of filtering devices, the ability of the pi filter
to remove ripple voltage is superior to that
of either the capacitance or inductance
filter
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 The Regulator

• Most regulators are ICs .

• These are feedback control circuits that
actually monitor the output voltage to detect
variations.
• If the output varies, for whatever reason, the
regulator circuit automatically adjusts the
output back to the set value.
• Regulators hold the output to the desired
value.
• Since ripple represents changes in the
output, the regulator also compensates for
these variations producing a near constant
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DC output.
 IC Regulator
• The 78xx (also sometimes known as LM78xx) series of devices is a
family of self-contained fixed linear voltage regulator IC. The 78xx
family is a very popular choice for many electronic circuits which
require a regulated power supply, due to:
i. easy of use and
ii. Low cost.

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 Voltage regulator circuit
• The power supply means the output
changes when the input supply or the load
resistance also changes. The main
purpose of voltage regulator is to decrease
the changes to zero(0) or at least to the
minima value.

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Voltage regulator circuit

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 Voltage regulator circuit
• There are three (3) voltage regulator
circuit normally used :-
• a. Zener diode voltage regulator
• b. Series transistor voltage regulator
• c. Integrated circuits voltage regulator
(LM7805)

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Zener diode voltage regulator

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 Operation
• Zener diode will functions as voltage
regulator when reversed biased.Zener
diode has their own advantages, can be
regulate their voltage when it is operate at
the zener region. To operate, the input
voltage must higher than zener voltage
and the load resistance not effect the
zener diode is zero.

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Series transistor voltage regulator

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 Operation
• Connect the transistor serial with load and
it will control the input voltage value to
output.If the output voltage decreases ,the
increases VBE will cause the transistor to
produce more current value will make the
output voltage increases and make the
output voltage constant.

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 Operation
• Zener diode as a refer voltage .It is same
process if the output voltage increases.
Transistor will decrease the current value ,
cause the output voltage decrease and the
output voltage become constant.

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Integrated circuits voltage regulator
(LM7805)

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 Operation
• The serial LM 78XX(where XX=
05,06,08,10,12,15,18 or 24).It is 3
terminal voltage regulator .IC LM 7805 will
produce the output voltage +5V .LM 7806
will produce the 6V output voltage. LM
7824 will produce +24V output voltage.

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 Voltage divider circuit
• In electronic devices system, especially
big or complicated .It is contains several
circuit level, sometime use DC voltage
which are different value. For example TV
system have more than 10 circuit level
,different function and some of the need
DC voltage,100V,48V,12V and so on.

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Voltage divider circuit

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 POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT
• Figure below shows a power supply
complete circuit.From left to right,we found
the center tap transformer will decrease
the AC supply voltage .Then full rectifier
waveform change AC voltage to DC
voltage.π filter are used to straighten pulse
at the voltage and it will stabilize by zener
diode voltage divider.
•
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POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT

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 Example

• Based on figure below, name and explain

briefly circuit in part A dan part B,
• If part A is changed to Bridge Rectifier,
re-draw the complete circuit for power
supply unit.

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 Example

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 Solution

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 Solution
• The operation :-
• When ac voltage supply to the circuit, M and N
at the secondary transformer will become +ve
and –ve(exchange).When the circle of input
voltage in terminal become +ve ,G become a
potential (ground) and N become –ve .D1 diode
will forward biased while D2 will reverse biased.
Current will flow along M, D1, C, A, B, G.A +ve
cycle wave will produce at the RL load. When the
–ve cycle ,input
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 Solution
• voltage supply ,M terminal become –ve ,G
will zero potential(grounded) and N
become +ve.D2 diode will forward biased
while D1 will reverse biased. Current will
flow along N, D2, C, A, B, G. Current flow
through RL during the +ve cycle is similar
when –ve cycle, we will got the similar
shape of wave too.
•
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 Solution
• The direction of current flow through RL
during +ve cycle = the direction of current
flow through RL when –ve cycle. When we
connect the oscilloscope across RL, we
will know the shape of the output voltage
is similar

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 Solution
• Part B – Zener Diode Voltage Regulator
The operation;-
• Zener diode will functions as voltage regulator
when reversed biased.Zener diode has their
own advantages, can be regulate their voltage
when it is operate at the zener region. To
operate, the input voltage must higher than
zener voltage and the load resistance not effect
the zener diode is zero

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 Solution

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THE END

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 Topic 2
Oscillators
Sudahkah anda mengisi COURSE
ENTRANCE SURVEY? Hanya 4
orang sahaja yang mengisinya
sehingga 16/1/2013…

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 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES
(CLO)
CLO1. explain correctly the principles of electronic
circuits by using block diagram or circuit diagram (C4)
CLO2. conduct the construction of electronic circuits
application during practical works based on the theory
and principle operation of the circuits. (P4)
CLO3. deliver an oral presentation to display good
communication skills. (A2)

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2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this topic students should be able to:

2.1 Draw block diagram of an oscillator

2.2 Explain requirements of oscillator circuit

2.3 Construct the oscillator circuit

2.4 Explain applications each oscillator

2.5 Compare the performance of the oscillator

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 Oscillator
• Oscillators are devices that can
convert the DC voltage to AC voltage
without any external source at a
particular frequency.

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Basic oscillator block diagram

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 Oscillator
• Oscillator is divided into two classes
depending on the waveform produced as
follows:
i. Harmonic oscillator - the sine wave.
ii. Non-harmonic oscillator - in terms of the
fourth wave, triangle wave, etc..

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Oscillator

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 Oscillator circuit
• All the basic oscillator circuit consists of
three parts:

i. Amplifier
ii. Feedback
iii. Frequency Generation Circuit

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Block diagram of oscillator
circuit

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 Question
• Draw the block diagram of an oscillator
and name each block

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 Answer

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 Amplifier
• Generally, an amplifier or simply amp is a
device for increasing the power of a signal.
• For electronic amplifier, the input "signal"
is usually a voltage or a current.
• In this case oscillator requires DC power
supply to produce output. That means this
DC power supply is used as an input of
the amplifier
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 Feedback
• Feedback is a condition where part of the
output signal supplied to the input.

Since the oscillator has no input signal, the

feedback signal is the input signal to the
amplifier in the oscillator circuit.

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 Feedback
• There are two principles of feedback,
positive feedback and negative feedback.
Oscillators using the principle of positive
feedback.

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Concept feedback

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 Feedback
Figure below shows the basic block diagram of a feedback
system that are commonly used:

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Feedback

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 An audio oscillator produces frequencies in the
audio range, about 16 Hz to 20 kHz

Frequency generation circuit

• Generally, the frequency of the oscillator
circuit generation in consumer goods is
divided into two categories:
i. Audio frequency oscillator which
generates: Oscillator Network RC
(resistance-capacitor). It is to produce low
and medium frequency signal.
Example is the oscillator RC type oscillator
phase shift and Wein bridge Oscillator.
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A low-frequency oscillator (LFO) is an electronic oscillator that generates a frequency below
≈20 Hz. This term is typically used in the field of audio synthesizers, to distinguish it from an
audio frequency oscillator.

Frequency generation circuit

• ii. Radio frequency generating oscillator:
Oscillator Networks LC (inductor-
capacitor). It is also known as tank circuits.
It is to produce a high frequency signal (>
1MHz), and usually it produces a stable
frequency.
LC oscillator is an example of Armstrong
Oscillator, Colpitts, Hartley and crystal.

An RF oscillator produces signalshttp://modul2poli.blogspot.com/

in the radio frequency (RF) range of about 100 kHz to
19
100 GHz
 RC Oscillator
• Combination of resistors and capacitors.
Operate in low frequency. Two types of
RC oscillator:-

 Phase shift oscillator

 Wein bridge oscillator

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 LC Oscillator

 Armstrong Oscillator
 Crystal Oscillator
 Hartley Oscillator
 Colpitts Oscillator

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 LC Oscillator
 Combination of inductor and
capacitor.
 Operate in high frequency

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 Armstrong Oscillator
Using a combination of a transformer to step the phase of 180º.
FEEDBACK NETWORK
FREQUENCY-DETERMINING DEVICE

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 Operation

• Resistors R1, R2 and R3 is usage

to provide bias voltage to the
transistor. Capacitors C1 and C2
are used to block an alternating
signal. This configuration will
provide 180º phase difference of
output signal.
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 Operation
• The transformer Tr is selected to produce
a phase shift of 180º to get the feedback
voltage in phase with the input transistor.
• Usually the ratio between the coil windings
L1 with L2 coil arranged.
• So that the product of the gain, A, with the
feedback factor,  , is a (| A| = 1).

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The frequency of oscillation

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 Colpitts Oscillator
 Using a separate capacitor for resonant circuit.

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 Operation
• Transistors and resistors R1, R2, R3 and
R4 is a combination of amplifier circuit
(amplifier manufacturers Common Voltage
Divider bias technique). Capacitors C3
and C4 are used to intercept an alternating
signal to the ground.

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 Operation

The amplifier will provide 180º phase

difference of the output signal. LC circuit in
the feedback loop will produce a phase
shift of 180º. So the feedback voltage will
be in phase with the input voltage on the
transistor.

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The frequency of oscillation

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 Example

A Colpitts Oscillator circuit having two capacitors of 10pF and

100pF respectively are connected in parallel with an inductor of
10mH.

Determine the frequency of oscillations of the circuit.

The frequency of oscillations for a Colpitts Oscillator is given as:

The circuit consists of two capacitors in series, so the total capacitance is given as:

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The inductor is of 10mH then the frequency of oscillation is:

Then the frequency of oscillations for the Oscillator is 527.8kHz

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Hartley Oscillator

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 Hartley oscillator.
VCC
 Using a tapped
RFC
R1 inductor for the
vout
resonant circuit
L1 VCC
C1 1
fr 
R2 L2 RFC 2 LP C1
RE R1

vout
L T  L1  L 2 C1
R2
1 RE LP
fr 
2 LT C 1

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 Operation
• Transistors and resistors R1, R2, R3 and
R4 is a combination of amplifier circuit
(amplifier manufacturers Common Voltage
Divider bias technique). Inductance L1 and
L2 are used to intercept an alternating
signal to the ground

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36
Intercept - memintas
 Operation
• The amplifier will provide 180º phase
difference of the output signal. LC circuit in
the feedback loop will produce a phase
shift of 180º. So the feedback voltage will
be in phase with the input voltage on the
transistor.

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 The frequency of oscillation

The Hartley oscillator was extensively used on all broadcast bands including the
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FM 88-108 MHz band. 38
Example

A Hartley Oscillator circuit having two individual inductors of 0.5mH each, are
designed to resonate in parallel with a variable capacitor that can be varied from 100pF to
500pF. Determine the upper and lower frequencies of oscillation and also the Hartley
oscillators bandwidth.

The frequency of oscillations for a Hartley Oscillator is given as:

The circuit consists of two inductive coils in series, so the total inductance is given as:

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Lower Frequency

Upper Frequency

Oscillator Bandwidth

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 Question
• With reference to Figure below,
i. Name the type of oscillator
ii. Calculate the oscillation frequency of the circuit.
iii. Name the components that affect the oscillation
frequency

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 Answer

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Crystal oscillator

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43
 Crystal oscillator

• The most stable oscillator and precisely

using a piezoelectric crystal in the
feedback circuit. When an alternating
voltage applied to these crystals, the
mechanical vibrations and these vibrations
occur with the natural resonance
frequency depends on the thickness of the
crystal. To obtain a high frequency crystal
to be thinner.
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 Crystal oscillator
• Electrical properties of crystals can be
expressed with resonant circuit in Figure
below. Inductance Lh represents the
electrical equivalent of the mass of the
crystal. Capacitance, Ch represents the
elasticity of crystals, Rh represents the
frictional resistance in the crystal structure.
Cm represents the capacitance of the
capacitor crystal loaded containers.
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Represents the capacitance of the capacitor
Cm crystal loaded containers.

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The frequency of oscillation

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 Crystal oscillator
• Wide frequency range (depending on the
size of the crystal) are often used in the
emitter circuit

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Example
A series resonant crystal has the following values after
being cut, R = 1kΩ, C = 0.05pF and L = 3H. Calculate the
fundamental frequency of oscillations of the crystal.

The frequency of oscillations for Crystal Oscillators is given

as:

Then the fundamental frequency of oscillations for the crystal is

given as

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 Phase shift oscillator
• Phase shift oscillator comprising an
amplifier and feedback network with three
RC circuit.

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Phase shift oscillator

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 Operation
• The output signal from the amplifier
different phase 180o with the input signal.
To generate a positive feedback signal,
the output signal phase should be shifted
by 180o to be in phase with the input. RC
network to produce a phase shift of 180o
RC network where each one will transfer
phase by 90o.

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If all the resistors, R and the capacitors, C in the phase shift
network are equal in value, then the frequency of
oscillations produced by the RC oscillator is given as:

Where:
ƒ is the Output Frequency in Hertz
R is the Resistance in Ohms
C is the Capacitance in Farads
N is the number of RC stages. (in our example N = 3)
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Example
Determine the frequency of oscillations of a RC
Oscillator circuit having 3-stages each with a resistor
and capacitor of equal values. R = 10kΩ and C = 500pF

The frequency of oscillations for a RC Oscillator is given

as:

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The circuit is a 3-stage oscillator which consists of three
10kΩ resistors and three 500pF capacitors therefore
the frequency of oscillation is given as:

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THE END

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 Topic 3
Operational Amplifier
(Op- Amp)

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1
 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES
(CLO)
CLO1. explain correctly the principles of electronic
circuits by using block diagram or circuit diagram
(C4)
CLO2. conduct the construction of electronic
circuits application during practical works based on
the theory and principle operation of the circuits.
(P4)
CLO3. deliver an oral presentation to display good
communication skills. (A2)

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LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this topic students should be able to:

3.1 Explain the general op-amp circuit design

3.2 Explain the differential amplifier

3.3 Draw complimentary and push pull amplifier

3.4 Explain the ideal characteristics of op-amp

3.5 Construct the op-amp configurations

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 Operational Amplifier
(Op- Amp)

1) What is the meaning of operational

amplifier?
2) Symbol of operational amplifier.
3) Block diagram of operational amplifier.

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 Operational Amplifier
• An op amp is a high voltage gain, DC amplifier with high input
impedance, low output impedance, and differential inputs.
• Positive input at the non-inverting input produces positive output,
positive input at the inverting input produces negative output.

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Block diagram of DC op – amp

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TERM DEFINITION

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 1. Input bias current
• Op-amps have a small current called the
Input Bias Current, IBias.
• IBias is a DC current flowing in or out of the
input terminals
• It is defined as the average of the currents
at the two terminals. IBias is really the Base
or Gate current of the input transistors.

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 2. Input Offset Current

– Different in IBias between the two input

transistor in op amp.
– IBias (inverting) and IBias (non-inverting) are not
equal
– Input offset current = IBias (inverting) - IBias
(non - inverting)

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 3. Input Offset Voltage

• The difference in input voltages necessary to

bring the output to zero is called the input
offset voltage, VOS.

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 4. Common Mode Gain
• Gain – when both input
terminal have same signal.
• When Vin = 0, Vo = 0

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 5. Common Mode Rejection Ratio
(CMRR)

– is a performance specification of an
electronic circuit component.
– Normally Common mode gain << 1
– For op-amp 741, Common mode rejection
ratio (CMRR) = 90dB
Closed loop gain ( AoL)
• CMRR = 20 log _______________________
Common mode gain(Acm)

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 Question
• 1) What is the meaning of input bias
current?

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 Question
• 2) What is the meaning of input offset
voltage?

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 Operational Amplifier
configurations
• The second most basic format of an op
amp circuit is the non inverting amplifier.
This configuration uses negative feedback
to stabilize the voltage gain. Used to
increase the amplitude of the input signal.
Circuit is as follows;

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 Non inverting amplifier
• Using the formula to
calculate the output
voltage of a potential
divider network, we
can calculate the
closed-loop voltage
gain (Av) of the Non-
inverting Amplifier
as follows

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Non inverting amplifier

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 Non inverting amplifier

• Then the closed loop voltage gain of a Non-inverting

Amplifier is given as:

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 Non inverting amplifier

Phase relationship between input and output voltage of the non

inverting amplifier
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 Example
• From the diagram,
calculate the value of
Vo if 1V is applied to
the circuit.

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 Answer

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 Question 1
• From figure 1, • Figure 1
calculate the values
of voltage gain if
R2 = 12KΩ and
Rf = 50KΩ.

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 Question 2
• Calculate the values
of V1 if
Vout = 5V,
R2 = 100KΩ and
Rf = 50KΩ

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 Question 3
• If non inverting op-amp produces a gain of
Rf/Ra, draw the input-output connection of
the op-amp

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 Question 4
• By referring to question 3, given a gain of
10 for the op-amp, the input voltage 0.24V,
what is the output voltage?

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 Inverting Amplifier

Used to amplify and phase reverse the input signal. Inverting input is a
virtual earth. http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
 Inverting Amplifier

• CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

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Inverting Amplifier

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 Inverting Amplifier
• Then, the Closed-Loop Voltage Gain of an Inverting Amplifier is given as.

and this can be transposed to give Vout as :

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 Inverting Amplifier

Phase relationship between input and output voltage of the inverting

amplifier
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 Question 5
• From figure 2, Figure 2

calculate the values

of voltage gain if
Rin = 12KΩ and
Rf = 50KΩ

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 Question 6
• Calculate the values
of V1 if
Vout = 5V,
Rin = 100KΩ and
Rf = 50KΩ

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 Question 7
• If an inverting op-amp produces a gain of
Rf/Ra, draw the input-output connection of
the op-amp

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 Question 8
• By referring to question 7, given a gain of
10 for the op-amp, the input voltage 0.24V,
what is the output voltage?

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 Summing amplifier

• Used to mix the input signals

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 Summing amplifier
Circuit Analysis:

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 Subtractor
• Used to substract input signal.

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 Subtractor
• Circuit Analysis

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 Subtractor

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 Subtractor

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 Subtractor

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 Differentiator

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 Differentiator
• Circuit Analysis:
Since the node voltage of the operational amplifier at its inverting input
terminal is zero, the current, i flowing through the capacitor will be
given as;

= Ic

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 Differentiator

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 Integrator

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 Integrator

• Integrator Amplifier is an operational amplifier circuit

that performs the mathematical operation of Integration.
The integrator amplifier acts like a storage element that
"produces a voltage output which is proportional to the
integral of its input voltage with respect to time"

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 Integrator
• Circuit analysis
• The voltage across the capacitor is output Vout therefore: -
Vout = Q/C. If the capacitor is charging and discharging, the rate of
charge of voltage across the capacitor is given as:

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 Integrator

• But dQ/dt is electric current and since the

node voltage of the integrating op-amp at
its inverting input terminal is zero, X = 0,
the input current I(in) flowing through the
input resistor, Rin is given as:

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 Integrator

The current flowing through the feedback capacitor C is given as:

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 Integrator

• Assuming that the input impedance of the

op-amp is infinite (ideal op-amp), no
current flows into the op-amp terminal.
Therefore, the nodal equation at the
inverting input terminal is given as:

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 Integrator

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 Integrator
• From which we derive an ideal voltage output for the Integrator
Amplifier as:

To simplify the math's a little, this can also be re-written

as:

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 Comparator

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 Comparator

• The Comparator – an Open-Loop Device

• When applying a comparator, the designer compares the
voltage level at two inputs. The comparator produces a
digital output that corresponds to the inputs:
• If the voltage on the noninverting (+) input is greater
than the voltage on the inverting (-) input, the output of
the comparator goes to low impedance on for open
collector / drain outputs.
• If the voltage on the noninverting (+) input is less than
the voltage on the inverting (-) input, the output of the
comparator goes to high impedance off for open
collector / drain outputs
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 Comparator

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 Comparator

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1.The ideal Op-Amp

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 Test 1
• Tolong baca dan fahami !!!
• type of regulator cct, bridge rect.draw and
operation, Block oscillator, calculate harley
freq., characteristic of ideal opamp. Non-
inverting.

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THE END

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Operational amplifier

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 Topic 4

TIMERS

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1
 555 TIMER
555 timer is an integrated circuit that
very stable.
Use as monostable multivibrator, astable
multivibrator, bistable mode, buffer, analog
square wave signal generator, achometer
frequency meter and others

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2
Pin Configuration

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3
 Pin Configuration
• 1 – pin bumi (ground )
• 2 - pin picu ( trigger )
• 3 - pin output
• 4 - pin reset
• 5 - pin control voltage
• 6 - pin threshold voltage
• 7 – pin discharge
• 8 – pin supply voltage (vcc)

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 Function of Each Pin configuration

PIN 1 : GROUND
• -all the measure voltage must refer to this pin
PIN 2 : TRIGGER
• Timer output refer to trigger amplitude pulse
supply to this pin
• Output is LOW if voltage at pin > 2/3 Vcc
• When negative trigger pulse is 1/3 Vcc, output at
comparator 2 cause the timer output HIGH

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 Function of Each Pin configuration

PIN 3 : OUTPUT
• Output can connect at 2 output pin, pin 3 and pin 1 or pin
3 and pin 8.
• When output LOW, current will flow through load that
connected between pin 3 and pin 8 to output terminal,
know as SINK CURRENT.
• Current flow through load that connected between pin 3
and pin 1, known as SOURCE CURRENT.
• Maximum current for source current and sink current si
200mA.

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 Function of Each Pin configuration

PIN 4 : RESET
• Reset with negative pulse
• When the reset pin is not used, the pin is
connected to +Vs to avoid false trigger.
PIN 5 : CONTROL VOLTAGE
• Normally is connected to earth through 0.01µF
capacitor
• If output voltage is connected to pin 5, the output
waveform bandwidth can be changed.
• 0.01µF capacitor can avoid from noise problem.
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 Function of Each Pin configuration

PIN 6 : THRESHOLD VOLTAGE

• Input for inverting pin at comparator 1
• When voltage at this pin ≥2/3 Vcc, output
at comparator 1 is HIGH, output timer
LOW.

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 Function of Each Pin configuration

PIN 7 : DISCHARGE
• This pin is connected internally to collector at
transistor Q1.
• When output HIGH, Q1 OFF, circuit open
• When output LOW, Q1 saturated, capacitor C
discharge through Q1.
PIN 8 : SUPPLY VOLTAGE, Vcc
• +5 V to 18V

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555 Timer Internal Circuit

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10
 The application of timers in electronic
equipment
• able to generate a delay time from micro-
seconds to hours
• basically operate in 2 mode, astable and
monostable mode
• work cycle can be adjusted
• excellent temperature stability (0.005%/ celcius)

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Monostable Multivibrator

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 Monostable Multivibrator

• Know as shoot multivibrator

• Producing a single pulse when triggered
• Pulse generator circuit which the period is
calculated from RC network and
connected to external of 555 timer
• Monostable multivibrator is stable when
the output logic LOW (logic = 0)

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 Operation

• When a pulse is trigger at pin 2 (normally

negative trigger pulse), timer output will
change to HIGH (+Vs) for a while and
change to LOW (stable condition). The
condition will continue LOW until pulse is
trigger again.

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 Operation

• The timing period is triggered (started)

when trigger input (555 pin 2) is less than
1/3 Vs, this makes the output high (+Vs)
and the capacitor C1 starts to charge
through resistor R1. Once the time period
has started further trigger pulses are
ignored.

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 Operation
• The threshold input (555 pin 6) monitors
the voltage across C1 and when this
reaches 2/3 Vs the time period over and
the output becomes LOW,
• At the same time discharge (555 pin 7) is
connected to 0V, discharging the capacitor
ready for the next trigger.

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Output waveform

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17
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

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 ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

• Known as free running multivibrator.

• Producing a square wave
• This type of timer do not have stable
condition, the condition always change.
• Astable do not need trigger pulse for
external to change the output

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 ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

• The period for LOW and HIGH can be

calculated based on resistor and
capacitor value that connected at outside
of timer.

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 Operation
• Assume the initial is HIGH. Transistor Q1
OFF and capacitor is charging through
resistor RA and RB.
• When capacitor voltage reach 2/3 Vee,
Comparator 1 will trigger flip flop and
output change from change from HIGH to
LOW. Resistor RB and transistor Q1.

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 Operation
• When the capacitor voltage reach 1/3 Vee,
comparator output 2 will trigger flip flop so
the timer output is HIGH. The cycle is
repeated.
•

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 Operation
• Period for capacitor charging from 1/3 Vcc
to 2/3 Vcc same as period for HIGH output
at timer.
• Period for capacitor discharging from
2/3Vcc to 1/3 Vcc same as period for LOW
output at timer

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Output waveform

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 Formulas

• TH = 0.693 (RA+RB) C
• TL = 0.693 (RB) C

• Period, T = TH + TL = 0.693 (RA + 2RB) C

Frequency, f = 1/T
= 1/ (TH + TL)
= 1.44 / ((RA + 2RB) C)
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 Formulas

• % Duty Cycle = [TH / (TH + TL) ]x 100

• = [(RA + RB) / (RA + 2RB)] x 100

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 Bistable mode

• A simple memory which can be set and

reset.
• The circuit is called a bistable because it is
stable in two states: output high and
output low. It is also known as a 'flip-flop'.

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27
 Bistable mode
• It has two inputs:
• Trigger (555 pin 2) makes the output
high.
Trigger is 'active low', it functions when
< 1/3 Vs.
• Reset (555 pin 4) makes the output low.
Reset is 'active low', it resets when < 0.7V.

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Bistable circuit

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 Operation
• R1 and R7 are the collector load resistors. Voltage
dividers R1, R2, and R5 provide forward bias for Q2; R7,
R6, and R3 provide forward bias for Q1. These resistors
also couple the collector signal from one transistor to the
base of the other. Observe that this is direct coupling of
feedback. This type of coupling is required because the
circuit depends on input triggers for operation, not on RC
time constants inside the circuit. Both transistors use
common emitter resistor R4 which provides emitter
coupling. C1 and C2 couple the input triggers to the
transistor bases.

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 Circuit

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 Output

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 Buffer – Schmitt trigger

• The buffer circuit's input has a very high

impedance (about 1M ) so it requires only
a few µA, but the output can sink or source
up to 200mA. This enables a high
impedance signal source (such as an
LDR) to switch a low impedance output
transducer (such as a lamp).

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33
 Buffer – Schmitt trigger
• It is an inverting buffer or NOT gate because the output
logic state (low/high) is the inverse of the input state:
• Input low (< 1/3 Vs) makes output high, +Vs
• Input high (> 2/3 Vs) makes output low, 0V
• When the input voltage is between 1/3 and 2/3 Vs the
output remains in its present state. This intermediate
input region is a deadspace where there is no response,
a property called hysteresis, it is like backlash in a
mechanical linkage. This type of circuit is called a
Schmitt trigger.

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34
 Buffer – Schmitt trigger
• If high sensitivity is required the hysteresis
is a problem, but in many circuits it is a
helpful property. It gives the input a high
immunity to noise because once the circuit
output has switched high or low the input
must change back by at least 1/3 Vs to
make the output switch back.

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35
 Schmitt trigger

• A Schmitt trigger is a device that produces

rectangular wave signals.Its primary
function is to convert sine waves or
arbitrary waveforms into crisp square
shaped signals. The Schmitt trigger also
has an operational function called
hysterisis.

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36
 Schmitt trigger
• This function means that the switching
threshold on a positive going input is at a
higher voltage level than the switching
threshold on a negative going signal. A
device with hysterisis capabilities is
identified with this symbol.

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Symbol Schmitt trigger

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38
Schematic diagram of Schmitt
trigger

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39
 Operation
• The resistors R1+R2 and R4 will perform a
voltage divider. The output from this voltage
divider will determine the state of the transistor
Q2.
• As the input voltage is increased, a very small
current will start flowing through Q1. This will
have a result on the base voltage of Q2 that it
will gradually be decreased, and also the emitter
voltage of Q2 will be decreased. But the emitters
of Q1 and Q2 are connected together..
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40
 Operation
• Therefore, the voltage difference VBE of
Q1 will be increased. There will be a point
that the current flowing through Q1 will be
very high, and the Q2 will be sent to cut-
off. When the Q2 is to cut-off area, no
current flows through it and thus, the
output voltage is the power supply voltage.

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41
 Application of Schmitt trigger
• 1.squaring circuit
2.sine-to-square comparater
3.amplitude comparater
4. as flip flops

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42
Input and output waveform

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TOPIC 5

FILTERS

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FILTERS

Filter is an electrical network that

provides access to a signal that has a
certain frequency range and prevent
signals having other frequencies

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Application of filter

Capacitor filter
Choke input filter
Input capacitor filter
resisistance capacitance filter

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Two types of Filter

Passive Filter
Active Filter

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Passive filters

Passive implementations of linear

filters are based on combinations of
resistors (R), inductors (L) and
capacitors (C). These types are
collectively known as passive filters,
because they do not depend upon an
external power supply and/or they do
not contain active components such
as transistors.
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Passive filters

A low-pass electronic filter realised by an RC circuit

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Passive filters

Low-pass π filter

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Passive filters

High-pass T filter

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Active filters

Active filters are implemented using a

combination of passive and active
(amplifying) components, and require
an outside power source. Operational
amplifiers are frequently used in
active filter designs. These can have
high Q factor, and can achieve
resonance without the use of
inductors. However, their upper
frequency limit is limited by the
bandwidth of the amplifiers used.
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Active filters

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Differentiate between Active filter
and Passive filter
Passive filter Active filter

Structure Used of the passive Used of the active device and

components like resistor and capacitor
inductor, capacitor,
resistor etc
Size Big Small

Design Difficult Easy

Signal Operation Load is not isolated Load is isolated from the

from the frequency frequency determine
determining network
network
Cost Cheap Expensive

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Passive filters
Application of each passive filters
Low-pass filters (up to 100kHz)
Allow only low frequency signals to pass,
and hold a higher frequency
High-pass filters (above 100kHz)
Allow only high frequency signals to pass
through,
Band-pass filters
Allow signals falling within a certain
frequency range to pass through.
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Low-pass filters circuit

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Operation of low-pass filters
circuit
As mentioned previously in the Capacitive
Reactance , the reactance of a capacitor
varies inversely with frequency, while the
value of the resistor remains constant as
the frequency changes.
At low frequencies the capacitive
reactance, (Xc) of the capacitor will be very
large compared to the resistive value of the
resistor, R and as a result the voltage
across the capacitor, Vc will also be large
while the voltage drop across the resistor,
Vr will be much lower.
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Operation of low-pass filters
circuit
At high frequencies the reverse is true with
Vc being small and Vr being large.
While the circuit above is that of an RC
Low Pass Filter circuit, it can also be
classed as a frequency variable potential
divider circuit similar to the one we looked
at in the Resistors tutorial. The following
equation to calculate the output voltage for
two single resistors connected in series.

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Operation of low-pass filters
circuit

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Operation of low-pass filters
circuit
We also know that the capacitive reactance
of a capacitor in an AC circuit is given as:

Opposition to current flow in an AC circuit

is called impedance, symbol Z and for a
series circuit consisting of a single resistor
in series with a single capacitor, the circuit
impedance is calculated as:
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Operation of low-pass filters
circuit

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Operation of low-pass filters
circuit
Then by substituting our equation for
impedance above into the resistive
potential divider equation gives us:

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Example No1

A Low Pass Filter circuit consisting

of a resistor of 4k7Ω in series with a
capacitor of 47nF is connected across
a 10v sinusoidal supply. Calculate the
output voltage (Vout) at a frequency
of 100Hz and again at frequency of
10,000Hz or 10kHz.

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At a frequency of 100Hz.

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At a frequency of 10kHz.

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Frequency Response

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Frequency Response

The Bode Plot shows the Frequency

Response of the filter to be nearly flat
for low frequencies and all of the input
signal is passed directly to the output,
resulting in a gain of nearly 1, called
unity, until it reaches its Cut-off
Frequency point ( ƒc ).

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Frequency Response
This is because the reactance of the
capacitor is high at low frequencies and
blocks any current flow through the
capacitor. After this cut-off frequency point
the response of the circuit decreases giving
a slope of -20dB/ Decade or (-6dB/Octave)
"roll-off" as signals above this frequency
become greatly attenuated, until at very
high frequencies the reactance of the
capacitor becomes so low that it gives the
effect of a short circuit condition on the
output terminals resulting in zero output.
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Frequency Response
For this type of Low Pass Filter circuit, all
the frequencies below this cut-off, ƒc point
that are unaltered with little or no
attenuation and are said to be in the filters
Pass band zone.
This pass band zone also represents the
Bandwidth of the filter. Any signal
frequencies above this point cut-off point
are generally said to be in the filters Stop
band zone and they will be greatly
attenuated.
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Cut-off Frequency and Phase
Shift

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Low Pass Filter Summary
So to summarize, the Low Pass Filter has
a constant output voltage from D.C. (0Hz),
up to a specified Cut-off frequency, ( ƒc )
point.
This cut-off frequency point is 0.707 or -
3dB (dB = -20log Vout/Vin) of the voltage
gain allowed to pass. The frequency range
"below" this cut-off point ƒc is generally
known as the Pass Band as the input
signal is allowed to pass through the filter.
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Low Pass Filter Summary
A simple 1st order low pass filter can be
made using a single resistor in series with
a single non-polarized capacitor (or any
single reactive component) across an input
signal Vin, whilst the output signal Vout is
taken from across the capacitor.
The cut-off frequency or -3dB point, can be
found using the formula, ƒc = 1/(2πRC).
The phase angle of the output signal at ƒc
and is -45o for a Low Pass Filter.
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Low Pass Filter Summary

The gain of the filter or any filter for

that matter, is generally expressed in
Decibels and is a function of the
output value divided by its
corresponding input value and is
given as:

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The High Pass Filter Circuit

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Operation of high-pass filters
circuit
In this circuit arrangement, the reactance of the
capacitor is very high at low frequencies so the
capacitor acts like an open circuit and blocks any
input signals at Vin until the cut-off frequency point
(ƒc) is reached.
Above this cut-off frequency point the reactance of
the capacitor has reduced sufficiently as to now
act more like a short circuit allowing all of the input
signal to pass directly to the output as shown
below in the High Pass Frequency Response
Curve.

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Frequency Response of a 1st
Order High Pass Filter.

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Frequency Response of a 1st
Order High Pass Filter.
The Bode Plot or Frequency Response
Curve above for a High Pass filter is the
exact opposite to that of a low pass filter.
Here the signal is attenuated or damped at
low frequencies with the output increasing
at +20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave) until the
frequency reaches the cut-off point (ƒc)
where again R = Xc.

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Frequency Response of a 1st
Order High Pass Filter.
It has a response curve that extends down from
infinity to the cut-off frequency, where the output
voltage amplitude is 1/√2 = 70.7% of the input
signal value or -3dB (20 log (Vout/Vin)) of the input
value. The phase angle ( Φ ) of the output signal
LEADS that of the input and is equal to +45o at
frequency ƒc.
The frequency response curve for a high pass
filter implies that the filter can pass all signals out
to infinity. However in practice, the high pass filter
response does not extend to infinity but is limited
by the characteristics of the components used.

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Frequency Response of a 1st
Order High Pass Filter.
The cut-off frequency point for a first
order high pass filter can be found
using the same equation as that of
the low pass filter, but the equation for
the phase shift is modified slightly to
account for the positive phase angle
as shown below.

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Cut-off Frequency and Phase
Shift

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Cut-off Frequency and Phase
Shift
The circuit gain, Av which is given as Vout/Vin (magnitude) and is
calculated as:

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Example No1.

Calculate the cut-off or "breakpoint"

frequency (ƒc) for a simple high pass
filter consisting of an 82pF capacitor
connected in series with a 240kΩ
resistor.

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Answer example No1.

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High Pass Filter Summary
The High Pass Filter is the exact opposite to the low pass
filter. This filter has no output voltage from DC (0Hz), up to a
specified cut-off frequency (ƒc) point.
This lower cut-off frequency point is 70.7% or -3dB (dB = -
20log Vout/Vin) of the voltage gain allowed to pass. The
frequency range "below" this cut-off point ƒc is generally
known as the Stop Band while the frequency range "above"
this cut-off point is generally known as the Pass Band. The
cut-off frequency or -3dB point, can be found using the
formula, ƒc = 1/(2πRC).
The phase angle of the output signal at ƒc is +45o.
Generally, the high pass filter is less distorting than its
equivalent low pass filter.

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Band Pass Filter Circuit

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Operation of Band Pass Filter
Circuit
A Band Pass Filters passes signals within
a certain "band" or "spread" of frequencies
without distorting the input signal or
introducing extra noise. This band of
frequencies can be any width and is
commonly known as the filters Bandwidth.
Bandwidth is defined as the frequency
range between two specified frequency
cut-off points (ƒc), that are 3dB below the
maximum centre or resonant peak while
attenuating or weakening the others
outside of these two points.
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Operation of Band Pass Filter
Circuit
Then for widely spread frequencies, we
can simply define the term "bandwidth",
BW as being the difference between the
lower cut-off frequency ( ƒcLOWER ) and
the higher cut-off frequency ( ƒcHIGHER )
points. In other words, BW = ƒH - ƒL.
Clearly for a pass band filter to function
correctly, the cut-off frequency of the low
pass filter must be higher than the cut-off
frequency for the high pass filter.
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Operation of Band Pass Filter
Circuit
The "ideal" Band Pass Filter can also be
used to isolate or filter out certain
frequencies that lie within a particular band
of frequencies, for example, noise
cancellation. Band pass filters are known
generally as second-order filters, (two-pole)
because they have "two" reactive
component within their circuit design. One
capacitor in the low pass circuit and
another capacitor in the high pass circuit.
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Frequency Response of a 2nd
Order Band Pass Filter.

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Frequency Response of a 2nd
Order Band Pass Filter
The Bode Plot or frequency response curve above shows
the characteristics of the band pass filter. Here the signal is
attenuated at low frequencies with the output increasing at a
slope of +20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave) until the frequency
reaches the "lower cut-off" point ƒL. At this frequency the
output voltage is again 1/√2 = 70.7% of the input signal value
or -3dB (20 log (Vout/Vin)) of the input. The output continues
at maximum gain until it reaches the "upper cut-off" point ƒH
where the output decreases at a rate of -20dB/Decade
(6dB/Octave) attenuating any high frequency signals. The
point of maximum output gain is generally the geometric
mean of the two -3dB value between the lower and upper
cut-off points and is called the "Centre Frequency" or
"Resonant Peak" value ƒr. This geometric mean value is
calculated as being ƒr 2 = ƒ(upper) x ƒ(lower).

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Frequency Response of a 2nd
Order Band Pass Filter
The upper and lower cut-off frequency
points for a band pass filter can be
found using the same formula as that
for both the low and high pass filters,
For example.

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Example No1.

A second-order band pass filter is to

be constructed using RC components
that will only allow a range of
frequencies to pass above 1kHz
(1,000Hz) and below 30kHz
(30,000Hz). Assuming that both the
resistors have values of 10kΩ´s,
calculate the values of the two
capacitors required.
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Answer for example No1.

The High Pass Filter Stage.

The value of the capacitor C1
required to give a cut-off frequency ƒL
of 1kHz with a resistor value of 10kΩ
is calculated as:

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Answer for example No1.

The Low Pass Filter Stage.

The value of the capacitor C2
required to give a cut-off frequency
ƒH of 30kHz with a resistor value of
10kΩ is calculated as:

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Completed Band Pass Filter
Circuit

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Types of active filter

a. Low- Pass Filter

b. High-Pass Filter
c. Band- Pass Filter

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Low pass filter circuit

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Operation of low-pass filters
circuit
This first-order low pass active filter,
consists simply of a passive RC filter
stage providing a low frequency path
to the input of a non-inverting
operational amplifier.
The amplifier is configured as a
voltage-follower (Buffer) giving it a DC
gain of one, Av = +1 or unity gain as
opposed to the previous passive RC
filter which has a DC gain of less than
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unity.
Frequency Response of a 1st
Order Low Pass Filter

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Gain of a first-order low pass
filter

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Gain of a first-order low pass
filter

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Magnitude of Voltage Gain in
(dB)

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Example No1

Design a non-inverting active low

pass filter circuit that has a gain of ten
at low frequencies, a high frequency
cut-off or corner frequency of 159Hz
and an input impedance of 10KΩ.

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Solution:

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Second-order Low Pass Active
Filter
As with the passive filter, a first-order low
pass active filter can be converted into a
second-order low pass filter simply by
using an additional RC network in the input
path.
The frequency response of the second-
order low pass filter is identical to that of
the first-order type except that the stop
band roll-off will be twice the first-order
filters at 40dB/decade (12dB/octave).
Therefore, the design steps required of the
second-order active low pass filter are the
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same.
Second-order Active Low Pass
Filter Circuit

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The High Pass Filter Circuit

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Operation of high-pass filters
circuit
When the closed loop response of the op amp
intersects the open loop response. A commonly
available operational amplifier such as the uA741
has a typical "open-loop" (without any feedback)
DC voltage gain of about 100dB maximum
reducing at a roll off rate of -20dB/Decade (-
6db/Octave) as the input frequency increases. The
gain of the uA741 reduces until it reaches unity
gain, (0dB) or its "transition frequency" ( Ft ) which
is about 1MHz. This causes the op-amp to have a
frequency response curve very similar to that of a
first-order low pass filter

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Frequency Response of a 1st
Order High Pass Filter.

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Gain for an Active High Pass Filter

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Gain for an Active High Pass Filter

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Magnitude of Voltage Gain in (dB)

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Example No1

A first order active high pass filter has

a pass band gain of two and a cut-off
corner frequency of 1kHz. If the input
capacitor has a value of 10nF,
calculate the value of the cut-off
frequency determining resistor and
the gain resistors in the feedback
network. Also, plot the expected
frequency response of the filter.
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Solution:

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Second-order High Pass Active
Filter
As with the passive filter, a first-order high
pass active filter can be converted into a
second-order high pass filter simply by
using an additional RC network in the input
path. The frequency response of the
second-order high pass filter is identical to
that of the first-order type except that the
stop band roll-off will be twice the first-
order filters at 40dB/decade (12dB/octave).
Therefore, the design steps required of the
second-order active high pass filter are the
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Second-order Active High Pass
Filter Circuit

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Cascading Active High Pass Filters

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Band Pass Filter Circuit

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Band Pass Filter
This cascading together of the individual
low and high pass passive filters produces
a low "Q-factor" type filter circuit which has
a wide pass band. The first stage of the
filter will be the high pass stage that uses
the capacitor to block any DC biasing from
the source. This design has the advantage
of producing a relatively flat asymmetrical
pass band frequency response with one
half representing the low pass response
and the other half representing high pass
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Band Pass Frequency Response

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 TOPIC 6
CONVERTER

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 COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES (CLO)

CLO1. explain correctly the principles of

electronic circuits by using block diagram or
circuit diagram (C4)
CLO2. conduct the construction of electronic
circuits application during practical works
based on the theory and principle operation of
the circuits. (P4)
CLO3. deliver an oral presentation to display
good communication skills. (A2)

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2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this topic students should be able to:

6.1 Explain the methods of converting digital to analogue signals

6.2 Explain the application of D/A converter

6.3 Draw the input and output waveform

6.4 Explain the methods of converting analogue to digital signals

6.5 Explain the application of A/D converter

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3
INTRODUCTION
 Most real-world information is analog. For
instance, time, speed, weight, pressure, light
intensity, and position measurements are all
analog in nature. The digital system in Figure
below has an analog input. The voltage varies
continuously from 0 to 3 V. The encoder is a
special device that converts the analog signal to
digital information. The encoder is called an
analog-to-digital converter or, for short, an A/D
converter. The A/D converter, then, converts
analog information to digital data.

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INTRODUCTION
 The digital system diagrammed in Figure below
also has a decoder. This decoder is a special
type; it converts the digital information from the
digital processing unit to an analog output. For
instance, the analog output may be a continuous
voltage change from 0 to 3 V. We call this
decoder a digital-to-analog converter or, for short,
a D/A converter. The D/A converter, then, decode
digital information to analog form.

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Digital System

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Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)
 A block diagram of a D/A converter is
shown below. The digital inputs (D, C, B, A)
are at the left. The decoder consists of two
sections: the resistor network and the
summing amplifier. The output is shown as
a voltage reading on the voltmeter at the
right.

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Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)
 Basically, D/A conversion is the
process of taking a value represented
in digital code (such as straight
binary or BCD) and converting it to a
voltage or current which is
proportional to the digital value

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A block diagram of a D/A converter

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Symbol of a D/A converter

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http://modul2poli.blogspot.com/
Resistive Divider
 One method of the D/A conversion uses a resistor
network with resistance values that represent the
binary weights of the input bits of the digital code.
Figure below shows a 4-bit DAC of this type. Each
of the input resistors will either have current or
have no current, depending on the input voltage
level. If the input voltage is zero (binary 0), the
current is also zero. If the input voltage is HIGH
(binary 1), the amount of current depends on the
input resistor value and is different for each input
resistor, as indicated in the figure.

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Resistive Divider

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Resistive Divider
 From the above figure

Since there is practically no current into the op-

amp inverting input, all of the input currents sum
together and go through Rf. Since the inverting
input is at 0 volt (virtual ground), the drop across
Rf is equal to the output voltage, so Vout= If Rf.

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Resistive Divider
 The values of the input resistors are chosen to be
inversely proportional to the binary weights of the
corresponding input bits. The lowest value resistor
(R) corresponds to the highest binary-weighted
input (23). The other resistors are multiples of R
(2R, 4R, 8R) and correspond to the binary
weights 22, 21, and 20, respectively. The input
currents are also proportional to the binary
weights. Thus, the output voltage is proportional
to the sum of the binary weights because the sum
of the input currents is through Rf.

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Example 1
 Determine the output of the DAC in figure
below if the waveforms representing a
sequence of 4-bit numbers given below are
applied to the inputs. Input D0 is the least
significant bit (LSB).

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Example 2
 Determine the output of the DAC in the
figure (a) below if the sequence of 4 bit
numbers in part (b) is applied to the
inputs. The data inputs have a low value
of 0V and a high value of +5V.

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Binary Ladder
1) Difference with resistor network because it
only uses two values ​of resistors R and 2R
2)Binary weighted DAC circuit have too many
resistors
3)R-2R circuit is used more often to get high
accuracy and precision

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Binary Ladder

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Binary Ladder

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Binary Ladder

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Binary Ladder

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Digital analog converter spesification

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 Analog to Digital Converter

 An analog-to-digital converter is a special

type of encoder. A basic block diagram of
an A/D converter is shown below. The input
is a single variable voltage. The voltage in
this case varies from 0 to 3V. The output of
the A/D converter is in binary. The A/D
converter translates the analog voltage at
the input into a 4-bit binary word.
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Analog to Digital Converter

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Analog to Digital Converter

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 Analog to Digital Converter
 The A/D conversion process is generally
more complex and time-consuming than
the D/A process, and many different
methods have been developed and used.
We shall examine several of these methods
in detail. Among them are a digital-ramp
method and a successive approximation
method.
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 Digital-ramp A/D Converter

 The digital-ramp method of A/D conversion

is also known as the stairstep-ramp or the
counter method. It employs a DAC and a
binary counter to generate the digital value
of an analog input. Figure below illustrates
the block diagram of this type of converter.
It contains a counter, a DAC, an analog
comparator, and a control AND gate.

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Digital-ramp A/D Converter

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Example 1
 Assume the following values for the digital-
ramp ADC: clock frequency= 1MHz; DAC
full-scale output= 1.5V and a 4-bit input.
Determine the following values.
 The digital equivalent obtained for VA= 0.78V
 The conversion time
 The resolution of this converter

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Example 2
 Digital Ramp ADC has frequency clock of
1.25 MHz, threshold sensivity voltage of
0.1 mV and full scale voltage DAC 10 bit
of 10.23 V.
i) when Va=3.57 V, calculate equivalent
output value
ii) Determine the convertor time
iii) Calculate the resolution in volt and
percentage.
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The stairsteps

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Successive Approximation A/D
Converter
 The successive-approximation converter is
one of the most widely used types of A/D
converter. It has more complex circuitry
than the digital ramp A/D converter but a
much shorter conversion time. In addition,
successive approximation converters
(SAC) have a fixed value of conversion
time that is not dependent on the value of
the analog input.
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Successive Approximation A/D
Converter

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Successive Approximation A/D
Converter
 The input bits of the DAC are enabled (made equal to 1)
one at a time, starting with the MSB. As each bit is
enabled, the comparator produces an output that
indicates whether the analog input voltage is greater or
less than the output of the DAC. If the DAC is greater
than the analog input, the comparator’s output is LOW,
causing the bit of the register to RESET. If the output is
less than the analog input, the 1 bit is retained in the
register. The system does this with the MSB first, then
the next most significant bit, then the next, and so on.
After all the bits of the DAC have been tried, the
conversion cycle is complete.
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Example
 Describe the operation of the 4-bit SAC.
Assume that the constant analog input
voltage is +5V. Let’s assume the output
characteristics of DAC are: Vout= 8V for
the 23 (MSB), Vout= 4V for the 22 bit, and
Vout= 1V for the 20 bit (LSB).

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Solution

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Solution
 Figure (a) shows the first step in the conversion
cycle with the MSB = 1. The output of the DAC
is 8V. Since this is greater than the analog input
of 5 V, the output of the comparator is LOW,
causing the MSB in the SAR to be RESET to a
0.
 Figure (b) shows the second step in the
conversion cycle with the 22 bit equal to a 1.
The output of the DAC is 4V. Since this is less
than the analog input of 5 V, the output of the
comparator switches to a HIGH, causing this bit
to be retained in the SAR.
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Solution
 Figure (c) shows the third step in the conversion
cycle with the 21 bit equal to a 1. The output of
the DAC is 6V because there is a 1 on the 22 bit
input and on the 21 bit input; 4V + 2V = 6V.
Since this is greater than the analog input of 5
V, the output of the comparator switches to a
LOW, causing this bit to be RESET to a 0.
 Figure (d) shows the fourth and final step in the
conversion cycle with the 20 bit equal to a 1.
The output of the DAC is 5 V because there is a
Ion the 22 bit input and on the 20 bit input; 4V +
1V = 5V.
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Solution
 The four bits have all been tried, thus
completing the conversion cycle. At this
point the binary code in the register is
0101, which is the binary value of the
analog input of 5V. Another conversion
cycle now begins, and the basic process is
repeated. The SAR is cleared at the
beginning of each cycle.
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THANK YOU

GOOD LUCK FOR YOUR

FINAL EXAM and
TRY THE BEST

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