CHAPTER 3.

ANALOG MODULATION

Transmitter Video Carrier

Output Audio Carrier

(f - fcv) MHz
-1.75 -0.75 0 4.0 4.5 4.75
2β interval
Receiver 1
Shaping
Filter
(f - fcv) MHz
-0.75 0 0.75 4.0 4.75
Broadcast TV transmitter spectrum and receiver shaping filter

3.1.5 Frequency Translation and Mixing

 Used to translate baseband or bandpass signals to some new
center frequency

m(t)cos1t
e(t) BPF
at
f2 f
f
f1 f2

Local oscillator of the form

Frequency translation system

 Assuming the input signal is DSB of bandwidth 2W the mixer

(multiplier) output is
local osc (LO)
‚ …„ ƒ
e.t / D m.t / cos.!1t / 2 cos.!1 ˙ !2/t
D m.t / cos.!2t / C m.t / cosŒ.2!1 ˙ !2/t 

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 3.1. LINEAR MODULATION

 The bandpass filter bandwidth needs to be at least 2W Hz wide

 Note that if an input of the form k.t / cosŒ.!1 ˙2!2/t  is present

it will be converted to !2 also, i.e.,

e.t / D k.t / cos.!2t / C k.t / cosŒ.2!1 ˙ 3!2/t ;

and the bandpass filter output is k.t / cos.!2t /

 The frequencies !1 ˙ 2!2 are the image frequencies of !1 with

respect to !LO D !1 ˙ !2

Example 3.7: AM Broadcast Superheterodyne Receiver

Tunable IF Filt/ Env Audio

RF-Amp Amp Det Amp
fIF
Automatic gain
Local control For AM BT = 2W
Osc.
Joint tuning

AM Broadcast Specs: fc = 540 to 1600 kHz on 10 kHz spacings

carrier stability
Modulated audio flat 100 Hz to 5 kHz
Typical fIF = 455 kHz

AM Superheterodyne receiver

 We have two choices for the local oscillator, high-side or low-

side tuning

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CHAPTER 3. ANALOG MODULATION

– Low-side: 540 455  fLO  1600 455 or 85  fLO 

1145, all frequencies in kHz
– High-side: 540 C 455  fLO  1600 C 455 or 995 
fLO  2055, all frequencies in kHz

 The high-side option is advantageous since the tunable oscil-

lator or frequency synthesizer has the smallest frequency ratio
fLO,max=fLO,min D 2055=995 D 2:15

 Suppose the desired station is at 560 kHz, then with high-side

tuning we have fLO D 560 C 455 D 1015 kHz

 The image frequency is at fimage D fc C 2fIF D 560 C 2 

455 D 1470 kHz (note this is another AM radio station center
frequency

Desired Potential Image

BRF
Input
f (kHz)
455 560 1470
fLO fIF fIF

f (kHz)
BIF 1015 1470
Mixer IF BPF (560+455)
Output
f (kHz)
Image 1015-560 1575
Out of This is removed (560+1015)
mixer with RF BPF
f (kHz)
455 2485
0 1470-1015
(1470+1015)

Receiver frequency plan including images

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 3.1. LINEAR MODULATION

Example 3.8: A Double-Conversion Receiver

fc = 162.475 MHz
(WX #4) 10.7 MHz & 455 kHz &
335.65 MHz 21.855 MHz
Tunable 10.7 MHz 455 kHz FM
RF-Amp IF BPF IF BPF Demod

1st 2nd
LO LO
fLO1 = 173.175 MHz fLO2 = 11.155 MHz

Double-conversion superheterodyne receiver

 Consider a frequency modulation (FM) receiver that uses double-

conversion to receive a signal con carrier frequency 162.475
MHz (weather channel #4)

– Frequency modulation will be discussed in the next sec-

tion

 The dual-conversion allows good image rejection by using a

10.7 MHz first IF and then can provide good selectivity by
using a second IF at 455 kHz; why?

– The ratio of bandwidth to center frequency can only be so

small in a low loss RF filter
– The second IF filter can thus have a much narrower band-
width by virtue of the center frequency being much lower

 A higher first IF center frequency moves the image signal fur-

ther away from the desired signal

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CHAPTER 3. ANALOG MODULATION

– For high-side tuning we have fimage D fc C 2fIF D fc C

21:4 MHz

 Double-conversion receivers are more complex to implement

Mixers

 The multiplier that is used to implement frequency translation

is often referred to as a mixer

 In the world of RF circuit design the term mixer is more ap-

propriate, as an ideal multiplier is rarely available

 Instead active and passive circuits that approximate signal mul-

tiplication are utilized

 The notion of mixing comes about from passing the sum of two
signals through a nonlinearity, e.g.,

y.t / D Œa1x1.t / C a2x2.t /2 C other terms

D a12x12.t / C 2a1a2x1.t /x2.t / C a22x22.t /

 In this mixing application we are most interested in the center

term
 
ydesired.t / D 2a1a2 x1.t /
x2.t /

 Clearly this mixer produces unwanted terms (first and third),

and in general many other terms, since the nonlinearity will
have more than just a square-law input/output characteristic

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 3.1. LINEAR MODULATION

 A diode or active device can be used to form mixing products

as described above, consider the dual-gate MEtal Semiconduc-
tor FET (MESFET) mixer shown below

Nonlinear Device

VRF

VIN zL VOUT

VLO

Mixer concept

+5V

R2
10Ω
C3
47pF C4
0.01uF
L1 L3
5 turns, 28 AWG L4
.050 I.D. 270nH IF
C1 270nH
0.5pF G1 C8
LO D Q1 C7
G2 NE25139 42pF 82pF
RF S
C2
0.5pF
R1 C5 C8
L2 0.01uF
5 turns, 28 AWG 47pF
.050 I.D. 270Ω

Dual-Gate MESFET Active Mixer

 The double-balanced mixer (DBM), which can be constructed

using a diode ring, provides better isolation between the RF,
LO, and IF ports

 When properly balanced the DBM also allows even harmonics

to be suppressed in the mixing operation

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CHAPTER 3. ANALOG MODULATION

 A basic transformer coupled DBM, employing a diode ring, is

shown below, followed by an active version

 The DBM is suitable for use as a phase detector in phase-

locked loop applications
mixer
LO source LO RF RF source
input D2 D1
input

RG vp(t) vi (t) RG
D3 D4

IF vo(t)
out

IF load
RL

Passive Double-Balanced Mixer (DBM)

C9 T1
3 6
L1 R3 IF OUT
5V
2 4:1 (200:50)
TRANSFORMER
C8
C11 1 4
L2 R4

C10
GND

GND

GND
IF+

IF-
20
19

18
17

16

C1
RF MAX9982 LO2
RFIN 1 15 LO2
TAP GND C7
2 14
C3 C2 GND GND
3 13
RFBIAS GND
4 12
R1 GND LO1
5 11 LO1
C6
10
6

9
GND

GND
LOSEL
VCC

VCC

5V 5V

C4 C5

LO SELECT

825 MHz to 915 MHz SiGe High-Linearity Active DBM

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 3.1. LINEAR MODULATION

Example 3.9: Single Diode Mixer

ECE 5625 Communication Systems I 3-45