ELE 28 : THE TEACHING AND

ASSESSMENT OF GRAMMAR
AUTHOR: LOIS JADE M. TARAN, LPT
 FOREWORD

Grammar has a distinctive role in the history of Second Language

Teaching. Back then, we were eager to explore and learn another language
aside from our Mother Tongue. In the four language skills or known as the
four macro skills such as reading, listening, writing, and speaking; we seek
to understand and to comprehend and use language for communicative
purposes. Thus, a great way to learn a language is by providing real-time
for practice.
As future educators, we need to familiarize ourselves with the
different approaches and methods for a learning-oriented classroom.
Hence, in a 21st-century classroom, we need to upgrade ourselves to reach
21st-century learners. As part of the challenge, how will we teach our
learners considering their interest amidst of attention span or the crisis? In
fact, we need to take the responsibility to guide our learners for them to be
equipped and achieved the desired goal in the teaching and learning
process.
Moreover, this module covers the essential topics of grammar and
assessment to further understand more on how to teach and assess
grammar. This will provide you inputs and ideas on the processes and
strategies to be applied as an English Language Teacher. To conclude, the
choices we make in the assessment of grammatical ability might influence
the inferences we make about our students’ knowledge of grammar, the
decisions we make on their behalf affects their ultimate development.

The Author
 ELE 28 - THE TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT OF
GRAMMAR
Course Description: The course engages learners in understanding the distinctions
between and among four types of grammar: functional, descriptive, prescriptive, and
pedagogic. Aside from the emphasis on how teaching and assessment vary considering
the four types, the course also provides opportunities to discover the role of grammar
in achieving communicative competence.

COURSE OVERVIEW
Hello! This course pack is designed for educational administrators, school heads
and instructors. This course aims to provide the inputs from theory to practice on The
Teaching and Assessment of Grammar in that helps to the Secondary Language
Teachers and Language students value to explore on the ways on how to teach grammar
and how grammar should be assessed.

This course pack prepares the aspiring Language Education Students to

understand the pedagogy that shapes language teachers to explore the context of
acquiring and teaching the grammar as to aid the needs of the student to develop their
grammatical ability and that boost their confidence to practice the target language.

In order for learners to gain competency in this course, this course pack has been
structured into three modules as follows:
Module 1: Understanding of Language Teaching
Module 2: Approaches, Methods and Techniques of Grammar
Module 3: Assessment of Grammar

Upon the completion of this course, learners should be able to:

 Identify the different principles and approaches of Language Teaching and
Testing for a better understanding to apply concepts in the educative process.
 Discuss concepts on various tests and provide strategy upon devising and
formulating authentic assessments.
 Create a various types of grammar assessment tasks suitable to the learners
needs.
 Develop a syllabus applying the all principles and differentiated assessment in
the course

Now, you are about to begin the course! You will encounter series of lesson and hope
you will be more excited to learn and enjoy the various activities that was prepared for
you to maximize your learning.
Make yourself open to learning for sure you will value the learning and it will be
rewarding as you finish the course. You may study at your own pace or with your co-
learners. Moreover, don’t hesitate to seek help from your peers and always connect with
your teacher.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword ……………………………………………………………….i
Course Overview ……………………………………………...………..ii
Module 1: Understanding of Language Teaching
Module Overview ………………………………………………………….….1
Lesson 1: A Brief History of Language Teaching …………………………..…2
Lesson 2: The Context of Second Language Teaching ………………………...6
Lesson 3: The Language-Learning Brain ……………………………...……..10
Lesson 4: Principles in Teaching Grammar …………………………………..16
Lesson 5: Challenges in Assessing Grammar ……………………………...…20
Module Summary…………………………………………………………….24

Module 2: Approaches, Methods and Techniques of Grammar

Module Overview ……………………………………………………………27
Lesson 1: Grammar and Types of Grammar………………………………….28
Lesson 2: Methods and Approaches to Grammar….…...……………………..34
Lesson 3: Presentation, Practice and Production….…………………………..41
Lesson 4: Input Processing …………………………………………………...45
Module Summary…………………………………………………………….50

Module 3: Assessment of Grammar

Module Overview ……………………………………………………………53
Lesson 1: Grammatical Assessment………………………………………….54
Lesson 2: Types of Assessment………………………………………………59
Lesson 3: Grammar Assessment Tasks ………………………………………63
Lesson 4: Syllabus Design …………………………………………………...73
Module Summary…………………………………………………………….78

Appendix A…………………………………………………………………...81
Appendix B …………………………………………………………………..82
References ……………………………………………………………26, 52, 80
 MODULE 1

Understanding of
Language Teaching

In this Module you will

explore………………………
o A Brief History of Language
Teaching
o The Context of Second Language
Teaching
Module Overview o The Language Learning Brain
o Principles in Teaching Grammar
o Challenges in Grammar

The English language teaching tradition has been subject to tremendous change,
especially throughout the twentieth century. Perhaps more than any other discipline,
this tradition has been practiced, in various adaptations, in language classrooms all
around the world for centuries. While the methodology of teaching Mathematics or
Physics has to a greater or lesser extent, remained the same, this is hardly the case with
English or language teaching in general. As will become evident in this module, there
are some milestones in the development of the teaching practices. Moreover, even today
there’s a continuous attempt to reveal the importance of research in the selection and
implementation of the optimal methods and techniques for language teaching and
learning.

At the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Discuss the development of Language Teaching;
 Explain how the SL perspective builds our grammatical competence;
 Justify how language and brains works in the learning process;
 Apply the principles in the effectiveness of teaching grammar; and
 Trace the weak spots to address the challenges in learning the grammar.

Be ready for your exploit. You may begin your first lesson now!

1
Lesson 1 A Brief History of Language Teaching

Objectives:
 Discuss the improvement of Language Teaching;
 Assess the importance of Language teaching and
learning.
 Create a timeline on the significant development based
on the History of Language Teaching

Introduction
Have you ever thought on how does language exists? How does your teacher
taught you to learn a language before? Look at you now, you are learning the language
well that enables you to read, speak and write and able to acquire new vocabulary. Then,
it values that the HISTORY takes a great foundation to learning. Travel and Learn!

Stimulate recall
A Travel back in Time: Recall your childhood experiences in relation to language
teaching and learning, then answer the given questions.
1. Growing up you encounter various words and understand their meanings, right?
Now, try to count how many English words/vocabulary you have in mind.
2. Share a situation how did your first teacher taught you to understand English
language?
3. When was the first time you are able to translate a paragraph from English to
Cebuano or to your first language (L1)?

Analysis: Take time to think and respond to these questions.

1. How would the world looks like without language?

2. Where do you think does the Language originated?
3. How significant is the use of a particular language for discourse?
4. Based on the activity above, ponder on how does our experiences affect our
language learning today?

2
 A Brief Background of Langugae Teaching
Abstraction

Latin Language Teaching

About 500 years ago, Latin was “the world’s most widely studied foreign language.
In fact, it was the dominant language of Education, commerce, religion and government
in the western world.” Then, French, Italian and English replaced Latin due to political
changes.
In England in the 1500- 1700s, children went to “grammar schools” where they
studied Latin though memorization. As ‘Modern’ languages began to enter the
curriculum of European schools in the eighteenth century (1700s), they were taught
using the same basic procedures that were used for teachig Latin. This meant there was
lots of grammar, memorization and translation and no real communication.

The Grammar –Translation Method

This was popular from the 1840’s and is still used today to some extent. Its priciples
include:
1. Using Grammar-Translation to read literature, as a mental discipline, for
intellectual development and for rule memorization.
2. Mainly reading and writing with little to no speaking or listening.
3. Learning Vocabulary from text, bilingual word lists, dictionaries,
memorization, Deductive Approach Grammar (You are given rules to study and
use the Language), and translation into the Target Language (TL is that the
language that you are learning, the Foreign Language that you are studying)
and back.
4. Accuracy was a priority.
5. “Grammar is taught deductively”, and “in an organized and systematic way.”
6. “The students native language is the medium of instruction. It is used to explain
new items and to be enable comparisons to be made between “the Target
Language and the L1 (First Language).

Language Teaching innovations in the 19th century

1. Mid 1800’s “questioning and rejection of the Grammar Translation Method”
2. More “communication among Europeans created a demand for oral proficiency
in foriegn languages.”
3. Reformers: Marcel, Prendergast, and Gouin
4. Gouin promoted the use of context, gestures, and actions in language teaching.
These techniques “later became part of Situational Language Teaching and
Toatal Physical Response”
5. There was an interest in how children learn languages.

3
The Reform Movement
The International Phonetic Association (1886) created the Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
and advocate.
1. The study of the spoken language;
2. Phonetic training in order to establish good pronunciation habits;
3. The use of conversation texts and dialogs to introduce conversational phrases
and idioms;
4. An inductive approach to the teaching of grammar;
5. Teaching new meanings through establishing associations within the target
language rather than by establishing associations with the mother tongue.”

Henry Sweet: The Practical Study of Languages (1899)

His principles “included
1. Careful selection of what is to be taught;
2. Imposing limits on what is to be taught;
3. Arranging what is to be taught in terms of listeng, speaking, reading and writing;
4. Grading of materials from simple to complex.”

The Reformers: Viëtor, Sweet, and others

1. The spoken language is primary.
2. Phonetics should be applied to teaching and to teacher training
3. Learners should hear the language first, before seeing it in written form.
4. Words should be presented in sentences, and sentences should be practiced in
meaningful contexts.
5. Grammar should be taught inductively
6. Translation should be avoided.

Direct Method
“These Natural Language learning principles were
1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target langauge.
2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
3. Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression
organized around question and anser exchanges between teachers and students
in small, intensive classes.
4. Grammar was taught inductively.
5. New teaching points were introduced orally.
6. Conrete vocabulary was taught through demonstrations, objects, and pictures,
abstract vocabulary was taught by associaion of ideas.

4
 7. Both speeched and listening comprehension were taught.
8. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.
The Berlitz Method (Similar to the Direct Method, thought Maximilian Berlitz
never called it that)
Its principles which are still used today are as follows:
1. “Never translate: demonstrate
2. Never explain:act
3. Never make a speech: ask questions
4. Never imitate mistakes: correct
5. Never speak with single words: Use sentences
6. Never speak too much: mak students speak a lot
7. Never use the book: use you lesson plan
8. Never jump around: follow your plan
9. Never go too fast: keep the pace of the student
10. Never speak slowly: speak normally
11. Never speak to quickly: speak naturally
12. Never speak too loudly: speack naturally
13. Never be impatient: take it easy.

APPLICATION
Direction: Create a timeline on the important events in the
development of language teaching based on what you understand.
Write it in the space provided.

CLOSURE
Great job! You have just finished Lesson 1 of this module. If there
are some parts of the lesson which you need clarification, please
ask your tutor during your face-to-face interactions.
Now be ready to proceed to Lesson 2 of this module which will
discuss about how the Context of Language Teaching.

5
Lesson 2 The Context of Second Language Teaching

Objectives:
 Explain the various views of Secondary Language;
 Define terms and concepts on the Language Teaching
perspectives
 Write a reflection on the challenges of languages
teachers to rethink strategy to be applied in the lesson.

Introduction
In this part you will be exploring the context of Secondary Language. This gives
you a clear perspective and an idea on different perspective of language and its
important theories that should be applied in teaching Grammar as part of the scope of
Language Teaching and Learning. The next lesson will answer your questions about
second language teaching.

Word Association: When you hear about these LANGUAGE VIEWS

specifically Syntactocentric Perspective and Communicative
perspective. What comes into your mind? You may associate words that
you think it belongs to Syntactocentric and Communicative
Perspective.

Analysis:
Take time to think, and answer the given questions below.
1. What do you think is the focus of Communicative Perspective? How
about Syntactocentric?
2. Does effective communication is perceived as a function of linguistic
accuracy? Why?

6
 The Context of Second
Language Teaching
Abstraction
Read the relevant information given in the table presents the General
Approaches to Language Views, Syntactocentric perspectives of the
language, Corpus linguistics and the Theories of Communication.
Syntactocentric It is predominantly concerned with the structure of
Perspective clauses and sentences. This view defines
LANGUAGE VIEWS

“Grammar” as a systematic way of counting for and

APPROACHES

predicting an “ideal” speaker or hearer’s knowledge

(GENERAL

of the language
Communicative It focuses more on the overall message being
Perspective communicated and the interpretations that this
message invoke. “Grammar” is treated as on way of
the many resources for accomplishing something
with language.
Traditional It is based on a set of prescriptive rules along with
grammar the exceptions. It is criticized for its inability to
provide descriptions of the language that could
adequately incorporate the exceptions into the
framework and for its lack of generalizability to
other languages.

Structural It describes the structure of the language in terms of

grammar both its morphology and its syntax, in which each
Syntactocentric perspectives of the language

word in a given sentence is categorized according to

its use and the “patterns” or “structures” are said to
constitute a unique system for that language.

Transformational It provides a “universal” description of language

Generative behavior revealing the internal linguistic system for
grammar which all humans are predisposed. Underlying
properties of any individual language system can be
uncovered by means of a detailed sentence-level
analysis. This Universal Grammar (UG) has been
criticized for failing to account for meaning or
language use in social contexts.

7
  The most common practice of compiling Katz and Fodor (1963) found that
linguistic corpora, or large and principled in addition to encoding semantic
collections of natural, authentic spoken and features and restrictions, a word
written texts. It shows how often and where also contains a number of
a linguistic form occurs in spoken or syntactic features including the
written text. part of speech (noun, verb,
 It provides information on patters of adjective), countability (singular,
variation in language use, language plural), gender (masculine,
Corpus linguistics

change, and varieties of language. It also feminine), and it can mark

provides information on the different prepositional co-occurrence
semantic functions of lexical items, restrictions such as when the
distributional and frequency information word think is followed by a
on the lexico-grammatical features of the preposition (about, of, over) or is
language. followed by a that-clause. Katz

 It challenges languages teachers to and Fodor called this ‘the

rethink how they view the content of a grammatical dimension of lexis’.
language curriculum and the manner in
which this curriculum is presented to
students.

Systemic- Context and meaning take precedence

functional over linguistic form. It typically
grammar describes features of grammatical form Both have had a
that are used to express meaning considerable
Theories of Communication

beyond a single, context-free utterance. impact on L2

Rather, grammatical form is seen as syllabus design,
having a symbiotic relationship with teaching and
meaning and pragmatic use, where each testing, and are
influences and shapes the other within credited for
and across utterances. shifting the
Speech act theory Effective communication is not simply emphasis of
perceived as a function of linguistic language
accuracy or acceptable grammar to classrooms
convey literal and intended meaning. from a formal
Communication must be appropriate for grammatical
the context, i.e. speakers must have both focus to a
‘linguistic competence’ and communication-
‘communicative competence’ based one.

8
APPLICATION:

Reflect and write in your journal the points you understand as a

student. Then also, as a Student-Teacher reflect on what is the best
way you can teach to promote communicative/grammatical
competence.

What I understand ___________________________________

__________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

What was practice by my teacher before __________________

___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________

As a teacher, I would like to value and must apply __________

___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________

CLOSURE
Great job! You have just finished Lesson 2 of this module. If there
are some parts of the lesson which you need clarification, please ask
your tutor during your face-to-face interactions.
Now be ready to proceed to Lesson 3 of this module which will
discuss about how The Language Learning Brain.

9
Lesson 3 The Language-Learning Brain

Objectives:
 Discuss the malfunctions of the brains affects your
language;
 Analyze how language and brain works in learning new
language;
 Value the importance of brain connection to Language
ability.

Introduction
Hello! Welcome to Lesson 3. In this lesson you will know how our language
brain works for us. We will further appreciate the special connection between our
language and our brain. Have you ever pondered on which side does our words was
stored? Which side of the brain processes our understanding? That will be discussed in
this lesson. It is important for us to know the mysteries on the connection of our ability
and how it affects our communication and comprehension. Moreover, this pace will let
us understand the different malfunctions of the brain. As a future educator, this will
help us to understand our learners, be more sensitive to their state in the teaching-
learning process.

ACTIVITY: Language Brain Teasers: This is a mind and

manipulate words and letters.

1. WORD PLAY: What do the following words have in common?

ASSESS / BANANA / DRESSER / GRAMMAR

2. WORD WITHIN A WORD: In this teaser you must place a 3-letter word on
the dashes to complete a word on the left and to begin another word with those
letters on the right.
Example:
A R _ _ _ M E = E A R T H Y/ T H Y M E

1.) F E A T _ _ _ O I C =? 2) C O U R _ _ _ N D A =?
3) K E E _ _ _ S I S T =?

10
 Analysis: Based on the activity above. What are your observations as you
engage with that brain teaser.

1. How does your language affect your brain?

2. How does you brain respond to the teasers?
3. For you how does your thoughts being processed?
4. Name one thing that has the same function as your brain.

Abstraction The Language –Learning Brain

Read the given information about the learning Brain.

What is neurolinguistics about? Where in your brain is a word that you’ve
learned? If you know two languages, are they stored in two different parts of your
brain? Is the left side of your brain really the language side?
What is Neurolinguistics?
Neurolinguistics is the study of the relationship between the language and the brain.

- is the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the
comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.

(Source: Difference between Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s area in the brain.
https://bodytomy.com/difference-between-brocas-area-wernickes-area-in-brain) (Source: Language and the Brain: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l4DebY2I1CI)

Broca’s area is also called as the (anterior speech cortex):

 Damage to anterior speech cortex (Broca’s area) difficulty in producing
speech
 Language ability must be located in the left hemisphere.
 The production of Speech
Wernicke’s area (posterior speech cortex):
 Damage to this part of the brain results to speech comprehension difficulties
 The understanding of speech

11
The motor cortex (by Penfield and Roberts):
 Controls movement of the muscles (for moving hands, feet, arms, etc.).
 Close to Broca’s area is the part of the motor cortex that controls the
articulatory muscles of the face, jaw, tongue and larynx.
 The physical articulation of speech
The arcuate fasciculus:
 Articulate fasculus: (Wernicke’s discovery) a bundle of nerve fibers
 Connection between Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas
The localization view:
There are specific aspects of language ability have specific locations in the brain. In a
brain activity, in order to hear a word there is a specific activity plus understanding
the word followed by saying it has a specific area located responsible for expressing
words.
There are 2 kinds of Malfunctions; disorders in the brain function.
1. Mild- these is where the Tip of the tongue happens, slip of the tongue and slip
of the ear.
2. Severe- there result in a damage happens in Broca’s aphasia (motor aphasia),
Wernicke’s aphasia (sensory aphasia) and Conduction aphasia.
Tongue Tips:
TIP OF THE TONGUE: you know the word, but it won’t come to the surface.
MALAPORISM (named after Mrs. Malaprop): Misuse of a word for another one.
Example: The use of distinguisher instead of extinguisher
The use of meditation instead of medication.
Tongue Slips (changing the sounds in pronunciation):
1. SPOONERISM (named after William Spooner): The interchange of two initial
sounds.
E.g. You have hissed all my mystery lectures.
Chish and fips

2.PRESERVATION ERROR: carry over a sound from one word to the next.
Example: Black bloxes

3.ANTICIPATION ERROR: when a sound is brought forward

Examples:
Noman numeral (Roman)
A tup of tea (cup)
Highly played player (paid)

4.The interchange of word-final sounds (less common).

Stick neff (stiff neck)
Loop before you leak (look before you leap)

12
Slips of the ear
1. SLIPS OF THE EAR: mishear of the word
This is where a person used to have pauses within the word or had an extra
pause.
Example:
 If someone say, “Great ape” you missed to hear the spoken word “Gray
Tape”.
 Gladly the cross-eyed bear (Gladly the cross I’d bear)
One of the problems that happen to the human beings in language production and
comprehension is Aphasia.

Aphasia is an impairment of language function due to brain damage. This leads to

difficulty in understanding and /or producing linguistic forms.

Examples:
Agraphia: difficulty in writing
Alexia: difficulty in reading
Anomia: difficulty in using proper nouns and words.

There are different kinds of Aphasia according to place order location of damage in
the left hemisphere that is responsible for language production and comprehension

1. Broca’s aphasia (motor aphasia)- characteristics of this impairment include

reduced amount of speech, distorted articulation, slow and effortless
speech and comprehension is better than production.
2. Wernicke’s aphasia (sensory)- characterized by this impairment such as
difficulties in auditory comprehension, difficulty to produce fluent speech
or understanding and difficulty in finding correct word (anomia).
3. Conduction aphasia: damage to the arcuate fasciculus, mispronounce
words, poor repetition and comprehension is normally good.
Another concept that is discussed in this lesson is called Dichotic listening test.
It is an experimental technique that has demonstrated a left hemisphere dominance for
syllable and word processes. This technique uses that general established fact that
anything that is experiencing in the right hand side of the body is processed in the left
hemisphere and vice versa. So anything on the left side is processed in the right
hemisphere.

Generally speaking, the right hemisphere is responsible for processing non-linguistic

nonverbal signals like music, traffic noises and birds singing. Hence, the left
hemisphere is dominant for language sounds.

13
Lateralization/ lateral dominance (one-sidedness):
 The specialization of the left side of the brain for language function.
Right Ear Advantage:
 The ability to perceive language better in the right ear than the left ear.
Left Ear Advantage:
 The ability to perceive language better in the left ear.

As supported by right ear advantage so the ability to perceive language better in the
right ear from the left ear. Why is that? Because if you receive things from your right
ear it is processed in the left hemisphere directly which is responsible to language
production.

Critical Period or the Sensitive Period

This period begins from birth until puberty when the human brain is ready to
receive input and learn a particular language. In fact, Language acquisition is difficult
after this period because lateralization has already occurred by this time.

Situational Example:

In the case of Genie, the girl who spent her life in a state of physical sensory social
and emotional deprivation she’s a girl who was kept by his father away and not
allowed to communicate or receive any language.
So, she has no language during the critical period communicating after the puberty
and using the right of her brain for language functioning. The left ear advantage for
verbal as well as non-verbal signals.
In Genie’s case tests demonstrated that she has no left hemisphere language facility.
Where did she do then? She is using the right hemisphere of her brain for language
functions. In her case, when he began to speech it was noted that she went through the
same early stages found in formal tried language acquisition. Began by acquiring
letters forming words and acquiring letters forming words and acquiring grammatical
rules.
To explore further on the Language and the Brain. Here are some videos to support the topic.
Here’s the link on the website where an electronic copy is available.

 What Happens to Your Brain When You Learn a New Language | Understanding with Unbabel. (Youtube
Video). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7XKmqy8vFwk#action=share

14
 Let’s do it!

Read and answer the following questions. Answer in not more

than five (5) sentences.

1. Based on your understanding, what do you mean by

NEUROLINGUISTIC?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
____________________________________
2. In what part of your brain does the new word you learned was
stored?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
____________________________________
3. What do you mean by Left and Right Hand Advantage?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
____________________________________
4. Discuss the malfunctions of the brain and its syntoms.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
5. As you know the different malfunctions of the brain, Have you
ever notice someone having those struggles in their speeches? Is
their any changes in your perspective as you learn those the
different impairments of the brain?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

CLOSURE
Great job! You have just finished Lesson 3 of this module. If there are
some parts of the lesson which you need clarification, please ask your tutor
during your face-to-face interactions.
Now be ready to proceed to Lesson 4 of this module which will discuss
about how the Principles of Teaching Grammar.

15
Lesson 4
Principles in Teaching
Grammar
Objectives:
 Identify principles that corresponds to grammar
teaching;
 Discuss how these principles are applied in a classroom
setting;
 Write to reflect their personal views and accounts as to
the depth of their understanding on the principles in
teaching in a learning log.

Introduction
Hello! Welcome to lesson 4. In this lesson you will deepen your understanding
on the Principles in Teaching Grammar. Do you know that the principle serves as our
guiding star in teaching? It is the “guiding star” in which it gives you a right direction
towards your goal as a teacher. Thus, without these principles the very foundation of
teaching and learning will be weaken. It is like riding a car without a clear direction.
As a teacher this is our basic law in teaching Grammar. Discover and Learn!

Stimulate recall: Write down your prior knowledge and Present

Knowledge about Principles of Teaching.

Prior Knowledge Present Knowledge Gained Knowledge

(P) (P) (G)

Analysis: Look for a partner and discuss it with him. Evaluate your answer
with his answer.
1. DO you have the same idea? If yes, then present it in a separate sheet.
2. What have you learned about the discussion?
3. Write at least 3 questions, reserved for during the discussion.

16
 Abstraction Principles in Teaching Grammar
Grammar is defined as “a system of rules governing the conventional
arrangement and relationship of words in a sentence”.
-Douglas H. Brown,
Marianne Celce-Murcia and Diane Larsen-Freeman redefine grammar:
“Grammar is not merely a collection of forms but rather involves the three
dimensions of what linguists refer to as syntax, semantics, and pragmatics”.
Thus, if students know a grammatical form, they should understand the
structure, rule, and usage of the form in communication. Sandra J. Savignon
maintains that “learners seem to focus best on grammar when it relates to their
communicative needs and experiences”. For this reason, grammar and
communication are not mutually exclusive, but interdependent.

Fig. 1. The Three Dimensions of Teaching Grammar

(Celce-Murcia and Freeman)
Brown also agrees with the indispensable role of grammar in CLT and he
presents principles of integrating grammar and communication. Grammar should be
“embedded in meaningful and communicative context” and it should meet students’
communicative goals. In addition, teachers should not “overwhelm students with
linguistic terminology” but rather help them improve both fluency and accuracy.

17
 Three principles for effective grammar instruction
The three principles that we describe below are informed by one general principle:
Effective grammar instruction must complement the processes of L2 acquisition. In
discussing the three principles, we will draw on work by a number of researchers in
second language acquisition (SLA), especially (but not exclusively) in work undertaken
within a cognitive, information-processing framework.

1. The Given- to New- Principle

The given-before-new principle is the linguistic principle that speakers and
writers tend to express known information (the "given") before previously
unknown information (the "new") in their messages. Also known as the Given-
New Principle and the Information Flow Principle (IFP).

 This principle refers to the idea that the process of making new
form/function connections involves the exploitation of what the learners
already know about the world – as part of their ‘given’ schematic
knowledge. This knowledge is used as a resource in order to help them
perceive something new: how a meaning they are already familiar with
is expressed by a particular grammatical form. This may involve
learning to see how a given meaning is signalled by a form with which
they are unfamiliar, or how a form they have already used in relation to
one meaning (such as the present progressive tense for actions ‘as we
speak’) can also be used to signal other meanings (such as using the
present progressive to talk about planned future events).

2. The Awareness Principle

The second is the Awareness Principle, which states that discovering new
mappings between form and meaning is a process which necessarily
involves awareness.

 The Awareness Principle is directed at making learners aware of how a

particular meaning is encoded by a particular grammatical form. It is
possible of course that learners are able to make the connection between
meaning and form implicitly (i.e. without awareness) and, to some
extent, this probably does take place but, as Schmidt (2001) has
convincingly argued, ‘people learn about the things they attend to and
do not learn much about the things they do not attend to.

3. The Real- Operating Conditions Principle

The third is the real-operating conditions principle, whereby the process of

acquiring form-meaning mappings is not complete until learners are able to
practice them in a communicative context and through a primary focus on
meaning rather than on form.

18
  treating grammar as a communicative tool and suggest ways in which
this can be accomplished
 Learners need the opportunity to practice language in the same
conditions that apply in real-life situations – in communication, where
their primary focus is on message conveyance rather than on linguistic
accuracy
 The importance of feedback in the learning process, suggesting that the
instructional sequence is best seen as one of [ ‘learn? perform? 
learn’ ] rather than the traditional sequence of [ ‘learn ?---- perform’].
 During the ‘perform’ stage learners must have the opportunity to receive
feedback. Johnson emphasizes that for feedback to be effective learners
‘need to see for themselves what has gone wrong in the operating
conditions under which they went wrong’ (1988, p. 93). He suggests that
this can probably be best achieved by means of extrinsic feedback (i.e.
feedback from an outside source) that shows the learner what is wrong
by modelling the correct form while they are attempting to
communicate.

For more Readings

 Principled grammar teaching; PDF. Retrieved from
http://www.personal.psu.edu/kej1/APLNG_493/readings/Week_13/Batstone___Ellis_2009.pdf

Let’s do it!

Learning log entry

Direction: Respond to one or more questions below.

1. Describe the extent to which you understand the Form, Meaning and Use in
this unit. What idea made you confused?
2. Describe the extent to which you feel able to apply these principle as a teacher.
What are you having trouble with? What are you confident about?
3. Describe what you learned about your understanding of the Awareness
Principle? What are your plans on how to execute this principle?
4. What do you think is the most applied principle in the classroom?

CLOSURE
Great job! You have just finished Lesson 4 of this module. If there are
some parts of the lesson which you need clarification, please ask your tutor
during your face-to-face interactions.
Now be ready to proceed to Lesson 5 of this module which will discuss
about how the Challenges in Assessing Grammar.

19
Lesson 5 Challenges in Assessing Grammar
Objectives:
 Identify the various challenges encountered by most
Language Teachers in the classroom.
 Create a Mind map on the grammatical challenges in
assessing grammar and support solutions.

Introduction
Hello! Welcome to lesson 5. This time you will be exposed to the common
encounters on the strengths and weaknesses of assessing the grammatical ability.
Growing up you learn English in different ways. You learn to pronounce words and
construct sentences naturally or acquired. Have you ever encounter difficulty in
learning the language on its process? To answer your questions in your mind. In this
lesson, you will be introduced to the challenges in assessing grammar.

ACTIVITY: Self-Assessment of English Writing Skills:

Direction: Please rate your abilities for each item below a scale between 1 to
5.
Circle your choice.
1=never or almost never true of me
2=usually not true of me
3=somewhat true of me
4=usually true of me
5=always or almost always true of me.

I can write quickly in English. 1 2 3 4 5

I can write a good academic paragraph. 1 2 3 4 5
I can write good introduction for an English essay. 1 2 3 4 5
I can use appropriate spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. 1 2 3 4 5
I can logically support and develop my main point when I write a 1 2 3 4 5
paragraph.
I can logically organize my ideas when I write a paragraph. 1 2 3 4 5
I can effectively brainstorm to gather ideas before writing. 1 2 3 4 5
I can revise my own writing to improve the development and 1 2 3 4 5
organization.
I can edit my writing to improve the wording, grammar, 1 2 3 4 5
punctuation, and spelling.
I can use appropriate vocabulary and word forms to effectively 1 2 3 4 5
communicate with the reader.

20
 SELF ASSESSMENT:
Analysis: You may analyze your answers based on the first activity.
Answer the given questions.
1. Based on the rating above, which of the following abilities has the
highest scale of 5?
2. Which of the following has the scale of 2 and 1. Share your weakspots
in writing?
3. Give 3 abilities that you consider that you wanted to be enhnaced for
your self.

Challenges in Assessing Grammar

Abstraction

Read the relevant information given in the table presents the General
Approaches to Language Views, Syntactocentric perspectives of the
language, Corpus linguistics and the Theories

Defining grammatical At the moment of assessing grammatical form

ability and meaning in communicative language testing,
it is relevant to provide teachers and learners
with a more complete assessment, taking into
account the grammatical ability of the test takers
Challenge 1

than just providing information about the form or

the meaning.
Theoretical challenges It is concerned to language educators who need
about the definition of to make comprehensible distinctions between the
grammatical knowledge form and meaning components of grammatical
knowledge in terms of the test purpose in order
to integrate these distinctions in construct
definition.
Scoring grammatical It is related to scoring form, meaning and
ability grammar assessments and also how language
teachers need to adapt their scoring procedures to
reflect the two dimensions of grammatical
knowledge. It requires the use of measurement
models to contain dichotomous and partial-
credit data in analyzing test scores. In scoring
Challenge 2

extended-production tasks descriptors, rubrics

must be adapted to grade performance in form
and meaning more noticeably.
Advantages and “The advantage of using complex performance
disadvantages tasks that are highly authentic is the
generalizability of the inferences these tasks
allow us to make about grammatical
ability”.(p.259) The disadvantages are related to
the lack of accuracy with which teachers are able
to infer what students or test takers know about

21
 grammar, taking into other constructs that could
be intended or no measured in such tasks by
raters.
Assessing meanings It is concerned about the meaning and how
meaning in a model of communicative language
ability can be defined and assessed.
The assessment of  The primary goal in grammar assessment is to
meaning in terms of notice if students are able to use forms to acquire
grammatical meaning their basic point across correctly and
and pragmatic meaning significantly. If meaning is construct-relevant, as
Challenge 3

a result communicative meaningfulness should

be scored.
 Pragmatic meaning involves an amount of
implied meanings that originate from context
relating to the interpersonal relationship of the
interlocutors.
 The distinctions between grammatical meaning
and pragmatic meanings are observable when L2
students fail at the moment of understanding how
meanings could be extended or intentionally
confusing.
Reconsidering grammar- To design tasks that are authentic and
test tasks It is related to engaging measures of performance, it is
the design of test tasks necessary to consider:
that are able to measure  The assessment purpose and the
grammatical ability and construct that is going to be measure.
 To consider the kinds of grammatical
Challenge 4

provide authentic and

engage measures of performance required in order to provide
grammatical evidence in support of the inferences.
performance.  After the inferences are specified, it is
required to support these claims to design test
tasks to measure what students know about
grammar or how they are able to use
grammatical resources to accomplish a wide
range of activities in the target language.
Assessing the Ellis (2001) states that grammar scores should be
development of calculated to provide a measure of grammatical
grammatical ability “The accuracy and the underlying acquisition
challenge for language development of L2 students.
testers is to design, score  With limited or extended production tasks.
Challenge 5

and interpret grammar Teachers can give learners credit for and
assessments with a feedback by judging performance on these tasks
consideration for by means of analytic rating scales.
developmental  Rating scales need to be based on construct and
proficiency” (Pupura, task based methods in which the different level
2005; p. 273) of grammatical abilities can be described
completely.

22
Note: Study the illustration, as you can see the core was served for Problem-Solving. Then,
main branches are connected as the solution, problem, circumstances. Thus, each of branches
gives a further concept about the core.

Application: Create a Mind map, select at least 4 Challenges in

Assessing Grammar and provide or cite a situation, solution, plans,
strategy that are aligned and support the core of the problem.

CLOSURE
Congratulations! You did very well in finishing the lesson. After all
your hard work, I know that you’ve gained a deeper understanding
about the lesson. If you are ready for the next lesson, you can now
move on to the next module which is about Approaches, Methods and
Technique in Grammar

23
 MODULE SUMMARY

 In the History of Language, Latin Language was the world most widely studied
foreign language in the history that was widely used in the field of Education,
Commerce, Religion and the Government. Then, Latin was replaced by French,
Italian and English caused by the political influence.
 In the year 1500-1700s in England, most children went to grammar schools
and studied Latin by Memorization. Then, followed by 1840’s the Grammar-
Translation Method was born, they learn to translate Target language to
Foreign language and vis-à-vis.
 Corpus linguistics is the study of language as expressed in corpora (samples) of
"real world" text. The text-corpus method is a digestive approach that derives a
set of abstract rules that govern a natural language from texts in that language,
and explores how that language relates to other languages.
 These are Broca’s area is tasked with directing the processes that lead to speech
utterance, and Wernicke’s area, whose main role is to “decode” speech.
 Language-learning boosts brain cells’ potential to form new connections fast.
 There were three principles for effective grammar instruction and these are; the
Given-to-New Principle, The awareness Principle, The Real-Operating
Conditions Principle.
 Given-to-New Principle is the linguistic principle that speakers and writers tend
to express known information (the "given") before previously unknown
information (the "new") in their messages
 The awareness Principle which states that discovering new mappings between
form and meaning is a process which necessarily involves awareness.
 The Real-Operating Conditions Principle the process of acquiring form-
meaning mappings is not complete until learners are able to practice them in a
communicative context and through a primary focus on meaning rather than on
form.

24
 MODULE ASSESSMENT (Exercises)

This will check your understanding on how far you understand all the lessons for Module 1.
You are discouraged to look back to the previous pages. This time you need to trust yourself!
You can do this!
Latin 1800 1886 Target Language Foreign Language

Speech Act Theory Neurolinguistics Corpus Linguistics

Test I: Direction: Read the sentences carefully. Identify and choose the answer on the box.
Write answer on the blank.
_____1. A language that was widely used before Italian and French.
_____2. In what year does the IPA was created?
_____3. It is basically known as the language that you are learning.
_____4. In which theory of communication that emphasizes that in communication speakers
must have both ‘linguistic competence’ and ‘communicative competence’.
_____5. _________is the study of how language is represented in the brain: that is, how and
where our brains store our knowledge of the language (or languages) that we speak,
understand, read, and write.

Test II: Direction: Read the sentences carefully. Choose the letter of the best answer.
____6. What kind of malfunction of the brain when the phenomenon of failing to
retrieve a word or term from a memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling that
retrieval is imminent?
a. Tip of the tongue c. Anticipation
b. Spoonerism d. Slip of the ear
___7. What king of malfunction when the student says that “Sheryl don’t be too anxious
about our game; Just relax, I predicate (predict) a final victory.”!
a. Malapropism c. Anticipation
b. Spoonerism d. Perseveration error
____8. It is an impairment of Language function due to brain damage that results to
difficulty in using proper nouns and words.
a. Agraphia c. Anomia
b. Alexia d. Dyslexia
___9. How does the principle of Real-operating condition functions?
a. It treats grammar as communicative tool and suggest ways in which it can be
accomplished.
b. It directs learners to be aware of how meaning is encoded by a grammatical form.
c. It refers to the idea that process of making new form/function connections that
involves the exploitation of what the learners knew about the world.
d. It discovers new mappings between form and meaning that processed and
involves wakefulness.
___10. What do you mean by grammatical ability?
a. It is the form of assessing grammatical form and meaning in communicative
language testing.
b. It is designing a task in order for the student to explore.
c. It is the ability of the student to assess her skills in a natural way
d. It is being able to assess her own learning only in writing.

25
 REFERENCES

Kumaravadivelu,B. (2006). Understanding Language Teaching: From Method to

Postmethod.London:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishing
10.4324/9781410615725.

Freeman, D. (2009); 27 Teaching and testing grammar. Retrieved from

https://teachgrammar.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Teaching-and-Testing-
Grammar.pdf

Purpura, J.E, (2004) Assessing Grammar: United Kingdom; Cambridge University Press.
Retrieved from;
https://www.academia.edu/36580416/_James_E_Purpura_Assessing_Grammar_Cambr
idge_La_BookFi_org_

CLE3700 TME. History of Language Teaching: YouTube Video,

54:42. April 23,2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XWUkF9ZiKic

Stanley, C. (2016). The Brain, Speech and Language -Dr Pedro Amarante Andrade - ppt
download. Retrieved August 19, 2020, from http://slideplayer.com/slide/10386488/

Exploring Science. “Neurolinguistics/ The Language and the Brain: YouTube video, 12:27.
April 13, 2020.

Unbabel. What happens to your brain when you learn a new language l Understanding
with Unbabel: YouTube video, 2:15. October 25, 2019.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7XKmqy8vFwk#action=share

Rod, B., & Rod, E. (2008). Principled Grammar Teaching. Retrieved from
http://www.personal.psu.edu/kej1/APLNG_493/readings/Week_13/Batstone_Ellis_200
9.pdf

26
27
MODULE 2 Approaches, Methods and
Techniques of Grammar

In this Module you will explore………………………

 Grammar and Its Types
 What is an Approach, Method and
Technique?
 Present, Practice and Produce
 Input Processing

Module Overview

Hello! Welcome to Module 2! In this module you will explore the various types
of grammar. Added to that, this module will provide you a different Approaches,
Methods Technique in Grammar Instruction. This module includes the categories of
Methods from Language Learning Method, Learner- Centered Method and Learning –
Centered Method. These Methods will help you to deepen your understanding on “how
to teach Grammar”. Enclosed in this module will bring you to some common methods
that was trusted and used long ago that helps you as an educator to build your principles
and to choose which method may apply to your as you teach the Language.

At the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Identify the various types of grammar by its contexts;

 Discuss the methods and approaches of grammar;
 Distinguish the difference between Language, Learner and Learning-Centered
Methods;
 Apply these methods and techniques in building an assessment plan.

Be ready for your exploit. You may begin your first lesson now!

27
Lesson 1 Grammar and Types of Grammar

LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Identify the various types of Grammar;
 Discuss the significance of grammar in communicative
process.

Introduction
Hi! Welcome to the first lesson of Module 2! Though this lesson you may
recognize the importance of grammar and other types of grammar. It is vital to know
the types to develop a full understanding on what to assess specifically in grammar
considering grammar has a wide scope. You will be introduced on the what is a
functional grammar, pedagogical grammar, prescriptive and descriptive grammar.

ACTIVITY:
Time duration: 10 minutes
As a way of helping you to consider what we mean by ‘grammar’, look
at the following sentences and see how many meanings of the word
‘grammar’ you can identify.
1. It's a really complicated area of grammar.
2. Why don't you look it up in a grammar?
3. Her spelling is good, but her grammar is almost non-existent.
4. Children don't do enough grammar at school.
5. We had to do generative grammar on the course.
6. He needs to work on his grammar and punctuation.
7. Systemic functional grammar is generally associated with the work of Michael
Halliday.
8. I've always had problems with German grammar.
9. It's a grammar for learners of English as a foreign language.
10. Oh no! We're doing grammar again today!
(Based on Hewings and Hewings, 2004)

28
 Analysis: Based on activity, give a short response to the given questions.
1. How many meanings of grammar that you can extract out of those
sentences? What are those?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
2. What do you think does this statement mean? Give your interpretation.
“Her spelling is good, but her grammar is almost non-existent.”
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
3. As a teacher, how will you encourage and strengthen your student’s
grammatical skills?
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

Check your Understanding!

Discussion for the Activity!

There is clearly overlap in these uses, but I have grouped them into five meanings.
1. In 1 and 8, it refers to the way in which words are organized in a language in order
to make correct sentences; here ‘grammar’ is the description of the way in which words
combine into larger units, the largest being the sentence.
2. In 2 and 9, it refers to a book in which these organizing principles are laid out.
Sometimes these are given as a set of rules.
3. In 4 and 10, it refers to the study of these rules.
4. In 3 and 6, it refers to whether a person follows the ‘rules of grammar’.
In 5 and 7, it refers to a particular theory of language description.

29
Abstraction Grammar and Types of Grammar

“Grammar is the business of taking a language to pieces, to see how

it works.” (David Crystal)

What is Grammar?
o Language user’s subconscious internal system
o Linguists’ attempt to codify or describe that system

• Sounds of language • Phonology

• Structure and form of words • Morphology
•Arrangement of words into larger units • Syntax
• Meanings of language • Semantics
• Functions of language & its use in context • Pragmatics

Grammar is the system of a language. People sometimes describe grammar as the

"rules" of a language; but in fact no language has rules. If we use the word "rules", we
suggest that somebody created the rules first and then spoke the language, like a new
game. But languages did not start like that. Languages started by people making
sounds which evolved into words, phrases and sentences. No commonly-spoken
language is fixed. All languages change over time. What we call "grammar" is simply
a reflection of a language at a particular time.
Grammar is the mental system of rules and categories that allows humans to form
and interpret the words and sentences of their language.
• grammar adds meanings that are not easily inferable from the immediate context.
The kinds of meanings realized by grammar are principally:
• representational - that is, grammar enables us to use language to describe the world
in terms of how, when and where things happen e.g. The sun set at 7.30. The children
are playing in the garden.
• interpersonal - that is, grammar facilitates the way we interact with other people
when, for example, we need to get things done using language. e.g.
There is a difference between: Tickets! Tickets, please. Can you show me your
tickets? May see your tickets? Would you mind if I had a look at your tickets?
Grammar is used to fine-tune the meanings we wish to express.

30
 The Difference between Pedagogical, Functional, Descriptive and
Prescriptive Grammar
Pedagogical  It represents an eclectic, but principled description of the target-
grammar language forms, created for the express purpose of helping teachers
understand the linguistic resources of communication.
 These grammars provide information about how language is
organized and offer relatively accessible ways of describing
complex, linguistic phenomena for pedagogical purposes.
 The more L2 teachers understand how the grammatical system
works, the better they will be able to tailor this information to their
specific instructional contexts.
 Besides formal pedagogical grammars (and, of course, SLA
theory), language teachers would be advised to consult language
textbooks when put to the task of specifying grammatical content for
instruction or assessment.
 These books not only provide descriptions, albeit less
comprehensive, of the target grammar, but they also inform teachers
of the scope with which a grammar point might be treated at a
particular proficiency level or the sequence with which grammar
points might be introduced.

Functional A grammar that puts together the patterns of the language and the
grammar; things you can do with them is called a functional grammar; that is,
it is based on the relation between the structure of a language and
the various functions that the language performs.

Descriptive A descriptive grammar is a set of rules about language based on how

grammar it is actually used.
Prescriptive A prescriptive grammar, which is a set of rules based on how people
grammar think language should be used.

For Further Readings this may support the study visit this website;
 How to Teach Grammar? PDF file. http://www2.vobs.at/ludescher/pdf%20files/grammar.pdf

Different theories of language result in different types of grammatical

description based on different premises and with different purposes. The first
complementary grammatical description we are going to look at is sometimes referred
to as traditional or structural grammar, a grammar that divides language on the basis
of parts of speech, units such as nouns, verbs, and adjectives.

31
 In looking at parts of speech, or word classes as they are also called,
grammarians divide up sentences or smaller units into their constituent parts; for
example:

David played his guitar in the concert

noun verb possessive noun preposition determiner noun

determiner

Don't worry if you are not familiar with terms such as ‘possessive determiner’;
you do not need to understand them to work through this course. In addition to this
type of description, grammarians and others can also concentrate on how words
combine to make meanings and this gives rise to a functional grammar which uses a
different descriptive vocabulary. Functional grammar is another key approach to
describing language. In a functional grammar the emphasis is on describing words or
groups of words according to the function they are fulfilling in a sentence.

Both traditional grammars and functional grammars are largely descriptive grammars,
that is, they set out to account for the language we use without necessarily making
judgements about its correctness. However, the word ‘grammar’, as we have seen, can
be used to indicate what rules exist for combining units together and whether these have
been followed correctly. For example, the variety of English I speak has a rule that if
you use a number greater than one with a noun, the noun has to be plural (I say ‘three
cats’, not ‘three cat’). Books which set out this view of language are prescriptive
grammars which aim to tell people how they should speak rather than to describe how
they do speak. Prescriptive grammars contain the notion of the ‘correct’ use of
language. For example, many people were taught that an English verb in the infinitive
form (underlined in the example below) should not be separated from its preceding to.

So the introduction to the TV series Star Trek

…to boldly go where no man has gone before is criticized on the grounds
that to and go should not be separated by the adverb boldly. We are not arguing that
one form is better than another. Rather, we are going to analyze examples of English
as it has been used and look at the different choices that have been made and the
factors that might influence those choices.
The final type of grammar is a pedagogic grammar. These grammars are generally
based on descriptions of ‘standard’ English and are designed to help people learn
English if they are not native speakers of the language. Pedagogic grammars often
give some of the ‘rules’ of English and lots of examples and practice material. They
thus combine elements from descriptive and prescriptive grammars. Your reference
grammar is a pedagogic grammar, but it relies on description rather than prescription
to explain how English works.

32
APPLICATION:
Direction: Write FG the statement refers to Functional Grammar,
PG if Pedagogic Grammar, PresG for Prescriptive Grammar and
DG for Descriptive Grammar.

_______1. A type of grammar which is it is based on the relation

between the structure of a language and the various functions

that the language performs.

_______2. These grammars provide information about how

language is organized and offer relatively accessible ways of

describing complex, linguistic phenomena for pedagogical

purposes.

_______3. A type of grammar that emphasizes the set of rules

about language based on how it is actually used.

_______4. A type of grammar with a set of rules that was based

on how poeple think langauge should be used.

_______5. It to set out to account for the language we use

without necessarily making judgements about its correctness.

_______ 6. another key approach to describing language.

_______ 7. to tell people how they should speak rather than to

describe how they do speak.

CLOSURE

Great job! You have just finished Lesson 1 of this module. If there
are some parts of the lesson which you need clarification, please ask
your tutor during your face-to-face interactions.
Now be ready to proceed to Lesson 2 of this module which will
discuss about how the Methods and Approaches to Grammar.

33
Lesson 2
Methods and Approaches to Grammar
Objectives:
 Discuss the nature and features of methods and
approaches to Grammar;
 Compare and contrast approach, method and technique
using the actual classroom teaching as point of
reference.
 Write a reflection on the challenges of languages
teachers to rethink strategy to be applied in the lesson.
Introduction
In this lesson, you have to take a critical look at some established language
teaching methods to see how far they address those fundamental features. A variety of
labels such as approach, methods, techniques used to describe various elements
constituting language teaching. A plethora of terms and labels can hardly facilitate a
meaningful and informed discussion in any area of professional activity. In this
section, you will be introduced to some of the terminological and conceptual
ambiguities surrounding some of the terms and concepts used in the field of second
language teaching approaches and methods.

Think pair Share: Look for a partner and discuss what you think about
Approach, Method, Strategy and Technique. Then, note your
observations Based on the given illustration, construct sentences that
best describes the picture.

Compose a paragraph and describe the

illustration at least 3 sentences.
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________

(Source: Herrera & Murry, 2011, p. 191); https://kristinsteachingcorner.weebly.com/approaches-and-methods.html

34
Analysis:
In relation to the previous activity, answer the given questions below.

1. What do you mean by Approach?

2. What do you think is the difference between Method and Technique?
3. Cite at least 3 examples of a technique that was practiced by your teacher
in the classroom.

Abstraction What is an Approach, Method and Technique?

Approach, Method, and Technique Antony (1963) was perhaps the first
in modern times to articulate a framework for understanding the
constituents of method. His purpose, a laudable one, was to provide much-
needed coherence to the conception and representation of elements that
constitute language teaching. He proposed a three-way distinction:
approach, method, and technique.

Approach – A broad philosophical perspective on language teaching.It embodies the

theoretical principles governing language learning and language teaching.

 “a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language and the
nature of language teaching and learning
Example : Communicative Approach
Method- A set of procedures or “how to teach”. A method is usually “compatible with
one or sometimes two approaches”.
 “an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of
which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach
 Precise step-by-step manner how to teach a second or Foreign Language ( E.g.
Silent Way, Suggestopedia)
 More specific than an approach but less than a technique.
Technique- a way of carrying out a particular task, especially the execution or performance
of an artistic work or a scientific procedure.

 “a particular trick, strategem, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate

objective”.
 A specific classroom activity.
 Some techniques are wilfly used and found in many methods.
Example: dictation, listen and repeat drill, reading the passage and
Drills, boardwork, dialogue building,Using realia .

35
Here’s the diagram that explains further on Approach, Method and Technique

The ‘How” Dimension of Teaching (Garcia, 1989)

Based on the diagram, it clearly shows that approach encompasses the whole
orientation of teaching. Approach is the broadest of the three, making technique the
most specific, and the method found in between approach and technique.
An approach is an enlightened viewpoint toward teaching. It provides philosophy to the
whole process of instruction. As presented by the diagram, the method and technique
are just parts and parcels of approach. Approach gives the overall wisdom, it provides
direction, and sets expectations to the entire spectrum of the teaching process.
Furthermore, approach sets the general rule or general principle to make learning
possible.

A method on the other hand, is an organized, orderly systematic, and well-planned

procedure aimed at facilitating and enhancing students’ learning. It is undertaken
according to some rule, which is usually psychological in nature. That is, it considers
primarily the abilities, needs and interests of the learners. Method is employed to
achieve certain specific aims of instruction. To make it as an effective instrument, it
should be presented with a certain amount of efficiency and effective instrument, it
should be presented with certain amount of efficiency and ease. More so, the teaching
method aims to achieve greater teaching and learning output, thus saving time, efforts
and even money on the part of both the teacher and the learner. It directs and guides the
teacher and the students in undertaking any class lesson or activity.

To appraise the teaching method is good and effective, the following characteristics
would tell if it is so:

36
  Good method recognizes individual differences;
 If it provides students’ learning;
 If it facilitates growth and development;
 If it achieves the desired results of the teacher as reflected in her instructional
objectives.
One must remember that there is no such thing as the best method. Thus, there is no
single correct way to teach a class. Instead, there are many good ways of teaching the
students.

The procedural variation of a method calls for the third term, technique. Technique
encompasses the personal style of the teacher in carrying out specific steps of the
teaching process. Through technique, teachers enable to develop, create and
implement, using her distinctive way, the procedures (method) of teaching.

CATEGORIES OF LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS

Another source of tiresome ambiguity that afflicts language teaching is
the absence of a principled way to categorize language teaching methods in
a conceptually coherent fashion. This need has become even more acute
because of what Stern (1985) called the “method boom”. This categorization seeks to
provide conceptual coherence, is made based on theoretical and pedagogic
considerations that are presented in a nutshell below.

37
 1. Language-Centered Methods
Language-centered methods are those that are principally concerned with
linguistic forms.
 Language-centered pedagogists believe that the linguistic structures of a
language could be sequentially presented and explained.
 Language development is more intentional than incidental.
 Learners are expected to pay continual and conscious
attention to linguistic features through systematic planning and sustained
practice in order to learn and to use them
 Teacher’s task is to introduce one discrete linguistic item at a time and help
the learners practice it until they internalize it. Secondly, supporters of
language-centered methods advocate explicit introduction, analysis, and
explanation
of linguistic systems.

Under Language-Centered Method is Audiolingual Method.

Audiolingual Method. seek to provide opportunities for learners to practice
preselected, pre-sequenced linguistic structures through form-focused exercises in
class, assuming that a preoccupation with form will ultimately lead to the mastery of
the target language and that the learners can draw from this formal repertoire whenever
they wish to communicate in the target language outside the class.

2. Learner-Centered Methods
Learner-centered methods are those that are principally concerned with
learner needs, wants, and situations.
 Learner-centered pedagogists aim at making language learners
grammatically accurate and communicatively fluent. They keep in mind
the
learner’s real-life language use in social interaction or for academic
study,
and present linguistic structures in communicative contexts
 language development is more intentional
than incidental.
 Learner-centered pedagogists also believe that each notional/functional
category could be matched with one or more linguistic forms, and
sequentially presented and explained to the learner

Under Learner-Centered Method is Communicative Language Teaching.

Communicative Language Teaching seek to provide opportunities for

learners to practice preselected, pre-sequenced linguistic structures and
communicative
notions/functions through meaning-focused activities, assuming that a

38
 preoccupation with form and function will ultimately lead to target language
mastery and that the learners can make use of both formal and functional
repertoire to fulfill their communicative needs outside the class.

3. Learning-Centered Methods
Learning-centered methods are those that are principally concerned with
cognitive processes of language learning.

 Language development is a nonlinear process, and therefore, does not

require preselected, pre-sequenced systematic language input but
requires the creation of conditions in which learners engage in
meaningful activities in class.

 They believe that a language is best learned when the focus is not on the
language, that is, when the learner’s attention is focused on
understanding, saying, and doing something with language, and not
when their attention is focused explicitly on linguistic features

Under Learning-Centered Method is the Natural Approach.

Natural Approach seek to provide opportunities for learners to participate in

open-ended meaningful interaction through problem-solving tasks in class,
assuming that a preoccupation
with meaning-making will ultimately lead to target language mastery and
that the learners can deploy the still-developing interlanguage to achieve
linguistic as well as pragmatic knowledge/ability.

4. DESIGNER NONMETHODS
Part of the method boom that Stern talked about has given us what are
called new methods. They include Community Language Learning, the Silent
Way, Suggestopedia, and Total Physical Response.
All these new methods advocate a humanistic approach to language learning
and teaching. These new methods have also been dubbed as designer methods.
The author prefers to call them designer nonmethods because none of them, in
his view, deserves the status of a method. They are all no more than classroom
procedures that are consistent with the theoretical underpinnings of a learner-
centered pedagogy. From a classroom procedural point of view, they are highly
innovative and are certainly useful in certain cases. But, they are not full-fledged
methods.

39
Community Language Learning treats teachers as language counselors who are
sensitive to
the language learners’ emotional struggle to cope with the challenges of language
learning. They are supposed to create a nonthreatening atmosphere
in the classroom, forming a community of learners who build trust among
themselves in order to help each other.

Silent Way believes that teachers should be silent in class and talk only when
absolutely necessary. Using color charts and color rods as props, teachers are
expected to encourage learners
to express their thoughts, perceptions, and feelings, and in the process, learn
the language.

Suggestopedia which now has even a fancier name, Desuggestopedia, aims at

removing psychological barriers to learning through the
psychological notion of “suggestion.” Using fine arts such as music, art, and
drama, teachers are advised to create a comfortable environment in class in
order to eliminate any fear of failure on the part of the learners

Total Physical Response recommends that teachers activate their learners’ motor
skills
through a command sequence in which learners perform an action, such as
standing up, sitting down, walking to the board, and so forth.

APPLICATION:

Reflective journal: Reflect and write in your journal the points

you understand as a student. Then also, as a Student-Teacher
reflect on what is a good approach / method you can teach to
promote communicative/grammatical competence.

Great job! You have just finished Lesson 2 of this module. If there
are some parts of the lesson which you need clarification, please ask
your tutor during your face-to-face interactions.
Now be ready to proceed to Lesson 3 of this module which will
discuss about how the Presentation, Practice and Production.

40
Lesson 3 Presentation, Practice and Production
Objectives:
 Identify the significant stages for PPP.
 Discuss the roles of the teacher as well as the student in
this approach.
 Create a concept web applied in the classroom setting
using this approach.

Introduction
Hello! Welcome to the Presentation, Practice and Production. In this lesson you
will learn and adapt skills on teaching using this approach. This is commonly applied
in a language classroom. This lesson emphasizes mastery towards language
competency.

Activity: Study the given illustration, then identify classroom practices

that belongs to Context, Accuracy and Fluency.

PPP Retrieved from; https://barefootteflteacher.com/blog/what-is-present-practice-production-ppp

CONTEXT ACCURACY FLUENCY

1. 1. 1.

2. 2. 2.

41
 Analysis: After doing the activity, if you are the teacher, then you are
task to teach the context of parts of speech. How will you teach your
tutee to attain fluency?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Abstraction Presentation- Practice- Production

BACKGROUND

The "Three Ps" approach to Language Teaching is the most

common modern methodology employed by professional
schools around the world. This method was created around the
early 90’s. PPP was developed as a "soft" approach to
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), combining CLT
and traditional approaches.

The PPP acronym stands for Presentation, Practice and Production. Each letter means
a stage of the learning process. The first stage is called Presentation, where the teacher
gives explanation on the topic. The Practice Stage is the time for the students to use the
language in a semi-controlled activity. And the Production stage gives the students the
opportunity to use the language freely. Nowadays, a new version of this method has
been developed; this is called ESA. It stands for Engage, Study and Activate. They are
almost the same stages with different names.

TEACHER'S ROLE LEARNER'S ROLE

1st Stage The teacher speaks up to Student is the listener.

75% of the time, as they
Presentation stage
are presenting information
The teacher focuses on
accuracy when correcting
students at this stage.
The teacher asks concept
check questions to see if
students have understood.

42
 Students speak up to 60% of
The teacher uses activities
2nd Stage the time, teacher up to 40%
to practice the new
language orally and in
Practice stage
written format.
The teacher models and
corrects when mistakes
occur.
The teacher encourages
lots of pair work and group
work during this stage.

3rd Stage The teacher monitors but Students speak up to 90%

does not correct until the of the time, teacher up to
Production stage end. 10%
Focus is now on fluency Students use the language
and rather than accuracy. in a natural, everyday
context, through a practical
task within minimal input
from the teacher

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE METHOD

This method is divided into three stages that can be developed in more than a single
class.

The First stage is called PRESENTATION. This stage usually consists of two steps:
an introductory activity such as a warm-up or a lead-in, which is an activity, intended
to raise students’ interest in the topic; and an introduction of the target language. Here
the teacher gives explanation on the grammar and vocabulary of the topic to be covered.

In the PRACTICE stage, the focus is on form. The teacher provides opportunities for
students to practice the learnt items in a controlled way. This is a chance for the students
to use what they have learnt without making mistakes. The students are monitored and
all mistakes are corrected. A common controlled activity can be in the form of an oral
exercise, targeted at individual students, or in the form of worksheets.

The PRODUCTION stage focuses on fluency and provides students with an

opportunity to personalize the language learnt by doing less controlled tasks, that is, by
using their own ideas. In this stage the students start to produce language more freely.
For example, they might be given role play situations to devise and act out.

43
APPLICATION: Create a Concept Web and develop a sequential information to
process your target outcome/ production.

How I teach? Imagine that you are the Teacher for Grade 8.
How will you teach grammar using PPP Approach? The Goal
here is for you to present a lesson and lead your student to the
production stage. Follow the procedure given as follows.

3. Practice
stage: Your
2.Present
Role as a
your topic.
teacher.

4. Practice
Stage: Role of
1.Choose your the Student
topic/lesson
of Grammar.

5. What is
6. How will expected for
you evaluate your student
the activity? to perform?

CLOSURE
Great job! You have just finished Lesson 3 of this module. If
there are some parts of the lesson which you need clarification,
please ask your tutor during your face-to-face interactions.
Now be ready to proceed to Lesson 4 of this module which
will discuss about how the Input Processing.

44
Lesson 4 Input Processing
Objectives:
 Discuss the nature of input processing.

Introduction
Hello! Welcome to Lesson 4. How does an information being processed? What
are the inputs that should be use for us to have an access? These questions will be
answered after you study this lesson. On how was learning oral and written corpus of
the target language (TL) to which L2 learners are exposed through various
sources, and recognized by them as language input.

ACTIVITY
Direction: Read and Study the illustration. Select a partner and discuss
the process. Then answer the given questions in for the analysis.

Analysis
Direction: Based on the illustration, answer the given question.

1. What are the things in language that you can consider as input?
2. Where do you think must be presented first? The Input or Output?
3. Can an Input be an intake itself?

45
Abstraction Input processing
What is an Input?
INPUT may be operationally defined as oral and/or written corpus of
the target language (TL) to which L2 learners are exposed through
various sources, and recognized by them as language input.

This definition posits two conditions: availability and accessibility.

The first condition: either input has to be made available to learners or they have to
seek it themselves.
One can easily identify three types of input attributable to three different, but not
mutually exclusive, sources from which learners are likely to get/seek input:
Interlanguage input: the still-developing language of the learners and of
their peers with all its linguistically well-formed as well as deviant utterances;

Simplified input: the grammatically and lexically simplified language

that teachers, textbook writers, and other competent speakers use in
and outside the classroom while addressing language learners; and

Non-simplified input: the language of competent speakers without any

characteristic features of simplification, that is, the language generally
used in the media (TV, radio, and newspapers), and also the language
used by competent speakers to speak and write to one another.

Each of these three sources of input can manifest itself in various forms:
spoken and written, formal and informal, and so on. Learners are exposed
to input from these sources at different points in their learning experience
and in varying degrees.

The second condition—accessibility—is less obvious than the first but is

equally important: input has to be recognized by learners as language input, and
accepted by them as something with which they can cope. In other
words, input should be linguistically and cognitively accessible to them.
The language input that is available, but not accessible, is no more than
noise. Some segments of the language input available to learners has the
potential to become accessible, in part, through the process of what Gass
(1997) called apperception.

46
Apperception is an internal cognitive act in which a linguistic form is related to some
bit of existing knowledge (or gap in knowledge). We can think of apperception as a
priming device that prepares the input for further analysis. Thus, apperceived
input is that bit of language that is noticed in some way by the learner because
of some particular recognizable features. (p. 4)
What actually makes the learners notice and accept a subset of language exposed to
them as potential input is not clear. Schmidt (1990, 1993) suggested factors such as
frequency of occurrence, perceptual salience, linguistic complexity, skill level, and
task demands. One might also add other factors, such as learners’ needs and wants, as
well as their interests and motivation.

2. INTAKE
Unlike input, the concept of intake is not easy to pin down. The literature on
second language acquisition (SLA) presents several conflicting definitions and
explanations for the term intake. Amid all the conceptual and terminological
ambiguity, two strands of thought emerge: one that treats intake primarily as product,
and the other that treats it primarily as process. Taking a product view, Kimball and
Palmer (1978) defined intake as “input which requires students to listen for and
interpret implicit meanings in ways similar to the ways they do so in informal
communication” This has been echoed by Krashen (1981) for whom “intake is simply
where language acquisition comes from, that subset of linguistic input that helps the
acquirer acquire language” (pp. 101–102). A common thread running through these
definitions is that all of them treat intake primarily as a product, a subset of linguistic
input exposed to the learner.
Perhaps the first one to emphasize the role of “language acquisition mechanism”
in converting input into intake is Corder who defined intake as “what goes in and not
what is available to go in” (1967, p. 165, emphasis in original). Similarly, Faerch and
Kasper (1980) defined intake as “the subset of the input which is assimilated by the IL
(interlanguage) system and which the IL system accommodates to” (p. 64). Hatch
(1983) is in agreement when she defines intake as a subset of input that “the learner
actually successfully and completely processed” (p. 81). Likewise, Chaudron (1985)
referred to intake as “the mediating process between the target language available to
the learners as input and the learner’s internalized set of L2 rules and strategies for
second language development” (p. 1). Liceras (1985) also opted for a process-oriented
definition when she talks of cognitive capacities that intervene at the level of intake.
A more recent definition by Gass (1997) also conceptualized intake “as apperceived
input that has been further processed”.

Notice that the product view identifies intake as a subset of input before
the input is processed by learners. In other words, intake is input, even
though it is only a part of it. The process view, however, identifies intake as
what comes after psycholinguistic processing. That is, intake is already part
of the learner’s IL system.

47
According to the product view, intake then is unprocessed language input; according
to the process view, it is processed language input. The two views can be
diagrammatically represented as follows.

(Source: Understanding Language teaching; Input and Interaction p.28)

Input Processing (IP) proposed by Van Patten (1993), was innovated based on
Krashen's (1982) input hypothesis. Based on this model, learners process input for
meaning before form. Processing Instruction (PI), an explicit focus on form that is
informed by the model of IP, is a practical solution to IP model.

Input-processing Van Patten (1990) argued that the problem is that L2 learners have
difficulty attending simultaneously to meaning and form. To solve this problem,
VanPatten (2004) has proposed “input processing,” whereby learners are guided to
pay attention to a feature in the target language input that is likely to cause a problem.

The following task from Cadierno (1992, as discussed in Doughty & Williams, 1998)
illustrates input-processing. For this task, students are shown a picture and are asked
to imagine that they are one of the characters in the picture. They then have to listen
to a sentence in the target language and to select the picture that best matches it.
For example, when the target language is Spanish and the students are English
speakers, they hear: Te busca el señor. (‘The man is looking for you.’)
Later when viewing two more pictures, the students hear:

Tú buscas al señor. (‘You are looking for the man.’)

English speakers use word order to determine subjects and objects. Presumably,
however, with information about differences in Spanish and with enough of this
input-processing practice, students will learn to discern the difference in meaning, and
that distinguishing subjects from objects requires paying attention to the ends of

48
words and to small differences in the function words themselves (e.g., te vs. tú and el
vs. al).

Input processing theory (Vanpatten)

 The idea behind it -------- is input dependent
 The focus is on how learners process input and convert it into intake,
and hence how an internalized system develops.
Input Processing principles
1. Learners process input for meaning before they process it for form.
2. Learners process content words in the input before anything else.
3. Learners process lexical items before grammatical items (e.g. morphological
markings).
4. Learners prefer processing “more meaningful” morphology before “less” or
“non-meaningful” morphology.

APPLICATION:

Present a task that can be associated that best illustrates Input

Processing. Then, explain how it works.

___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________

CLOSURE
Congratulations! You did very well in finishing the
lesson. After all your hard work, I know that you’ve
gained a deeper understanding about the lesson. If
you are ready for the next lesson, you can now move
on to the last Module which is Assessment of Grammar.

49
 MODULE SUMMARY

Key Points to Remember!

 An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of
language and in teaching and learning while Method is a set of procedures on
“how to teach”. On the other hand, Technique is a particular trick, stratagem or
contrivance to accomplish an immediate goal.
 The three categories of Language Teaching Methods are; Language – Centered,
Learner – Centered and Learning Centered Method. Language – Centered
Method are concerned with the linguistic forms. Learner- Centered Method
focuses on the learner needs, wants and situations. Learning – Centered Method
are concerned with the cognitive process of language learning.
 PPP stands for Presentation, Practice and Production. In the first stage the
teacher gives an explanation towards the topic. Then, for the second stage it is
where the students were given time to use the language in a semi-controlled
activity and ends up to the third stage in which it gives the student the
opportunity to use the language freely.
 In VanPatten’s (1996, 2004, 2015a) model of input processing, only part of the
input is filtered through intake into the developing system and eventually
becomes available to the learner for output purposes. Changing the way learners
process input and enriching their intake might have an effect on the developing
system that subsequently should have an impact on how learners produce the
target language. Input processing is concerned with those psycholinguistic
strategies and mechanisms by which learners derive intake from input. In
VanPatten’s theory, when learners attend or notice input and process the
message, a form-meaning connection is made. Developing the learners’ ability
to map one form to one meaning is therefore essential for acquisition.

50
 MODULE ASSESSMENT

ESSAY TEST
Directions: Write a one paragraph in each questions. Then, explain and expound your
idea. Before you begin writing, carefully plan what you will write.

1. What is the essence of grammar in communication? Discuss the differences

between Prescriptive, Descriptive, Functional and Pedagogical Grammar.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

2. In teaching grammar, do you think there is the best method you can use? Why
or why not, support your answer.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

3. How will you teach Grammar to a Grade 3 student? What method you will
use in teaching considering the level of the student?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

4. As an educator, how will you promote Learning-Centered Method in your

Classroom?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

51
 REFERRENCES

Kumaravadivelu,B. (2006). Understanding Language Teaching: From Method to

Postmethod.London:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishing
10.4324/9781410615725.

Purpura, J. (2004). Assessing Grammar (Cambridge Language Assessment).

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511733086

Gass, S. M (2003). Input and interaction. In Doughty C.J. & Long M.H. (Eds.); The
handbook of second language acquisition. (pp.224-225). Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing Ltd.

Input and Interaction in Second Language Learning: (A presentation) Retrieved

from https://www.slideshare.net/mfarahanynia85/input-and-interaction-in-
second-language-learning

The Gift of Learning to Teach. PPP Model; Journal. Retrieved from

https://sites.google.com/site/teachingtoteenangers/II--methods-in-elt/ppp-
method

52
27
MODULE 3
Assessment
Of
Grammar
In this Module you will
explore………………………
Grammatical Assessment
Module Overview Types of Assessment
Grammar Assessment Tasks
Syllabus Design

Hello! Welcome to Module 3. This Module shares the significant context in

assessing grammar ability. You will be exposed “how to assess Grammar”. This will
provide you a tasks that are mostly applied in the classroom. Also, tips for assessment
in grammar and a background on how to develop a syllabus in the Language context.
This may serve as a tool that may unlocked difficulties on how to assess the language.

At the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Define what is an Assessment;

 Distinguish the various types of assessment;
 Compare formative assessment from summative assessment
 Create differentiated classroom assessment task.
 Develop a Syllabus with the application of the learned principles.

Be ready for your exploit. You may begin your first lesson now!

53
Lesson 1
Grammatical Assessment
Objectives:
 Discuss on how grammar should be assessed.
Introduction
Hello! Welcome to the first Lesson of Module 3! In this lesson you will learn
on what is assessment and grammatical assessment. In recent years there has been a
resurgence of interest in the assessment of grammatical ability. This interest stems from
the importance of grammar as a fundamental linguistic resource of communication, and
its ability to predict communicative language ability. It also comes from the potential
grammar assessment has for characterizing proficiency in different contexts at different
proficiency levels, and for providing concrete information to language learners on their
grammar performance.
Activity
Directions: The participant will provide an answer by writing in the space below
each of the following questions. Express and write it down your responses. In
fact, there is no correct or incorrect answer; however, remember to use correct
grammar, spelling, and word usage.
1. Write five sentences about your wildest dream in life.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2. Describe how was your experiences during the Enhance Community Quarantine.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

Analysis

Direction: In the following passage identify the word class of each word.
Remember to look at how it is used in the sentence. For an overview of
word classes see the summary. Ex. She (Pronoun) is (linking verb)
gorgeous. (adjective).
My ___late___ dad___ was___ a__ magnificent__ shot__. One__ time__ when__
we__ were__ hunting__ in __ the__ Low Veld__ and __ had __ paused__ for__
a__ smoke__, there__ was__ the__ yelp __ of__ a __ wild__ dog__, and__ a__
troop__ of__ impala___came__ bounding__ over__ the __ tall __ grass__.
* The verb come is usually used as a lexical verb. In this sentence it can be argued that it functions as
an auxiliary verb as it can easily be replaced with the auxiliary of progressive aspect be.
*Remember that in some standard expressions, adjectives occur after a noun.
*Remember that only noun phrases may occur after a preposition.

54
Abstraction Grammatical Assessment

In the traditional approach to assessing grammar, grammatical

knowledge is defined in terms of accurate production and
comprehension, and then assessed through the four skills.
Testing is typically done by means of decontextualized, discrete-point items such as
sentence unscrambling, fill-in-the-blanks, error correction, sentence completion,
sentence combining, picture description, elicited imitation, judging grammatical
correctness, and modified cloze passages. Such formats test grammar knowledge, but
they do not assess whether test takers can use grammar correctly in real-life speaking
or writing.
A significant contribution of the communicative or proficiency-based approach in the
1970s and 1980s was a shift from seeing language proficiency in terms of knowledge
of structures, which could best be assessed using discrete-point items, to the ability to
integrate and use the knowledge in performance, which could best be assessed
through the production and comprehension of written texts and through face-to-face
interaction under real-time processing conditions (McNamara & Roever, 2006, pp.
43–4).

In the latter, more integrative, approach to grammar assessment, grammatical

performance is typically assessed by raters using scales that gauge grammatical
accuracy, complexity, and the range of grammatical structures used.
The judgments are subjective, and because the assessment formats are more open-
ended, they are subject to possible inconsistencies. For this reason, certain factors, such
as rater severity and prompt difficulty, must be examined, usually accomplished by
means of generalizability theory or item-response theory (Purpura, 2006). Because of
the preference in recent years for measuring the use of grammar holistically through
speaking and writing, some standardized examinations, e.g., the TOEFL, no longer
have a separate section of the test that deals with structure explicitly. The decision to
eliminate the explicit testing of grammar was made in at least two cases based on
research showing that a separate subtest of grammatical knowledge could not be
adequately differentiated from other sections of a test (Cushing Weigle & Lynch, 1995
and Alderson, 1993, cited in Purpura, 2004).
A consequence of such decisions, however, is that it is difficult to separate out what in
the ability to read or write the texts is due to the lack of knowledge concerning
grammatical structures and what might be due to other factors. We also have no way of
diagnosing grammatical difficulties learners may be experiencing or in providing them
with feedback (Purpura, 2004). In sum, discrete point and integrative tests represent
different approaches to grammar assessment, each of which have a contribution to
make.

55
Innovations in grammar assessment
There are a number of innovations underway, or at least proposed, in the way
grammar is being assessed.

Redefining the construct

The first involves a definition of the grammar construct itself. Expanding beyond form
to include grammatical meaning is one such move. For instance, Purpura (2004, p. 89)
defines grammatical ability for assessment purposes as involving “the capacity to
realize grammatical knowledge accurately and meaningfully in test-taking or other
language-use contexts.” Grammatical ability may (also) interact with pragmatic ability,
which Purpura considers a different ability area.

Expanding the grammatical construct even further are researchers at the University of
Michigan who are responsible for developing standard examinations of English
proficiency (the ECCE and ECPE). They are going beyond the assessment of
grammatical form and meaning and including grammatical use as well. Doing so
necessitates assessing how grammar functions at the discourse level, where its use in
cohesion, thematic continuity, anaphora, cataphora, grammatical focus, backgrounding
and foregrounding, etc., are measured, as well as assessing students’ knowledge of how
sociolinguistic functions, such as constructing identity, conveying politeness,
displaying power, etc. are realized grammatically. Speakers have a choice of which of
their grammatical resources to deploy. Grammar is not a linguistic straitjacket (Larsen
-Freeman, 2002; see also Batstone, 1994; Cullen, 2008)

Partial scoring
Discrete-point tests usually rely on dichotomous scoring of grammatical accuracy.
Recently, it has been proposed that scoring grammatical items polytomously would
yield information about learners who have an intermediary knowledge of grammar,
rather than their being treated as if they have no knowledge at all (Purpura, 2006).
To examine the extent to which answers on multiple-choice grammar items can be
ordered along a path of progressive attainment, Purpura (2006) examined the grammar
section of the University of Michigan ECPE, and found that many of the items did show
what seemed to be a progressive attainment pattern in the response patterns of 1,000
candidates.
If these items are indeed measuring developmental levels, dichotomous scoring raises
several concerns. First, a considerable amount of developmental information is lost
with students who have partial knowledge. More seriously, scoring dichotomously
underestimates some students’ true ability, and it makes it impossible for some students
to receive feedback appropriate to their developmental level. While partial scoring is
not a complete solution, it is one step in the long-hoped-for development of an
interlanguage-sensitive approach to assessment (LarsenFreeman & Long, 1991).

56
The social dimension

Language tests have ignored the social use dimension of language and have followed
traditional psychometric methods in measuring isolated pieces of grammar and
vocabulary knowledge; as a consequence, measuring test takers’ ability to use
language in social contexts has been overlooked (McNamara & Roever, 2006).
Importantly, this awareness goes beyond extending the construct being measured. A
social view of performance is incompatible with the traditional view of performance as
a simple projection or display of individual competence.
Increasingly, therefore, language testers are questioning whether it is possible to isolate
the contributions of test takers from those of the test takers’ interlocutors, say in oral
proficiency interviews.
Along somewhat similar lines, Lantolf and Poehner (2004) call for “dynamic
assessment,” arguing against the assumption that the best sort of assessment is that of
independent problem solving. Since higher order thinking emerges from our
interactions with others, dynamic assessment involves testing the examinee before and
after an intervention designed to teach the student how to perform better on the test.
The student’s final score represents the difference between pretest (before learning) and
post-test (after learning) scores.

The Standard

Another issue that could be discussed under grammar teaching or testing is the issue of
what the target standard is. For instance, some researchers have claimed that as English
increasingly becomes the language of communication between non-native speakers), it
is likely that “ungrammatical, but unproblematic” constructions, such as “he look very
sad,” “a picture who gives the impression” (Seidlhofer, 2001, p. 147), once they exist
sufficiently frequently in non-native speaker discourse, would arguably become
standardized and exist as a variety (English as a lingua franca) alongside English as a
native language. Kachru and Nelson (1996, in Siegel, 2003) point out that considering
the non-standard features of indigenized varieties to be the result of L1 interference and
fossilization would be wrong because learners may not wish to emulate a standard, and
standard models may not be available in the environment. Even for those who do wish
to emulate a standard, there is always the question concerning ultimate attainment in a
classroom setting. For instance, in discussing the teaching of Russian as a foreign
language, Rifkin (2005) advocates that students study abroad in a Russian-speaking
environment because there is a ceiling effect as to what can be accomplished in a class
where Russian is the target language. The instruction and assessment of grammar will
likely continue to foment a great deal of discussion as the field struggles with how to
do both in harmony with students’ natural learning processes. The effort is worth it for
there is much at stake.

57
APPLICATION:

SELF REFLECTION

Direction: Complete the Reflective Journal below.

As a future English Teacher, my purpose is……………………..

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_________________________. I will assure that
_______________________________________________________
_____________. My main reason to assess ____________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
To improve my assessment practice, I must
_______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________.

CLOSURE
Great job! You have just finished Lesson 1 of this module. If
there are some parts of the lesson which you need clarification,
please ask your tutor during your face-to-face interactions.
Now be ready to proceed to Lesson 2 of this module which will
discuss about how the Types of Assessment.

58
Lesson 2
Types of Assessment
Objectives:
 Identify the various types of Assessment;
 Compare the differences of Summative Assessment and
Formative Assessment

Introduction
Hello! Welcome to lesson 2! In this module this gives you a background on the
types of assessments that should be used in the classroom. As an educator, creating an
assessment part of our responsibility to assess the development of the learning of our
students.

Direction: Using T-Chart, Write the differences of Assessment and

Evaluation.

Similarities

Differences Differences

Analysis: 1. Give 5 significance of Assessment Tasks.

___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
2.Cite 3 assessment task that you like and 3 assessment task that you
don’t like. Why? (Support your statement.)
___________________________________________
___________________________________________

59
Abstraction Types of Assessment
Assessment is another fundamental aspect of teaching. It can help you
determine a student’s proficiency in a language. Also, using assessment can
help to identify the strengths and weaknesses of a leaner. Thus, Teachers also
need to use constant assessment to determine how well students are
comprehending the material that has been covered or how much information they picked up
from a specific course.

Assessment and Evaluation

Assessment and Evaluation are not the same yet they are closely related.

Assessment related to individual student learning. It is “the act of collecting information and
making judgements on a language learner’s knowledge of language ability to use it”
(Chappelle and Brindley, 2002, p.267).
Evaluation refers to a broader term concerning a collection and interpretation of information
relating to the value of an entire course or program for the reach of specific functions or
goals.
Why do we Assess?
Here are the following reasons why we need to assess:
1. Diagnosing student’s strengths and weaknesses.
2. Deciding what to and what to teach next.
3. Giving students feedback.
4. Seeing students’ progress.
5. Handing students, a final grade.
Two Types of Assessment
Formative Assessment – that is, assessment designed to inform instruction. The assessment
before instruction (diagnostic assessment or pretest) describes the entry knowledge or skills
pushing teachers to revise planned instruction accordingly.
Summative Assessment – is intended to certify learning and report to parents and students
about students’ progress in school, usually by signaling students’ relative position compared to
other students.

Formative on-going process

Summative at the end of the learning

60
Summative assessment, or assessment of learning, can take many forms.
Here are some possible types of summative assessment that can be used in the language
classroom.
Performance Task: students are asked to complete a task that will test a specific set of
skills and/or abilities and determine what the students knows and are capable of doing.
A rubric, checklist, or other form of scoring guide should accompany this type of
assessment.
Written Product: students are asked to write an original selection. There are many
written forms that teachers can use to get students to write. In addition, students may
be asked to write about a previous activity such as a field trip or guest speaker. Students
may also be asked to create a piece of persuasive writing or a reflection about their
learning experience. A rubric, checklist, or other form of scoring guide should
accompany this type of assessment.
Oral Product: students are asked to prepare an oral piece of work; this can take the
shape of any of the oral forms. A rubric, checklist, or other form of scoring guide should
accompany this type of assessment.
Test: the students are asked to write a test at the end of a section, chapter, unit, theme,
etc. to demonstrate what they know.
Standardized Test: students are asked to write a test that is standardized in terms of
content of the test and conditions under which the test is written.

What is Authentic Assessment?

Authentic assessment - is another way to check for students' understanding of
grammatical rules. For example, they might be asked to take a newspaper article and
make corrections or improvements.

TEST FORMATS
Recognition Production
 For students to identify errors in  For students to show
a given context. communicative skills.
 Error recognition  Paraphrase
 Items True/False  Editing
 Pairing and matching items  Sentence transformation

61
APPLICATION:

Direction: Using a Venn Diagram. Compare and contrast formative

assessment from Summative Assessment. Then, answer the given question.

Venn Diagram

Formative Assessment Summative Assessment

Differences Similarities Differences

1. Write a one paragraph-discussion based on given inputs in your diagram.

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2. Share what you have learned and present examples about formative and summative
assessment.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

CLOSURE
Great job! You have just finished Lesson 2 of this module. If there are
some parts of the lesson which you need clarification, please ask your
tutor during your face-to-face interactions.
Now be ready to proceed to Lesson 3 of this module which will discuss
about how the Grammar Assessment Tasks

62
Lesson 3
Grammar Assessment Tasks

Objectives:
 Identify the significance of the differentiated tasks.
 Distinguish the various task to assess grammatical
competency.
 Construct a differentiated classroom assessment tasks.

Introduction
Hello? Welcome to Lesson 3! The content of this lesson gives you the variety
of tasks that can be used in assessing grammatical foundation and the progress of
learning. With this, you may assess how far does your student learn your topic. Also,
enclosed in this lesson are the tips on assessment.
Activity: Look for a partner, discuss the what are the assessment task
that was implemented by your teacher after she discuss the lesson and
after the end of every unit. Write down 5 types of assessment and analyze
their advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages Type of Assessment Disadvantages

Analysis: Take time to think. Answer the given questions below.

1. What are the other assessment grammar tasks you have tried?
2. Give at least 5 tasks that you have used in conducting your Field Study.
3. How did you decide the type of task that you should use in your discussed
topic?

63
Abstraction Grammar Assessment Tasks

Learning-oriented assessment of grammar may be achieved by means of

a wide array of data-gathering methods in classroom contexts. These
obviously include conventional quizzes and tests containing selected
response, limited-production and all sorts of extended-production tasks,
as discussed earlier. These conventional methods provide achievement or diagnostic
information to test-users, and can occur before, during or after instruction, depending
on the assessment goals. They are often viewed as ‘separate’ from instruction in terms
of their administration. These assessments are what most teachers typically call to mind
when they think of classroom tests. In addition to using stand-alone tests, learning-
oriented assessment promotes the collection of data on students’ grammatical ability as
an integral part of instruction. While teachers have always evaluated student
performance incidentally in class with no other apparent purpose than to make
instructional choices, classroom assessment activities can be made more systematic by
means of learning-oriented assessment. Typical methods of assessing grammatical
ability as a regular part of teaching and curricular activities include the use of the
following extended-production tasks: chats involving conversations, free and structured
interviews and conferences; recasts or the re-creation of some activity in a slightly
different form such as retellings, rewrites, narrations and eyewitness reports;
simulations such as role-plays, dramatizations and improvisations; and many different
types of project work such as portfolios and poster sessions. (For examples of classroom
assessment tasks, see O’Malley and Valdez-Pierce, 1996; Brown, 1998; Trussell-
Cullen, 1998; Lee and VanPatten, 2003.) Other methods used commonly in classroom
assessment include observation and reflection.
Describing grammar test tasks
When language teachers consider tasks for grammar tests, they call to mind a large
repertoire of task types that have been commonly used in teaching and testing
contexts. We now know that these holistic task types constitute collections of task
characteristics for eliciting performance and that these holistic task types can vary on
a number of dimensions. We also need to remember that the tasks we include on tests
should strive to match the types of language-use tasks found in real-life or language
instructional domains. Traditionally, there have been many attempts at categorizing
the types of tasks found on tests. Some have classified tasks according to scoring
procedure.
Example:
Objective test tasks (e.g., true–false tasks) are those in which no expert judgment is
required to evaluate performance with regard to the criteria for correctness.
Subjective test tasks (e.g., essays) are those that require expert judgment to interpret
and evaluate performance with regard to the criteria for correctness. Given that the
main goal of a task is to elicit performance.

64
 EXAMPLES OF CLASSROOM-BASED ASSESSEMNT TASKS

SELECTED-RESPONSE TASK TYPES

Selected-response tasks present input in the form of an item, and test takers are expected
to select the response. Other than that, all other task characteristics can vary. For
example, the form of the input can be language, non-language or both, and the length
of the input can vary from a word to larger pieces of discourse. In terms of the response,
selected response tasks are intended to measure recognition or recall of grammatical
form and/or meaning. They are usually scored right/wrong, based on one criterion for
correctness; however, in some instances, partial-credit scoring may be useful,
depending on how the construct is defined.
Finally, selected-response tasks can vary in terms of reactivity, scope and directness.

The multiple-choice (MC) task

This task presents input with gaps or underlined words or phrases. Examinees have to
choose the correct answer from the response options. given. The answer or key
represents the best, correct or most appropriate, acceptable or natural choice; the other
options are the distractors. MC items are well suited for testing many discrete features
of grammatical knowledge. Administration and scoring of MC tasks are relatively easy.
MC items are also easily pre-tested, so that their psychometric characteristics can be
determined prior to operational testing. In this way, ‘easy’ or ‘difficult’ items can be
selected and ordered as needed. MC tasks are scored objectively.
Example 1 presents the input in the form of a two-part adjacency pair with a gap in the second-pair
part.
Example 1: Multiple-choice task
Designed to test grammatical form (morphosyntax-word order)

65
Directions: Circle the correct answer.
A: Can’t Tom drive us to the airport?
B: He has ____ to take us all.
(c) a too small car
(a) such small a car

(b) very small a car (d) too small a car ✔ =key✔

Example 2 is a slightly different kind of multiple-choice task. The input is presented in the form of an
adjacency pair, but in this example, person B needs to understand the previous utterance in order to
respond as expected.
Example 2: Multiple-choice task
Designed to test grammatical form and meaning (cohesive-ellipsis)
Directions: Circle the correct answer.
A: Will you and Ann go away this summer?
B: I imagine
____.
(c)
(a) it
that
(d)
(b) so ✔
we’ll

Example 3 presents the input in the form of a dialogue with three turns
and two adjacency pairs.

Example 3: Multiple-choice task

Designed to test grammatical form and meaning (multiple areas)
Directions: Circle the correct answer.
A: Wow! You got a new hairdo. I love it!
B: Thanks, but ____________________________________
A: No, you don’t. You look great!
(a) I liked it the other way. (c) You look great.
(b) What happened to you? (d) I look ridiculous! ✔

The matching task

This task presents input in the form of two lists of words, phrases or sentences. One
list can also be in the form of visual cues. Examinees match one list with the other. To
avoid guessing, one list has one or more extra distractors. Matching tasks are designed
to test several discrete features of grammatical knowledge within the same task. They
are also designed Designing test tasks to measure L2 grammatical ability 131 to
encourage test-takers to cross-reference and examine the relationships between the
two lists so that construct-related associations can be indicated. They are also easy to
score.

Example 5: Matching task

Designed to measure grammatical meaning (denotation)
Directions: Match the letter of the underlined word(s) with its meaning.
Write the letter on the line.
Last week while Tom and Jane were having dinner in a restaurant, thieves
(a) broke down the front door of their pretty little house, went inside and
(b) broke into their safe. Now they’re (c) broke.
___ 3. enter to steal
___ 1. poor
something
___ 2. make into two or more
___ 4. enter by force
pieces

66
The discrimination task

This task presents examinees with language and/or non-language input along with two
response choices that are polar opposites or that contrast in some way. Some response
possibilities include: true–false, right–wrong, same–different, agree–disagree,
grammatical–ungrammatical and so forth.
Example 6: Discrimination task
Designed to measure morphosyntactic meaning
Directions: Match the sentence with the picture by writing the number in
the box on the line.

___ Se la entregó a ella. [He delivered it to her.]

This task could be varied by changing the input to one image with two contrasting sentences. In this
way, several pronoun meanings could be contrasted (He delivered it to her; She delivered it to him).
One problem with discrimination tasks is that low-ability test-takers can significantly increase their
scores above their ability level simply by guessing.

LIMITED-PRODUCTION TASK TYPES

Limited-production tasks present input in the form
of an item with language and/or non-language information that can vary
in length or topic. Different from selected-response tasks, limited production tasks elicit
a response embodying a limited amount of language production. The length of this
response can be anywhere from a word to a sentence. All task characteristics in limited-
production tasks can vary with the exception of two: the type of input (always an ‘item’)
and the type of expected response (always ‘limited-production’). Limited-production
tasks are intended to assess one or more areas of grammatical knowledge depending on
the construct definition. Unlike selected-response items, which usually have only one
possible answer, the range of possible answers for limited-production tasks can, at
times, be large – even when the response involves a single word.

The gap-filling task

This task presents input in the form of a sentence, passage or dialogue
with a number of words deleted. The gaps are specifically selected to test
one or more areas of grammatical knowledge. Examinees are required to
fill the gap with an appropriate response for the context. Gap-filling tasks
are designed to measure the learner’s knowledge of grammatical forms
and meanings.
Example 8 is a gap-filling task designed to measure grammatical form and lexical meaning. More
specifically, it aims to measure morphosyntactic form of the simple and habitual past tense verb forms
and lexical meaning.
Example 8: Gap- filling task
Designed to measure grammatical form and meaning
Directions: Fill in the blank with an appropriate form of the verb.
In about 20 AD Apicus was well known for the cookbooks he (1)
________________ in his spare time. He was equally famous for the lavish
meals he (2) ________________ for his family and guests.
(Adapted from Purpura and Pinkley, 2000)

67
The short-answer task
This task presents input in the form of a question, incomplete sentence
or some visual stimulus. Test-takers are expected to produce responses
that range in length from a word to a sentence or two. The range of
acceptable responses can vary considerably. Short-answer questions can
be used to test several areas of grammatical ability, and are usually scored
as right or wrong with one or more criteria for correctness or partial
credit. Short-answer tasks can also be scored by means of a rating scale.
Example 9: Short-answer task
Designed to measure grammatical form and meaning
Directions: Use the job ad to complete the application form.

WANTED

Intercultural Communications for International Corporation

A well-known, international corporation seeks applicants
with expertise in cross-cultural communications to design
cultural sensitivity training programs for employees bound
for international employment. Applicants must have formal
training in language, linguistics or cross-cultural studies.
They must also have a successful record of international
work experience. Must be willing to travel and remain
abroad for extended periods of time. Must be fluent in
several languages. Salary competitive with excellent
benefits. Send letter along with resume to:
[email protected]

Name: Job applied for:

Qualifications for job applied for:
Current job: Reason for leaving:

Extended-production tasks

Extended-production tasks present input in the form of a prompt instead of an item. The
input can involve language and/or non-language information and can vary considerably
in length. Extended-production tasks aim to elicit large amounts of data of which the
quality and quantity can vary greatly for each test-taker. Given the real-time nature of
some of these tasks, they are hypothesized to measure implicit grammatical knowledge.
If planning time is given, they are also said to measure explicit knowledge. Extended-
production tasks are particularly well suited for measuring the examinee’s ability to use
grammatical forms to convey meanings in instances of language use (i.e., speaking and
writing). When assessing grammatical ability in the context of speaking, it is advisable,
whenever possible, to audiotape or videotape the interaction. This will allow the
performance samples to be scored more reliably and will provide time to record
diagnostic feedback for students. The tapes can also be used for instructional purposes,
as well as for teaching students to perform self and peer assessments.

68
For example, if we were going to assess our students’ use of conditionals, we might operationalize
grammatical knowledge in terms of the accuracy of the conditional forms and the range of knowledge
displayed. Following this, we could devise a rubric similar to the one below. Consider, for now, three
levels from a five-point scoring rubric.

4 Complete evidence The response is accurate (i.e., it contains no

of morphosyntactic errors in conditional form or meaning); the
response displays a range of first, second and
knowledge
third conditional sentences.
2 Moderate evidence The response is moderately accurate (i.e., it
of morphosyntactic contains well-formed first and second
conditionals, but several errors with the third
conditional); the response displays a wide
knowledge
range of conditional sentences, but not all with
the same degree of accuracy.
0 No evidence of The response avoids the use of the conditional
morphosyntactic or there is not enough information to judge
knowledge performance.

The information-gap task (info-gap)

This task presents input in the form of two or more sets of partially complete
information. Test-takers are instructed to ask each other questions to obtain one
complete set of information. Being reciprocal in nature, info-gap tasks are intended to
elicit data involving negotiated interaction and feedback, which can be used to measure
the test-takers’ ability to use grammatical forms to convey a range of literal functional
meanings. Depending on how the situation is set up, info-gap tasks can also be used to
measure pragmatic knowledge.
Example 11: Information-gap task
Designed to measure grammatical form and meaning on the sentence
and discourse levels
Directions: Work with a partner. Student A looks at the information on
Mozart; Student B looks at the information on Debussy. Each of you needs
the other person’s information to prepare a report on famous composers.
Ask each other questions from the cues and record your answers.

Year and place of

Name:
birth:
Characteristics of
Date of death:
music:

[To be given to separate students before the test.]

INFORMATION CARD – Student A NFORMATION CARD – Student B

Name: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Name: Claude Debussy
Year of birth: 1756; place: Salzburg, Year of birth: 1862; place: Laye (near
Austria Paris), France
Characteristics of music: always Characteristics of music: rhythm
technically perfect more important than melody
Date of death: 1791 Date of death: 1918

(Adapted from Purpura and Pinkley, 2000)

69
Story-telling and reporting tasks
These tasks present test-takers with prompts that require them to use information from
their own experience or imagination to tell a story or report information. These tasks
can be used to measure the test-takers’ ability to use grammatical forms to convey
several meanings – both literal
and implied. Given the real-time nature of these tasks, whether in the context of
speaking or writing, they are intended to measure an examinee’s implicit grammatical
knowledge. Sometimes the relationship between the input and response is indirect,
requiring special topical knowledge to complete the task as intended. If these tasks are
spoken, again audio- or video recording is advisable. Performance is scored by means
of rating scales that have been derived from the test construct(s) for this particular
task.
Example 12: Reporting task
Designed to measure grammatical form and meaning on the sentence
and discourse levels
Directions – Part A: Last night there was a break-in at the Santellis’. You are
the detective on the case. For each piece of evidence below, make a written
speculation about the burglary. Use modals whenever possible.
1. The kitchen lock was forced open and a window was broken.
2. Traces of cookies and milk were found on the kitchen counter.
3. There was a wet towel in the shower.
4. All of Mrs. Santelli’s diamonds are missing.

Directions – Part B: Based on the evidence, draw some tentative conclusions

about the thief. Write a brief progress report on the situation for a new colleague on the case.
(Adapted from Purpura and Pinkley, 2000)

The role-play and simulation tasks.

These tasks present test-takers with a prompt in which two or more examinees are asked
to assume a role in order to solve a problem collaboratively, make a decision or perform
some transaction. The input can be language and/or non-language, and it can contain
varying amounts of information. In terms of the expected response, role-plays and
simulation tasks elicit large amounts of language, invoking the test-takers’ grammatical
and pragmatic knowledge, their topical knowledge, strategic competence and affective
schemata. The purpose of the test and the construct definition will determine what will
be scored. The relationship between the input and response is reciprocal and indirect.
These tasks are scored with the rating-scale method in light of the constructs being
measured.
Example 13: Simulation task
Designed to measure grammatical form and meaning on the discourse level

Directions: Your local government has just received a large amount of money to solve one of
its problems. You are on the committee to decide which one to solve. You will be given a
problem to advocate for. Your job is to convince your group that the city should solve your
problem first. You will have five minutes to plan your argument. Once you are in your group,
describe your problem to the others. When you hear all the problems, work together to decide
which problem the city should solve first. Try to get your problem solved first.

70
(Each student is given only one role)
Person A
The city is upset about pollution. There are more and more cars every year, and they are aggravating
the pollution problem. The government does not want to make pollution laws because it is afraid
factories will close. However, more and more people are having pollution-related health problems. The
city needs money to help the factories install anti-pollution technology.

Person B
The city is worried about crime. In some neighborhoods crime has increased dramatically within the
last year, and people are afraid to walk in certain areas at night. More and more people are reporting
street crimes. Recently thieves broke into a bank and stole millions. Violent crime is increasing too.
The city needs money to hire more policemen and to install modern crime technology.

Person C
The schools are in desperate need of help. Classrooms are overcrowded and buildings are falling apart
from lack of maintenance. New
teachers do not want to begin their careers in these conditions and veteran
teachers are leaving the schools to accept jobs in the suburbs, where they
are paid twice as much. The schools also need funds to support ESL instruction for growing numbers
of immigrant students. Every child deserves to
have the opportunity for a good education.
(Adapted from Purpura and Pinkley, 1999)

Here are some typical methods of assessing grammatical ability as a regular part of
teaching
and curricular activities include the use of the following extended-production tasks:

Chats involving conversations, free and structured interviews and conferences;

Recasts or the re-creation of some activity in a slightly different form such as
retellings, rewrites, narrations and eyewitness reports;
Simulations such as role-plays, dramatizations and improvisations;
and many different types of Project work such as portfolios and poster sessions.

Reflection is another method of collecting information on students’ grammatical

ability at one point in time or over a period of time. It can also be used to assess
students’ feelings and attitudes toward learning grammar, as well as any other
variables that influence grammar learning.

Tips for an Effective Assessment of Grammar

1. To avoid the boredom, hold tasks 1-7 as a competition between pairs or small
groups or as a game.
2. Make gap-filling and multiple choice text based as often as possible, choose
interesting by contents texts for that.
3. To avoid guessing by chance influencing the grade too much, involve 4-5
options, where applicable

71
 4. Give effective examples demonstrating how a grammar mistake can turn an
utterance into an ambiguous one
5. Teacher’s book should contain a rich bank of assessment tasks made up by
professionals which are relevant to the given book.
6. Use more text-based and situation-based assessment tasks.
7. Do not use only tasks dealing with writing, involve tasks dealing with speaking,
listening and reading. Involve both productive (speaking, writing) and
receptive/perceptive (listening, reading) tasks.
8. Ratio of drills to semi-authentic and authentic tasks should be in favor of the
authentic tasks. Remember that assessment only on drill-type level does not
prepare for real-life problem solving.
9. Not only grades and correctly done tasks should be emphasized, but also the
development of the strategies of fulfilling the tasks that involve difficulties.
Avoidance and meaning elicitation strategies should be discussed and practiced.
10. The grammatical aspect of self-editing strategies need to be practiced. Let
successful students speak out how they do it.
11. When the activity is difficult, model it (fulfill it yourself, or ask a bright student
fulfill it first).
12. Work out a good rubric for authentic tasks, let students participate in making it
up. Provide discrimination in assessment between mistakes not causing
(“local”) and causing misunderstanding (“global”).
13. While assessing, concentrate on student achievement instead of failures, teach
students to turn their errors into useful lessons, steps to future success, instead
of negative memories

APPLICATION:
Direction: Construct your own grammar assessment task. You
can have 5 differentiated assessment tasks. Thus, you may select
your preferable grammar lesson. Be sure to present your topic to
your instructor before doing this task.

CLOSURE
Great job! You have just finished Lesson 3 of this module. If there
are some parts of the lesson which you need clarification, please
ask your tutor during your face-to-face interactions.
Now be ready to proceed to Lesson 4 of this module which will
discuss about how the Syllabus Design.

72
Lesson 4
Syllabus Design
Objectives:
 Identify the components of a syllabus;
 Discuss the characteristics and classifications of a
syllabus.
 Create a syllabus and apply the tasks and techniques
learn in this course.
Introduction
Hello! Welcome to the last lesson of the Course which is Syllabus Design. One of the
essential components of any language teaching program is syllabus or curriculum, which
specifies the what or the content of language learning and teaching. The two terms are often
used interchangeably although they may indicate a hierarchical relationship where curriculum
refers broadly to all aspects of language policy, language planning, teaching methods, and
evaluation measures, whereas syllabus relates narrowly to the specification of content and the
sequencing of what is to be taught. This section is limited to syllabus as a content-specifier.

ACTIVITY:
Interview: In this activity, you are tasked to interview one (1) instructor
you know from your institution or from the other institutions. Use the
following questions as you guide.
1. What is your own definition of a syllabus?
2. What should a good syllabus must contain?
3. Give at least 3 advantages and disadvantages of a syllabus?

Analysis: Let us now review and examine what you have done during
your interview.

1. From the interview, what have you learned about the features of a
syllabus?
2. How did your teacher value their syllabus in teaching. Do you
think it is effective of not? Support your answer.
3. As a future educator, give five (5) important points that you learn
from the interview that you can say you will apply on your own.

73
Abstraction Syllabus Design

What is a Syllabus?
A syllabus is a basic contract between the instructor and students, laying
out the responsibilities and expectations on both sides. It is also a road
map that shows the general contours of the course, important milestones,
and the landmarks that will let students know they're on the right road.

Syllabus Characteristics
A syllabus is a plan of what is to be achieved through teaching and learning. It
is part of an overall language curriculum or course which is made up of four
elements: aims, content, methodology and evaluation. The syllabus
identifies what will be worked upon by the teacher and students in terms of content
selected to be appropriate to overall aims. Methodology refers to how teachers and
learners work upon the content, whilst evaluation is the process of assessing outcomes
from the learning and judging the appropriateness of other elements of the curriculum.
A syllabus may be formally documented, as in the aims and content of a national or
institutional syllabus for particular groups of learners or (less explicitly perhaps) in the
content material of published textbooks. Every teacher follows a syllabus, but it may
vary from being a pre-designed document to a day-to-day choice of content which the
teacher regards as serving a course's particular aims. In the latter case, the syllabus
unfolds as lessons progress.
More specifically, any syllabus, according to Breen (2001, p. 151), should ideally
provide the following:
 A clear framework of knowledge and capabilities selected to be appropriate to
overall aims;
 continuity and a sense of direction in classroom work for teacher and students;
 a record for other teachers of what has been covered in the course;
 a basis for evaluating students’ progress;
 a basis for evaluating the appropriateness of the course in relation to overall
aims and student needs, identified both before and during the course;
 content appropriate to the broader language curriculum, the particular class of
learners, and the educational situation and wider society in which the course is
located.
Of course, the assumption behind this ideal list of syllabus objectives is that they
will enable teaching to become more organized and more effective. In that sense, a
syllabus is more a teaching organizer than a learning indicator, although a well-
conceived and well-constructed syllabus is supposed to relate as closely as possible to
learning processes.
But to expect any close connection between teaching design and learning device is
to ignore the role of learner intake factors on intake processes that we discussed in
chapter 2. It is precisely for this reason Corder (1967) talked about the notion of a “built-

74
in-syllabus” that learners themselves construct based on the language content presented
to them and in conjunction with intake factors and processes. As Corder rightly
asserted, the learner syllabus is organic rather than linear, that is, learners appear to
learn several items simultaneously rather than sequentially retaining some, rejecting
others and reframing certain others. What is therefore needed is a psycholinguistic basis
for syllabus construction.
Syllabus Classifications
Nearly a quarter century ago, Wilkins (1976) proposed two broad classifications
of syllabus: synthetic syllabus and analytic syllabus. The underlying assumption
behind the synthetic syllabus is that ax language system can be (a) analyzed into its
smaller units of grammatical structures, lexical items, or functional categories; (b)
classified in some manageable and useful way; and (c) presented to the learner one by
one for their understanding and assimilation. The learners then are expected to
synthesize all the separate elements in order to get the totality of the language. Because
the synthesis is done by the learner, the syllabus is dubbed synthetic.

In the analytic syllabus, the language input is presented to the learner, not piece
by piece, but in fairly large chunks. These chunks will not have any specific linguistic
focus; instead, they will bring the learner’s attention to the communicative features of
the language. They are connected texts in the form of stories, games, problems, tasks,
and so forth. It is the responsibility of the learner to analyze the connected texts into its
smaller constituent elements, hence the term, analytic.
It is not the purpose of this chapter to discuss in detail how these syllabus types are
linked to other aspects of language teaching such as teaching strategies, textbook
production, and evaluation measures.

PURPOSES AND CONTENT OF A SYLLABUS

The purpose of the syllabus should drive the decision as to what content to include.
Three major purposes that a syllabus should serve are as a contract, a permanent
record, and a learning tool (Parkes & Harris, 2002).

The syllabus as a contract

A syllabus should make the rules for the course clear. It should set forth what is
expected to happen during the semester, delineate the responsibilities of students and
of the instructor, and describe appropriate procedures and course policies. To do this,
a syllabus should include the following:

 Topics and readings to be covered in sequence with dates

 Important dates (e.g., assignment due dates, exam dates, and holidays)
 Standards and criteria for graded assignments

75
  Description of how the final grade will be computed with a breakdown of the
ranges for each letter grade and whether or not pluses/minuses will be used
 Policy on late assignments, incomplete assignments, and revisions
 Academic integrity policy
 Attendance policy
 Accommodation policy for students with special needs
 Expectations for classroom interaction. For example, you may point out that
you will be incorporating active learning strategies throughout the semester in
the form of group work, in-class writing assignments, etc. Or if you address
controversial topics, you may want to lay out some guidelines for discussion.

The syllabus as a permanent record

A syllabus should serve accountability and documentation functions. It should

document what was covered in a course, at what level, and for what kind of credit.
Such a syllabus contains information useful for evaluation of instructors, courses, and
programs, and can thus be useful in course equivalency transfer situations,
accreditation procedures, and articulation. To do this, a syllabus should include the
following:

 Basic course information (course by number, section, title, semester, meeting

times, days, place, format)
 Instructor information (name, title, rank, office location, office phone number,
e-mail)
 Description of the course content
 Course goals and objectives (linked to professional standards if appropriate)
 Required purchases for the course. You may also want to note where else texts
will be available (e.g., the library, online, electronic reserves)
 Pre- and co-requisites for the course (not just courses; what skills are expected
also)
 Names and contact information for teaching assistant

76
The syllabus as a learning tool

A syllabus should help students become more effective learners in the course. While
many of these items are not required for syllabi at Illinois, adding them can greatly
improve students' ability to learn the material. To do this, a syllabus should include
the following:

 Ways of contacting the instructor (office hours, availability for appointments,

time within which students can expect a response via email, phone number)
 Conceptual structure used to organize the course, why it is organized the way
it is
 Instructor's philosophy about the course content, teaching, and learning
 Relevance and importance of the course to students (e.g., how the course fits
into the college or department curriculum, why the students would want to
learn the material)
 Campus resources available to help students' learning (tutoring, writing,
counseling, etc.)
 Estimate of student workload
 Hints for how to study, take notes, etc.

 To see recommended information to include in a syllabus, use the checklist in Guidelines to

the Organization and Contents of a Syllabus. (https://citl.illinois.edu/docs/default-
source/default-document-library/organization-of-syllabus---may-2020.pdf?sfvrsn=2)

APPLICATION:

Develop and plan a content for your Syllabus. You may

incorporate the tasks and methods, techniques that you learn in
this Course.

CLOSURE
Excellent work! You have just finished the Course. What a great
achievement! Of all those shared time, energy and hard work, I know
that you’ve gained a much about this Course. It’s a two thumbs up!
May you share what you have learnt someday.

77
 MODULE SUMMARY

 Assessment is another fundamental aspect of teaching. It can help you

determine a student’s proficiency in a language. Also, using assessment can
help to identify the strengths and weaknesses of a leaner.
 Assessment refers to the act of collecting information and making judgement of
the learner’s knowledge on how to use the language while evaluation collects
and interprets information in relation to the entire course of program to reach
specific goals.
 In a nutshell, formative assessments are quizzes and tests that evaluate how
someone is learning material throughout a course like learning logs/activities,
discussions, reflection, group presentation and practice quizzes. Summative
assessments are quizzes and tests that evaluate how much someone has learned
throughout a course such as examination, presentation, creation of a product,
Portfolio, group project. In the classroom, that means formative assessments
take place during a course and summative assessments are the final evaluations
at the course’s end.
 Traditionally, there have been many attempts at categorizing the types of tasks
found on tests. Some have classified tasks according to scoring procedure.
These are objective test tasks like true–false tasks, multiple choice- are those in
which no expert judgment is required to evaluate performance with regard to
the criteria for correctness. And subjective test tasks like reflection, essays-- are
those that require expert judgment to interpret and evaluate performance with
regard to the criteria for correctness.
 A syllabus an outline or summary of the subjects to be covered in a course. It is
also known as a basic contract between the instructor and students, laying out
the responsibilities and expectations on both sides.

78
 MODULE ASSESSMENT

Direction: Match column A with the correct answer on column B. Write only the letter of your
answer in the blank.
COLUMN A COLUMN B
Examinees match one list with the other. To A.Assessment
____1. avoid guessing, one list has one or more extra
distractors.

Test-takers are instructed to ask each other B.The Gap- Filling Task
____2. questions to obtain one complete set of
information

Task presents input in the form of a question, C. Simulation Task

____3. incomplete sentence
or some visual stimulus.

A kind of task of which no expert judgment is D.Multiple-Choice

____4. required to evaluate performance with regard Task
to the criteria for correctness.

____5. tasks present test-takers with a prompt in E.The Matching Task

which two or more examinees are asked to
assume a role in order to solve a problem
collaboratively, make a decision or perform
some transaction

These tasks present test-takers with prompts F. Information-gap task

____6. that require them to use information from their
own experience or imagination to tell a story
or report information

____7. task presents examinees with language and/or G. Subjective tasks

non-language input along with two response
choices that are polar opposites or that
contrast in some way

“the act of collecting information and making H. Story-telling

____8. judgements on a language learner’s
knowledge of language ability to use it”

Examinees are required to I. Evaluation

____9. fill the gap with an appropriate response for
the context.

Examinees have to choose the correct answer J. Objective tasks

____10. from the response options. given. The answer
or key represents the best, correct or most K. The Short- answer
appropriate, acceptable or natural choice; the task
other options are the distractors
L. Discrimination task

79
 REFERRENCES

Kumaravadivelu,B. (2006). Understanding Language Teaching: From Method to

Postmethod.London:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishing
10.4324/9781410615725.

Freeman, D. (2009); 27 Teaching and testing grammar. Retrieved from

https://teachgrammar.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Teaching-and-
Testing-Grammar.pdf

Purpura, J.E, (2004) Assessing Grammar: United Kingdom; Cambridge University

Press. Retrieved from
https://www.academia.edu/36580416/_James_E_Purpura_Assessing_Gramma
r_Cambridge_La_BookFi_org_

Assessing grammar; Retrieved from

https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/teacher_and_tutor_resources/teaching_resources/te
a ching_and_assessing_grammar.html

Tips in assessing grammar; PDF file, Retrieved from

https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/teacher_and_tutor_resources/teaching_resources/te
aching_and_assessing_grammar.html
Mulyono, E. Grammar Assessment. Presentation. Retrieved from
https://www.slideshare.net/Eko_Mulyono/grammar-
assessment?from_action=save
Nozadze, A. How to make assessment of grammar skills more efficient? Journal of
Education Retrieved from
https://jebs.ibsu.edu.ge/jms/index.php/je/article/view/73/81.

Davis, Barbara. (2009). Types of Tests, Jossey-Bass; California. PDF file. Retrieved
from https://www.trincoll.edu/ctl/wp-
content/uploads/sites/110/2020/06/Week-7-Types-of-Tests.pdf

Breen, M. (2001). Syllabus design. In R. Carter & D. Nunan (Eds.), The Cambridge
Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (The Cambridge
Guides, pp. 151-159). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
doi:10.1017/CBO9780511667206.023

80
 APENDIX A

ANSWER KEY
MODULE 1: MODULE 1:
Lesson 3: Activity Lesson 3: Activity
Language Learning-Brain Language Learning-Brain
Clue: Remove the first letter of the word
ANSWER:
ANSWER: 1. FEATHEROIC
SSESS 2. COURAGENDA
ANANA 3. KEEPERSIST
RESSER
REMMAR

MODULE 2: MODULE 1:
Lesson 1: Application (Answer Key) MODULE ASSESSMENT
Understanding Language Teaching
1. FG Test I
2. PD 1. Latin
3. DG 2. 1886
4. PresG 3.Target Language
4.Speech Act Theory
5. DG
5.Neurolinguistics
6. FG Test II
7. PresG 6.A
7.A
8.C
9.A
10.A
MODULE 3 MODULE 3
Lesson 1: Grammatical Assessment MODULE SUMMARY
ANALYSIS (ANSWER KEY) 1. E
My (possessive pronoun) late (adjective) dad 2. F
(noun) was (lexical verb) a (article) 3. K
magnificent (adjective) shot (noun). One 4. J
(cardinal numeral) time (noun) when 5. C
(relative adverb) we (personal pronoun) were 6. H
(auxiliary verb) hunting (lexical verb) in 7. L
(preposition) the (article) Low Veld (noun) 8. A
and (coordinate conjunction) had (auxiliary 9. B
verb) paused (lexical verb) for (preposition) 10. D
a (article) smoke (noun), there (adverb) was
(lexical verb) the (article) yelp (noun) of
(preposition) a (article) wild (adjective) dog
(noun), and (coordinate conjunction) a
(article) troop (noun) of (preposition) impala
(noun) came (here used as auxiliary verb)
bounding (lexical verb) over (preposition)
the (article) tall (adjective) grass (noun).

81
 APPENDIX B

ESSAY RUBRICS

(Source: ReadWriteThink (2013); Essay Rubric. Retrieved from http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/printouts/Essay%20Rubric.pdf)

82
 APPENDIX B

(Source: ReadWriteThink; Reflective Writing Rubric.Retrieved from http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/lesson_images/lesson963/Rubric.pdf)

83