Principles and Strategies of Teaching in Medical Laboratory Science

Cherries V. Sanchez, RMT, MSMT Term01

INTRODUCTION TO TEACHING
TEACHING & LEARNING PROCESS  Came from the Latin word ‘princeps’-
TEACHING “beginning or the end of all facts, circumstances
 Process of imparting knowledge and skills or state of affairs”.
from a teacher to a learner.  Guides to make teaching and learning
 It encompasses the activities of educating or effective/meaningful.
instructing.
 It is an act or experience that has a formative PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
effect on the mind, character or physical Psychological laws of learning educational concepts
ability of an individual. and the rules of practice upon which all educational
Some thoughts on teaching and learning... procedures are formed.
o Clearly, not all learning is dependent on
teaching...However, all teaching regardless TEACHING TERMINOLOGIES
of quality is predicated on learning.. -
 Approach  Method
Brown,1993
o Teaching makes learning possible.. -  Strategies  Technique
Ramsden,1992 TEACHING APPROACH
LEARNING
 What you are going to teach
 Process of gaining knowledge or skill by  Starting point in implementing learning
studying, practicing, being taught, or TEACHING STRATEGY
experiencing something.
o “The relatively permanent change in a
 Perspective, position, plan, and pattern
person’s knowledge or behavior due to  A complex web of thoughts, ideas, insights,
experience” - Mayer, 1982 experiences, goals, expertise, memories,
perceptions, and expectations that provides general
ELEMENTS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING guidance for specific actions in pursuit of particular
TEACHERS ends set od decision to achieve your plan.
 Set of decision; detailed plan to achieve your
– prime mover of the educational wheel.
goals.
TEACHING METHOD
LEARNERS
 Method comes from the Greek word ‘methodos’
– key participants in the leaning process.
- way or path taken.
CONDUCTIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT/FAVORABLE
 Concerns the workings to able to understand the
ENVIRONMENT object of the target science concerned.
TEACHING TECHNIQUE
– provides essential features and make head way in
giving the processes and methodologies in the  How to do or perform something or efforts in
elements. (ex:classroom) order to serve and consolidate the learning
PRINCIPLES materials to achieve the goal of learning.
 A comprehensive law or doctrine which an  More specific; detailed: (exercise, activities etc.)
accepted or professed rule of action or conduct
is derived.
 Principles and Strategies of Teaching in Medical Laboratory Science
Cherries V. Sanchez, RMT, MSMT Term01

INTRODUCTION TO HEALTH EDUCATION

HEALTH BIOLOGICAL
Health from a layperson’s perspective – relating to the body that cause impact to health.
 A person is deemed healthy when they can
do their activities with no apparent BEHAVIORAL
symptoms of disease in them. – actions or patterns of living (ex: smoking, sexual
 Dictionary definition: the state of being free activities, eating behavior).
from illness or injury.
Health from a medical professional’s perspective ENVIRONMENTAL
 A measure of the state of the physical body, –physical surroundings
and the ability of the body to function.
 Freedom from medically defined diseases. SOCIOECONOMIC
Definition from WHO (1948) – aspect of society ex: poverty, early life
 A state of complete physical, mental, and experiences, social network etc.
social well-being and not merely the absence
of disease or infirmity. EDUCATION
 Socially and economically productive life.  Coined from 2 Latin words: ‘educare’ – to
train/to mold; ‘educere’ – to lead out
DIMENSION OF HEALTH  Process of facilitating learning, acquisition of
PHYSICAL HEALTH knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits.
– ability to perform routine tasks without any  May involve teaching, training, storytelling,
physical restriction. discussion, and directed research.
MENTAL HEALTH
– ability to learn and think clearly and coherently. HEALTH EDUCATION
o “Consciously constructed opportunities for
EMOTIONAL HEALTH
learning involving some form of communication
– ability to express emotions in the appropriate designed to improve health literacy, including
way; ability to maintain one’s own integrity under improving knowledge, and developing life skills,
stressful situations. which are conducive to individual and community
SOCIAL HEALTH health.” – WHO
– ability to form meaningful relationships with o A process that bridges the gap between health
information and health practices (The President’s
other people and interact in a positive way.
Committee on Health Education, 1973).
SPIRITUAL HEALTH
o A process of bringing about behavioral changes in
– relates health to personal values, beliefs, individuals, groups, and larger populations from
principles, and ways of living. behaviors that are presumed to be detrimental to
health, to behaviors that are conducive to present
DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH and future health (Simmonds, 1976).
Factors that could affect health. o Any combination of learning experiences designed
to facilitate voluntary adaptations of behavior
conducive to health (Green et al., 1983).
 INTRODUCTION TO HEALTH EDUCATION
o The process of assisting individuals, acting  Schools – health teaching
separately or collectively, to make informed  Communities - population
decisions about matters affecting their personal  Workplaces - workers
health and that of others (National Task Force on
the Preparation and Practice of Health Educators,
PRINCIPLES IN HEALTH EDUCATION
1983).
1. Health education is the combination of
Keywords to Remember in Health Education
planned social actions and learning
Process – series of learning experiences
Combination – there’s no single best method; we experiences designed to enable people to gain
need combinations of methods, methodologies in control over the determinants of health and
health behaviors, and the conditions that
order to acquire our goals to lead out people.
affect their health status and of others.
Designed – it should be a planned process.
2. In whatever setting it occurs, health education
Facilitates – emphasizes the educator learning
is an interactive process in which the target
relationship.
populations are active participants.
Voluntary – not manipulated
Behavior – our target outcome. 3. To ensure that the needs and interests of the
target population remain central, members of
the target population must be involved in the
CATEGORIES OF HEALTH BEHAVIOR
(Kasl and Cobb, 1965) planning process.
4. Good health education planning assumes that
PREVENT HEALTH BEHAVIOR
an intervention strategy should be uniquely
– any activity undertaken by any individual who
tailored to address the circumstances of a
believes himself to be healthy for the purpose of
given population, person, and situation.
preventing or detecting illness in an asymptomatic
5. Health education should not only consider the
state.
current health challenges but the emerging
- Action taken when a person wants to avoid being
health challenges in the future as well.
ill.
6. Health education must be planned and
ILLNESS BEHAVIOR
delivered not only by the health educator but
– any activity undertaken by any individual who by all people in all sectors and levels of society.
feels to be ill; to define the state of his health and to 7. Research shows that exposure to an
discover suitable remedy. appropriately planned health education
Action taken when a person recognizes signs and programs yield results.
symptoms that suggesting pending illness. 8. In whatever setting, health education has been
SICK-ROLE BEHAVIOR successful only when there is financial,
– any activity undertaken by an individual who political, and management support, specific
considers himself to be ill for the purpose of getting targets, careful planning, monitoring and
well; involves a whole range of dependent behaviors evaluation, intersectoral collaboration,
and leads to some degree of neglect of one’s usual application of multiple theories and methods,
duties. participant involvement, and qualified
Action taken once an individual has been diagnosed personnel.
an illness. 9. Health education should work within the
MAJOR SETTINGS OF HEALTH EDUCATION frames of three principal strategies: ADVOCACY,
 Home – family members EMPOWERMENT, and SOCIAL SUPPORT.
 Healthcare settings - hospitals
 Principles and Strategies of Teaching in Medical Laboratory Science
Cherries V. Sanchez, RMT, MSMT Term01

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING - relationship or relation between people
1. Teachers' knowledge of the subject matter is  Teaching/ Evaluation practices
essential to the implementation of - feedbacks
important teaching tasks.  Availability to students
2. Active involvement of the learner enhances PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCE
learning. ASPECTS:
3. Interaction between teachers and students  Aims at excellence develops thorough
is the most important factor in student knowledge of subject matter and polishes skills
motivation and involvement. throughout his or her career.
4. Students benefit from taking responsibility  Expands and maintains through reading
for their learning. research, clinical practices, and continuing
5. There are many roads to learning. education.
6. Expect more and you will achieve more. - once you become a teacher or health
7. Learning is enhanced in an atmosphere of professional, you’re forever students since
cooperation. you need to study continuously to gain
8. Material must be meaningful. more knowledge
9. Both teaching and learning are enhanced by  Learners need to know that they can trust the
descriptive feedback. clinical expertise of the health professional.
10. Critical feedback is only useful if the learner  Portrays excellent clinical skills, judgment, and
has alternatives to pursue. honesty becomes a positive role model for
learners.
ROLES, FUNCTIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A
HEALTH PROFESSIONAL IN EDUCATION INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP
This skill is demonstrated by:
ROLES OF A TEACHER  Taking interest in learners
 Manager  Being sensitive to their feelings and problems
 Counsellor  Conveying respect for them
 Motivator  Alleviating their anxieties
 Leader  Being accessible for conferences
 Model  Being fair
 Public Relations Specialist  Permitting learners to express differing point
 Parent-Surrogate of view
 Facilitator  Creating an atmosphere in which they feel free
 Instructor to ask questions
 Conveying sense of warmth
HALLMARK OF GOOD TEACHING
 Professional competence TEACHING/EVALUATION PRACTICES
- Ability and capabilities of teacher  Jacob (1966) defined teaching practices as the
 Interpersonal relationship mechanics, methods and skills in classroom
and clinical teaching.
 PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

 Teaching subject matter in a stimulating way HEALTH PROMOTION

and inspiring learner interest hinge on several The process of enabling people to increase control
factors such as: over, and to improve, their health.
o Teacher’s style
o Personality HEALTH LITERACY
o Personal interest on the subject “The degree to which people are able to access,
o Use of variety of teaching strategies understand, appraise and communicate information
to engage with the demands of different health
AVAILABILITY TO STUDENTS contexts in order to promote and maintain good
 Allied health science students, expect the health across the life-course.” -WHO
instructor to be available to them when
needed. It’s all about EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
 This may take the form of being there in the ff: It has to be presented in a way that is
o Stressful clinical situations understandable to most people.
o Physically helping students
o Giving appropriate amounts of CHARACTERISTICS OF HEALTH PROFESSIONALS
supervision  Good communicators
o Freely answering questions  Altruistic
o Acting as a resource person during  Have a strong sense of service
clinical learning experiences - Have the eagerness and passion to your
work
PROFESSIONAL ATTRIBUTES  Motivated by a strong sense of professionalism
 Passion
 Humor 7 MAJOR RESPONSIBILITIES OF HEALTH
 Values and Attitude EDUCATORS
 Patience Made by National Commission for Health
 Enthusiasm Education Credentialing (NCHEC) late 1980s
 Commitment

HEALTH EDUCATORS
A professionally prepared individual who serves in
a variety of roles and is specifically trained to use
appropriate educational strategies and methods to
facilitate the development of policies, procedures, RESPONSIBILITY 1
interventions, and systems conducive to the health Assessing individual and community needs for
of individuals, groups, and communities health education
- Joint Committee on Terminology, 2001  Obtain health-related data about social and
cultural environments, growth and
GOALS OF HEALTH EDUCATION development factors, needs and interests.
 Health promotion and disease prevention. - Getting valid sources of information to
 Early diagnosis and management. acquire the data needed in the community
 Utilization of available health services.  Distinguish between behavior that fosters and
that which hinders well- being.
 PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

 Infer needs for health education on the basis of  Infer implications from findings for future
obtained data. programme planning.
- In order to prioritize the problems that need  Evaluation of the program or simply a review.
immediate solution.
RESPONSIBILITY 5
 Determine the needs or problem of the
community. Coordinating provision of health education
services
RESPONSIBILITY 2  Develop a plan for coordinating health
education services.
Planning effective health education programmes
 Facilitate cooperation between and among
 Recruit community organizations, resource
levels of programme personnel.
people and potential participants for support
 Formulate practical modes of collaboration
and assistance in programme planning.
among health agencies and organizations.
- Acquiring help from others
 Organize in-service training programmes for
 Develop a logical scope and sequence plan for a
teachers, volunteers and other interested
health education programme.
personnel.
 Formulate appropriate and measurable
programme objectives.
RESPONSIBILITY 6
 Design educational programmes consistent with
specified programme objectives. Acting as a resource person in health education
- Must be achievable.  Use computerized health information retrieval
 Plan effective program about the problem systems effectively.
 Establish effective consultative relationships
RESPONSIBILITY 3 with those requesting assistance in solving
Implementing health education programmes health-related problems.
 Exhibit competence in carrying out planned  Interpret and respond to requests for health
educational programmes. information.
 Infer enabling objectives as needed to  Select effective educational resources materials
implement instructional programmes in for dissemination.
specified settings.  The sources of data must be reliable.
 Select methods and media best suited to
RESPONSIBILITY
implement programme plans for specific
learners. Communicating health and health education
 Monitor educational programmes, adjusting needs, concerns and resources
objectives and activities as necessary.  Interpret concepts, purposes and theories of
 Implementing programs or taking action health education.
 Predict the impact of societal value systems on
RESPONSIBILITY 4 health education programmes.
Evaluating the effectiveness of health education  Select a range of communication methods and
programmes techniques in providing health information.
 Develop plans to assess achievement of  Foster communication between health care
programme objectives. providers and consumers.
 Carry out evaluation plans.
 Interpret results of programme evaluation.
 Principles and Strategies of Teaching in Medical Laboratory Science
Cherries V. Sanchez, RMT, MSMT Term01

LEARNING PROCESS
ELEMENTS OF HEALTH EDUCATION INTERPRETATION
 The way the learner perceives things or
interprets the situation, and is influenced by her
background
 He/she may accept or reject a health
message/practice depending on his/her own
interpretation.

First is the source or the agent of change or the one

RESPONSE
giving health message. Next, the target or learners
The person will act according to what he/she
of change. The target of change has different
perceives and expects to bring him/her the best
learning outcomes. Not all of them have the same
results.
learning styles because anyone learns differently.
CONSEQUENCES
LEARNING ELEMENTS
The result of the response will either be a
confirmation or a contradiction of his/her
expectations.

REACTION TO THWARTING
 If consequence is unfavorable or not consistent
with the expectations, he/she could either
explore other alternatives which could either
lead to the target behavior change or
completely give up.
 The learner may also try to experiment with
GOAL other behaviors which would confirm his/her
Target behavior change that is relevant to the needs expectations.
and concerns of the person
MAJOR LEARNING THEORIES
READINESS  Behaviorist Theories
Person must be physically, mentally, and  Cognitive Theories
emotionally prepared to handle the change in  Social Learning Theories
behavior.
BEHAVIORIST THEORIES
SITUATION  Association theories
Must provide the learner with viable alternatives, a  Learning results from the association
condition where the person can make a choice that between stimuli and responses.
would allow him/her to think and evaluate his/her - Stimulus refers to something that
options causes action/ activity
 LEARNING PROCESS

 “Teacher-agent” plays an important role in Thorndike’s Laws

controlling the stimuli and in rewarding or  Law of Readiness
punishing the responses and reinforcement of - implies the degree of
the responses is based on the desired behavior preparedness and
set by the “teacher agent”. eagerness to learn
 Conditioning  Law of Exercise
- learning by repetition
BEHAVIORIST THEORISTS  Law of Effect
Theorists: - it’s either a positive
 John Watson feedback (reward) or a
- Founder of Behaviorism punishment
 Ivan Pavlov
 Burrhus Frederic Skinner Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
 Edward Thorndike
 Edwin Guthrie

Classical Conditioning Theory

 Respondent Conditioning
 Neutral stimulus is able to evoke a response States that conditioning follows when a response is
because it has been paired with another followed by reinforcing stimulus. When the rat
stimulus (that originally elicited a response). presses the positive button, it gains a reward while
- There are non-conditional stimulus and pushing the other button will result to punishment.
conditional stimulus
 Major theorist in this theory - Ivan Pavlov Contiguity theory
 Based on the work of Edwin Guthrie
 It proposes that any stimulus and response
connected in time and/or space will tend to be
associated.

COGNITIVE THEORIES
 Deals with the processes involved in the creation
of responses and development of insights.
 Focuses on the different views of the nature of
knowledge.
Operant Conditioning Theory
 Instrumental conditioning
 Consequence of any given behavior modifies the
degree to which that behavior is likely to occur.
- There is a positive and negative result.
 LEARNING PROCESS

Tolman’s Cognitive Mapping LEARNING STYLES MODELS

 Edward Tolman  Kolb’s theory of experimental learning
 He investigate latent  Gregorc cognitive style model
learning in rats  Field independence model
 Rats actively process  Dependence model
information rather than
operating on a stimulus Kolb’s theory of Experiential Learning
response relationship.  Four-stage cycle (4 Abilities)
 He stated that environmental factors can affect o Concrete Experience: learning from
the learning of rats. actual experience
o Reflective Observation: learning by
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
observing others
 Albert Bandura o Abstract Conceptualization: creating
 Vicarious learning – learning theories to explain what is seen
by observing events, people, o Active Experimentation: using theories
or situations in the social to solve problems.
environment.
 Mediating processes occur
between stimuli & responses.
 Behavior is learned from the environment
through the process of observational learning.

Kolb’s Learning Styles

 Converger
LEARNING STYLES
- learned by AC and AE
 How learners gather, sift through, interpret,
 Diverger
organize, come to conclusions about, and
- Learned by CE and RO
“store” information for further use.
 Accomodator
 VARK
- Learned by AE and CE
o Visual
 Assimilator
o Aural
- Learned by RO and AC
o Reading/Writing
o Kinesthetic
Gregorc Cognitive Style Model
LEARNING STYLES AND STRATEGIES  Hypothesized that the mind has the mediation
 Active and Reflective Learners abilities of perception and ordering: that is the
 Sensing and Intuitive Learners perception and ordering of knowledge affects
 Visual and Verbal Learners how the person learns.
 Sequential and Global Learners
 LEARNING PROCESS

 Mediation Channels:  They do not want to be subjected in any form of

1. Concrete Sequential (CS) humiliation and wish that their personal dignity
2. Concrete Random (CR) be upheld by their facilitators and learners.
3. Abstract Sequential (AS)  They want not be given the chance to express
4. Abstract Random (AR) themselves freely within reasonable
boundaries.
 Physical environment should likewise reflect the
“adultness” of the situation.
METHOD
 Adults learn in a variety of ways and that “formal
schooling” is usually the least effective methods.
 There is a need to provide real learning
Field Independence and Dependence model
situations or those which closely resemble them
(ideal if the actual setting such as home,
community, or workplace be recreated).
 It is advantageous to engage the adult learners
in practical activities which they can relate with.

PEOPLE
 Each person has the ability to learn,
regardless of age, sex, or environmental
ADULT LEARNING conditions.
 How do adult people learn? - It is up to the person’s willingness to
 Important aspects: learn
o Content  It is a matter of motivating the learners to
o Learning situation engage them in an interactive process.
o Method  Identifying learner’s motivation and using
o People them skillfully could enhance their
CONTENT participation, and could lead to effective
 As adult learners move from one period of life to learning.
another, so do their developmental goals and - There should be a collaboration between
tasks. students and teachers. Both side should
 Content areas which interest them respond to exert effort to achieve the learning goal.
their needs, desires, and problems.
 They search answers to the concerns in the
here-and-now and learn very quickly about
things which are relevant to and meaningful in
their lives
LEARNING SITUATION
 Adult learners would like to be treated with
respect at all times.
 Principles and Strategies of Teaching in Medical Laboratory Science
Cherries V. Sanchez, RMT, MSMT Term01

LEARNING STYLES AND STRATEGIES

Richard M. Felder
Hoechst Celanese Professor of Chemical Engineering
North Carolina State University

Barbara A. Soloman
Coordinator of Advising, First Year College
North Carolina State University

ACTIVE AND REFLECTIVE LEARNERS be asked on the next test and figure out how you
 Active learners tend to retain and understand will answer. You will always retain information
information best by doing something active better if you find ways to do something with it.
with it—discussing or applying it or explaining
it to others. Reflective learners prefer to think How can reflective learners help themselves?
about it quietly first. If you are a reflective learner in a class that allows
 “Let’s try it out and see how it works” is an little or not class time for thinking about new
active learner’s phrase; “Let’s think it through information, you should try to compensate for this
first” is the reflective learner’s response. lack when you study. Don’t simply read or memorize
 Active learners tend to like group work more the material; stop periodically to review what you
than reflective learners, who prefer working have read and to think of possible questions or
alone. applications. You might find it helpful to write short
 Sitting through lectures without getting to do summaries of readings or class notes in your own
anything physical but take notes is hard for words. Doing so may take extra time but will enable
both learning types, but particularly hard for you to retain the material more effectively.
active learners.
SENSING AND INTUITIVE LEARNERS
Everybody is active sometimes and reflective  Sensing learners tend to like learning facts,
sometimes. Your preference for one category or the intuitive learners often prefer discovering
other may be strong, moderate, or mild. A balance possibilities and relationships.
of the two is desirable. If you always act before  Sensors often like solving problems by well-
reflecting you can jump into things prematurely and established methods and dislike complications
get into trouble, while if you spend too much time and surprises; intuitors like innovation and
reflecting you may never get anything done. dislike repetition. Sensors are more likely than
intuitors to resent being tested on material
How can active learners help themselves? that has not been explicitly covered in class.
If you are an active learner in a class that allows little  Sensors tend to be patient with details and
or no class time for discussion or problem-solving good at memorizing facts and doing hands-on
activities, you should try to compensate for these (laboratory) work; intuitors may be better at
lacks when you study. Study in a group in which the grasping new concepts and are often more
members take turns explaining different topics to comfortable than sensors with abstractions
each other. Work with others to guess what you will and mathematical formulations.
 LEARNING STYLES AND STRATEGIES

 Sensors tend to be more practical and careful impatient with details and don’t like repetition (as in
than intuitors; intuitors tend to work faster and checking your completed solutions). Take time to
to be more innovative than sensors. read the entire question before you start answering
 Sensors don’t like courses that have no and be sure to check your results.
apparent connection to the real world;
intuitors don’t like “plug-and-chug” courses VISUAL AND VERBAL LEARNERS
that involve a lot of memorization and routine Visual learners remember best what they see—
calculations. pictures, diagrams, flow charts, time lines, films, and
demonstrations. Verbal learners get more out of
Everybody is sensing sometimes and intuitive words—written and spoken explanations. Everyone
sometimes. Your preference for one or the other learns more when information is presented both
may be strong, moderate, or mild. To be effective as visually and verbally.
a learner and problem solver, you need to be able to
function both ways. If you overemphasize intuition, In most college classes very little visual information
you may miss important details or make careless is presented: students mainly listen to lectures and
mistakes in calculations or hands-on work; if you read material written on chalkboards and in
overemphasize sensing, you may rely too much on textbooks and handouts. Unfortunately, most
memorization and familiar methods and not people are visual learners, which means that most
concentrate enough on understanding and students do not get nearly as much as they would if
innovative thinking. more visual presentation were used in class. Good
learners are capable of processing information
How can sensing learners help themselves? presented either visually or verbally.
Sensors remember and understand information
best if they can see how it connects to the real How can visual learners help themselves?
world. If you are in a class where most of the If you are a visual learner, try to find diagrams,
material is abstract and theoretical, you may have sketches, schematics, photographs, flow charts, or
difficulty. Ask your instructor for specific examples any other visual representation of course material
of concepts and procedures, and find out how the that is predominantly verbal. Ask your instructor,
concepts apply in practice. If the teacher does not consult reference books, and see if any videotapes
provide enough specifics, try to find some in your or CD-ROM displays of the course material are
course text or other references or by brainstorming available. Prepare a concept map by listing key
with friends or classmates. points, enclosing them in boxes or circles, and
drawing lines with arrows between concepts to
How can intuitive learners help themselves? show connections. Color- code your notes with a
Many college lecture classes are aimed at intuitors. highlighter so that everything relating to one topic
However, if you are an intuitor and you happen to is the same color.
be in a class that deals primarily with memorization
and rote substitution in formulas, you may have How can verbal learners help themselves?
trouble with boredom. Ask your instructor for Write summaries or outlines of course material in
interpretations or theories that link the facts, or try your own words. Working in groups can be
to find the connections yourself. You may also be particularly effective: you gain understanding of
prone to careless mistakes on test because you are
 LEARNING STYLES AND STRATEGIES

material by hearing classmates’ explanations and following and remembering. Ask the instructor to fill
you learn even more when you do the explaining. in the skipped steps, or fill them in yourself by
consulting references. When you are studying, take
SEQUENTIAL AND GLOBAL LEARNERS the time to outline the lecture material for yourself
 Sequential learners tend to gain understanding in logical order. In the long run doing so will save you
in linear steps, with each step following time. You might also try to strengthen your global
logically from the previous one. Global learners thinking skills by relating each new topic you study
tend to learn in large jumps, absorbing material to things you already know. The more you can do so,
almost randomly without seeing connections, the deeper your understanding of the topic is likely
and then suddenly “getting it.” to be.
 Sequential learners tend to follow logical
stepwise paths in finding solutions; global How can global learners help themselves?
learners may be able to solve complex If you are a global learner, just recognizing that you
problems quickly or put things together in aren’t slow or stupid but simply function differently
novel ways once they have grasped the big from most of your classmates can help a great deal.4
picture, but they may have difficulty explaining However, there are some steps you can take that
how they did it. may help you get the big picture more quickly.
Before you begin to study the first section of a
Many people who read this description may chapter in a text, skim through the entire chapter to
conclude incorrectly that they are global, since get an overview. Doing so may be time-consuming
everyone has experienced bewilderment followed initially but it may save you from going over and
by a sudden flash of understanding. What makes over individual parts later. Instead of spending a
you global or not is what happens before the light short time on every subject every night, you might
bulb goes on. Sequential learners may not fully find it more productive to immerse yourself in
understand the material but they can nevertheless individual subjects for large blocks. Try to relate the
do something with it (like solve the homework subject to things you already know, either by asking
problems or pass the test) since the pieces they the instructor to help you see connections or by
have absorbed are logically connected. Strongly consulting references. Above all, don’t lose faith in
global learners who lack good sequential thinking yourself; you will eventually understand the new
abilities, on the other hand, may have serious material, and once you do your understanding of
difficulties until they have the big picture. Even after how it connects to other topics and disciplines may
they have it, they may be fuzzy about the details of enable you to apply it in ways that most sequential
the subject, while sequential learners may know a thinkers would never dream of.
lot about specific aspects of a subject but may have
trouble relating them to different aspects of the
same subject or to different subjects.

How can sequential learners help themselves?

Most college courses are taught in a sequential
manner. However, if you are a sequential learner
and you have an instructor who jumps around from
topic to topic or skips steps, you may have difficulty
 Principles and Strategies of Teaching in Medical Laboratory Science
Cherries V. Sanchez, RMT, MSMT Term01

CLINICAL TEACHING & STRATEGIES IN HEALTH EDUCATION AND PROMOTION

In preparation of professional practice, the clinical setting is Guidelines for selection of Clinical Teaching
the place where the students come in contact with patient for Methods
the purpose of testing theories and learning skill
 Must be appropriate to objectives and desired
behavioral changes.
WHAT IS CLINICAL TEACHING?
 Must be in accordance with principles of
 A form of interpersonal communication between a
teacher and learner learning.
- MedTech, Section Head, Pathologist, Intern  Must be in accordance with the capacity of the
 An exchange between student and teacher outside student.
of traditional didactic scope  Must be in accordance with availability of
- University - Hospital setting resources.
 Involves a patient scenario  Must be in accordance with the teacher’s ability
 A student learns how to evaluate a patient to use it effectively and creatively.
 Integrates past didactic learning, laboratory values,
physical exam, patient needs, patient questions DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
 Uses subjective, objective data to make an CLASSOOM & CLINICAL TEACHING
assessment
PURPOSE OF CLINICAL TEACHING Classroom Teaching Clinical Teaching
 To develop communication skills and maintain  Large group  Small group
 No focus on patient  Focus on patient
interpersonal relationship
 Knowledge  Application of
 To develop cognitive, affective and psychomotor  Theoretical Knowledge
skills Framework  Clinical reasoning
 To provide individualized care in a systematic,  Teacher/students  Teacher/students
holistic approach ratio is large ratio is small
 To develop high technical competent skills  Passive students  Active students
 Less interactive  More interactive
 To practice various procedure
 To collect and analyze the data
FACTORS INFLUENCING CLINICAL TEACHING
 To learn various diagnostic procedures
 Group interaction skills
 To learn various skill in giving health education
 Clinical supervision skills
technique to the client
 Clinical competence and professionalism
 To develop proficiency and efficiency in carrying
 Knowledge and analytical ability
out various procedure
 Organization and clarity of presentation
PRINCIPLES OF CLINICAL TEACHING
 Enthusiasm and stimulation of interest
 Clinical education should reflect the nature of
professional practice
- adapt to your setup/environment
Clinical educators understand that students on the
journey of becoming entry level professionals must
 Clinical teaching is supported by climate of
mutual trust and respect learn far more than what appears on the mandatory
competency check list.
 Clinical teaching and learning should focus on
essential knowledge, skill and attitude
 CLINICAL TEACHING & STRATEGIES IN HEALTH EDUCATION AND PROMOTION
STRATEGIES IN HEALTH EDUCATION AND PROMOTION
INTRODUCTION
 Health professionals implementing health
education and promotion must make decisions
about which methods to use in bringing about
change.
- Target outcome
 Strategies: broad-based or narrow-focused
 Health education and promotion practices are
influenced by the following dichotomies:
o Emphasis on environment vs. individual
ACCORDING TO TARGET FACTORS
change
o Emphasis on high-risk individuals vs. the Using the PRECEDE (Predisposing, Reinforcing,
whole population where risk is evened out Enabling, Construct in(causes in?), Educational,
Diagnosis, Evaluation) model, health promotion
Selection of Strategies and Methods in Health strategies can be categorized to the following target
Education and Promotion factors:
The following factors must be considered: 1. Communication – targeting the predisposing
1. Objective of the intervention factors
- Investigate/assess individuals/population - Knowledge, confidence, motivation,
2. Characteristics and needs of the target group behavior change (e.g. attitude, values,
3. Resources beliefs)
2. Training – targeting enabling factors
CLASSIFICATION OF HEALTH EDUCATION AND - Connected to environment and personal
PROMOTION STRATEGIES factors; accessibility, availability,
ACCORDING TO FOCUS affordability (e.g. skills, money, time,
 Focus on the Individual facilities)
 Focus on Groups (e.g. diabetic, smokers) 3. Social mobilization – targeting environmental
and reinforcing factors
 Focus on Whole Populations (broad-based)
- Positive and negative feedback; reminders
and support factors (e.g. peer support,
USE OF BEHAVIOR CHANGE THEORIES
family support)
• Transtheoretical Model (TTM)
Stages of Description Strategies
OTTAWA CHARTER
change
The person has no Create  A document that was made on First
Precontemplation
(not ready)
intention to change awareness International Conference in Health
behavior and interest Promotion in Ottawa, Canada.
Contemplation The person is now Change
(getting ready) thinking of change. values  Includes the 3 Basic Strategies for Health
The person is very Maintain promotion and Health promotion action
Preparation and
much involved in change areas
Action
changing the
(Ready)
behavior.
Maintenance The person is Main
sustaining the
change.
 CLINICAL TEACHING & STRATEGIES IN HEALTH EDUCATION AND PROMOTION
HEALTH PROMOTION ACTION AREAS 3 STRATEGIES
BUILD HEALTHY PUBLIC POLICY  Mediate
 Protects health of individuals and communities  Advocate
- Laws  Enable
 Easier to make healthy choices
 Includes the government
o Legislative
o Regulatory
o Organizational
o Taxation

CREATE SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENTS

 Increase ability of people to make healthy
choices while in those settings
Ex: Health workspaces, Links to
environment(life, work, where they live)

STRENGTHENING COMMUNITY ACTION

 Collective actions of the community to improve
their health
Ex. Community fun runs, Community
kitchens, Support organizations

DEVELOP PERSONAL SKILLS

 Supports personal and social development
 Information, education and life skills
 Positive health choices
Ex: Online education programs, Teaching
materials(online websites: WHO, CDC),
Health classes

REORIENTING HEALTH SERVICES

 Traditionally medically focused individual
curative and treatment needs
o Strengthen protective factors
o Reducing risk factors
o Improve health determinants
 Ex. Stop smoking program, Health educator
roles, Improving access to health services
 Principles and Strategies of Teaching in Medical Laboratory Science
Cherries V. Sanchez, RMT, MSMT Term01

TEACHING PROCESS
TEACHING PROCESS 3. A NO–THREATENING ATMOSPHERE ENHANCES
Process of importing; relaying/transmitting LEARNING
knowledge and skills from a teacher to a learner. - Learning environment
 Planning - If there’s a teaching, there’s also a
 Implementation learning
 Evaluation 4. EMOTIONS HAS THE POWER TO INCREASE
 Revision - feedback RETENTION AND LEARNING.
- If you give lot of emotions while reading
PLANNING or studying
 Setting goals for teaching from the entire 5. LEARNING IS MEANINGFUL WHEN IT IS
term to a single class CONNECTED TO STUDENTS’ EVERYDAY LIFE.
 Syllabus(blueprint of the entire term; 6. GOOD TEACHING GOES BEYOND RECALL OF
objectives, learning outcomes, topics, INFORMATION.
teaching methods, reference) & Lesson - Analogies
plan(single class; list of contents) 7. AN INTEGRATED TEACHING APPROACH IS FAR
 Overall task of helping your students learn MORE EFFECTIVE THAN TEACHING ISOLATED
 You should have more specific day-to-day BITS OF INFORMATION.
goals
CLASS PLANNING
SELECTION AND USE OF TEACHING STRATEGIES  To meet curricular objectives.
1. LEARNING IS AN ACTIVE PROCESS.  To meet individual student learning needs.
It means that we have to actively engage the
learners in learning activities if we want them to What methods should I use in the classroom?
learn what we intend to teach. Before entering the class, you need to prepare a lot.
As the saying goes: You need to formulate objectives, organize and
What I hear, I forget select contents to discuss and prepare assessments.
What I see, I remember You need to choose appropriate teaching method
What I do, I understand depending on the topic.

2. THE MORE SENSES THAT ARE INVOLVED IN How can I keep learners interested and make sure
LEARNING, THE MORE AND THE BETTER THE they learn?
LEARNING. This can also depend on the student. If you have a
will, there’s a way. Endure the process.
 TEACHING PROCESS

THE PLANNING SEQUENCE BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

• Formulate objectives EVALUATION

SYNTHESIS
• Select and organize content ANALYSIS
• Choose teaching methods APPLICATION

• Design assignment/evaluation COMPREHENSION

KNOWLEDGE

PLANNIG YOUR CLASS

 Developing a course outline  Knowledge
- Topics & subtopics More on recall, remembering basic knowledge.
 Formulating objectives  Knowledge of terminology and
 Selecting content conventions, trends and sequences,
 Selecting teaching methods classifications and categories, criteria
 Choosing the textbook and methodologies, principles, theories,
- Internet: should be from reliable sources and structures
 Conducting the class  Comprehension
Understanding; explain the idea/concepts
FORMULATING OBJECTIVES  Relates to translation, interpretation,
Good Objective must be: SMART and extrapolation
 Specific  Application
 Measurable Used the information in a particular situation
 Achievable  Use of abstractions in particular
 Realistic situations
 Time-bound  Analysis
TAXONOMY OBJECTIVES Analysing; distinguish diff. aspects; comparing
 Relates to breaking a whole into parts
 Developed by Benjamin Bloom (Bloom’s
Taxonomy).  Synthesis
Creating your own new ideas/point of view
 Recommend specific verbs to use when writing
 Putting parts together in a new form
learning objectives so that the objectives can be
such as a unique communication, a plan
measured.
of operation, and a set of abstract
 3 learning domains:
relations
1. Cognitive (knowing; thinking)
 Evaluation
2. Psychomotor (doing)
Justify your own point/decision
3. Affective (feeling, valuing)
 Judging in terms of internal evidence or
COGNITIVE DOMAIN
logical consistency with facts developed
 Objectives that deal with recall or recognition of
elsewhere
knowledge and the development of intellectual
abilities and skills.
 Learning in this aspect refers to the mental
processes like memorization and ability to think,
analyze, and solve problems.
 Bloom’s Taxonomy – nouns
 Anderson’s Taxonomy – revised: verbs
 TEACHING PROCESS

WORDING OF OBJECTIVES
• Behavioral Verbs Useful for Writing Objectives
COGNITIVE DOMAIN
Knowledge Define, delineate, describe,
identify, list, name, state
Comprehension Classify, discuss, estimate, explain,
rephrase, summarize
Application Adjust, apply, compute,
demonstrate, generate, prove
Analysis Analyze, compare, contrast,
critique, defend, evaluate, judge PSYCHOMOTOR/SKILLS DOMAIN
Synthesis Create, develop, propose, suggest,  Objectives that deal with physical and
write kinesthetic skills.
Evaluation Assess, choose, conclude,  Characterized by progressive levels of behaviors
defend, evaluate, judge from observation to mastery of a physical skills
 Behavioral Verbs Useful for Writing Objectives
ANDERSON’S TAXONOMY
CREATING
EVALUATING
ANALYSING
AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
APPLYING
Those that deal with the development of attributes
UNDERSTANDING
like genuine interest, desirable attitudes, values,
REMEMBERING
and commitment as expected learning outcomes.
DEFINITION VERBS
Remembering: Define, duplicate, memorize,
Can the student recall or recall, repeat, reproduce,
remember the information? state

Understanding: Classify, describe, discuss, SELECTING CONTENT

Can the student explain ideas explain, identify, locate,
 Select and organize contents
or concepts? recognize, report, select,
translate, paraphrase  As prescribed by the curriculum
Applying: Choose, demonstrate,  Instructor’s discretion
Can the student use the dramatize, employ, illustrate,
information in a new way? interpret, operate, schedule, o How much information should you include?
sketch, solve, use, write o Into how much detail should you go?
Analysing: Appraise, compare, contrast,
Can the student distinguish criticize, differentiate,  Considerations:
between different parts? discriminate, distinguish, o Time devoted for the topic
examine, experiment,
question,
o Background of the students
test - Prerequisite courses (anaphy, biochem)
Evaluating: Argue, defend, judge, select, o Textbook
Can the student justify a stand support, value, evaluate
or decision? - references

Creating: Assemble, construct, create,

Can the student create new design, develop, formulate, SELECTING TEACHING METHODS
product or point of view? write Factors Affecting Choice of Method:
1. Objectives and type of learning to be achieved
- How will you deliver the contents
2. Course content
 TEACHING PROCESS

3. Abilities and interests of the teacher and learner, what is learned, and how it is
learners learned
4. Number of people in the class  Assessment = Measurement + Evaluation
5. Resources of the institution

TEACHING METHODS
Traditional Teaching
 Lecture
 Discussion

Other Common Teaching:

Activity Based Teaching
 Cooperative Learning
 Simulations Why do teachers need to know about assessment?
o Simulation Exercise  To diagnose student strength and weaknesses
o Simulation Game  To monitor student progress
o Role Playing  To assign grades
o Case Study  To determine instructional effectiveness
 Problem-based Learning  To influence public perceptions of educational
 Self-Learning Modules effectiveness
 To evaluate teachers
Computer Based Teaching  To clarify instructional intentions
 Computer-assisted Instruction
 Internet TYPES OF ASSESSMENTS
 Virtual Reality Formative Assessment
 Distance learning  Pinpoints whether students have achieved the
objective of the lesson taught
IMPLEMENTATION - Per topic quizzes
Implement/conduct the class  Main purpose is to determine the gap between
the intended objective and actual students
ASSESSMENT performance
Measurement and the evaluation of your students.  Examples: Quiz, homework exercises,
 Test—a specific form of measurement assignments
 Measurement—involves systematic Summative Assessment
quantification of data; systematic in that it is  Major exams
collected in an organized manner according
 Considered as terminal assessment of learning,
to “rules”.
the main purpose of this is to give rating or
 Evaluation—places a judgment on the grades to students based on their performance
collection of data or achievement.
 Assessment—the integration of both  This provides data on what students have
quantitative and qualitative data collected achieved in a given period of time
to provide information on the nature of the
 Examples: Prelims, Midterm, Finals
 TEACHING PROCESS

Performance Assessment REVISION

 Undertaken to determine whether students can  For improvement
demonstrate their learning through  Revising your pedagogy will help your students
performance in real or simulated situations learn and keep you interested.
 Examples: Group projects, written assessments, - Pedagogy – teacher-centered; dependent
demonstrations, portfolios on the teacher
- Andragogy – student-centered; self-
TABLE OF SPECIFICATION (TOS) directed
 Test Blueprint
 Development “PLANNING IS HARD WORK, BUT THE OUTCOME
1. List content to be taught/tested IS WELL WORTH THE EFFORT”
2. Estimate amount of instructional time
3. At what level is the instruction, what level of
understanding is expected? (Bloom’s
Taxonomy)
4. How much time is there for testing, what is
appropriate for the students’ age/level?
5. As items are written, an “ideal” answer must
be developed

GRADING PRACTICES

Normative (relative of a specified group)

o Not being used in universities; Used in board
exam
o Normal Curve (a fixed percentage will get
certain grades) DON’T DO!!!
o Distribution Gap Method (Rank order
composite scores, where gaps occur, make
grade cuts) DON’T DO!!!

Competency-Based (some absolute standard set a

priori)
o Used in universities
o Fixed Percentage (Fixed percentage set a
priori)
o Content-based Method (give grade to each
component, multiply each component by
weight, then produce final grade)
 Principles and Strategies of Teaching in Medical Laboratory Science
Cherries V. Sanchez, RMT, MSMT Term01

Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion, 1986

HEALTH PROMOTION MEDIATE
Health promotion is the process of enabling people to The prerequisites and prospects for health cannot be
increase control over, and to improve, their health. To ensured by the health sector alone. More importantly,
reach a state of complete physical mental and social health promotion demands coordinated action by all
wellbeing, an individual or group must be able to identify concerned: by governments, by health and other social
and to realize aspirations, to satisfy needs, and to change and economic sectors, by nongovernmental and
or cope with the environment. Health is, therefore, seen voluntary organizations, by local authorities, by industry
as a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. and by the media. People in all walks of life are involved
Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and as individuals, families and communities. Professional
personal resources, as well as physical capacities. and social groups and health personnel have a major
Therefore, health promotion is not just the responsibility responsibility to mediate between differing interests in
of the health sector, but goes beyond healthy lifestyles society for the pursuit of health.
to wellbeing.
Health promotion strategies and programmes should be
PREREQUISITES FOR HEALTH adapted to the local needs and possibilities of individual
The fundamental conditions and resources for health are countries and regions to take into account differing
peace, shelter, education, food, income, a stable social, cultural and economic systems.
ecosystem, sustainable resources, social justice and
equity. Improvement in health requires a secure
foundation in these basic prerequisites. HEALTH PROMOTION ACTION MEANS
BUILD HEALTHY PUBLIC POLICY
ADVOCATE
Good health is a major resource for social, economic and Health promotion goes beyond health care. It puts health
personal development and an important dimension of on the agenda of policymakers in all sectors and at all
quality of life. Political, economic, social, cultural, levels, directing them to be aware of the health
environmental, behavioural and biological factors can all consequences of their decisions and to accept their
favour health or be harmful to it. Health promotion responsibilities for health.
action aims at making these conditions favourable
through Health promotion policy combines diverse but
advocacy for health. complementary approaches including legislation, fiscal
measures, taxation and organizational change. It is
ENABLE coordinated action that leads to health, income and
Health promotion focuses on achieving equity in health. social policies that foster greater equity. Joint action
Health promotion action aims at reducing differences in contributes to ensuring safer and healthier goods and
current health status and ensuring equal opportunities services, healthier public services, and cleaner, more
and resources to enable all people to achieve their fullest enjoyable environments.
health potential. This includes a secure foundation in a
supportive environment, access to information, life skills Health promotion policy requires the identification of
and opportunities for making healthy choices. People obstacles to the adoption of healthy public policies in
cannot achieve their fullest health potential unless they non-health sectors, and ways of removing them. The aim
are able to take control of those things which determine must be to make the healthier choice the easier choice
their health. This must apply equally to women and men. for policy-makers as well.
 OTTAWA CHAPTER
CREATE SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENTS DEVELOP PERSONAL SKILLS
Our societies are complex and interrelated. Health Health promotion supports personal and social
cannot be separated from other goals. The inextricable development through providing information, education
links between people and their environment constitute for health and enhancing life skills. By so doing, it
the basis for a socioecological approach to health. The increases the options available to people to exercise
overall guiding principle for the world, nations, regions more control over their own health and over their
and communities alike is the need to encourage environments, and to make choices conducive to health.
reciprocal maintenance - to take care of each other, our
communities and our natural environment. The Enabling people to learn throughout life, to prepare
conservation of natural resources throughout the world themselves for all of its stages and to cope with chronic
should be emphasized as a global responsibility. illness and injuries is essential. This has to be facilitated
in school, home, work and community settings. Action is
Changing patterns of life, work and leisure have a required through educational, professional, commercial
significant impact on health. Work and leisure should be and voluntary bodies, and within the institutions
a source of health for people. The way society organizes themselves.
work should help create a healthy society. Health
promotion generates living and working conditions that REORIENT HEALTH SERVICES
are safe, stimulating, satisfying and enjoyable. The responsibility for health promotion in health services
is shared among individuals, community groups, health
Systematic assessment of the health impact of a rapidly professionals, health service institutions and
changing environment - particularly in areas of governments. They must work together towards a health
technology, work, energy production and urbanization is care system which contributes to the pursuit of health.
essential and must be followed by action to ensure
positive benefit to the health of the public. The The role of the health sector must move increasingly in a
protection of the natural and built environments and the health promotion direction, beyond its responsibility for
conservation of natural resources must be addressed in providing clinical and curative services. Health services
any health promotion strategy. need to embrace an expanded mandate which is
sensitive and respects cultural needs. This mandate
STRENGTHEN COMMUNITY ACTION should support the needs of individuals and communities
Health promotion works through concrete and effective for a healthier life, and open channels between the
community action in setting priorities, making decisions, health sector and broader social, political, economic and
planning strategies and implementing them to achieve physical environmental components.
better health. At the heart of this process is the
empowerment of communities, their ownership and Reorienting health services also requires stronger
control of their own endeavours and destinies. attention to health research as well as changes in
professional education and training. This must lead to a
Community development draws on existing human and change of attitude and organization of health services,
material resources in the community to enhance self- which refocuses on the total needs of the individual as a
help and social support, and to develop flexible systems whole person.
for strengthening public participation and direction of
health matters. This requires full and continuous access MOVING INTO THE FUTURE
to information, learning opportunities for health, as well
Health is created and lived by people within the settings
as funding support.
of their everyday life; where they learn, work, play and
love. Health is created by caring for oneself and others,
by being able to take decisions and have control over
one's life circumstances, and by ensuring that the society
 OTTAWA CHAPTER
one lives in creates conditions that allow the attainment CALL FOR INTERNATIONAL ACTION
of health by all its members. The Conference calls on the World Health Organization
and other international organizations to advocate the
Caring, holism and ecology are essential issues in promotion of health in all appropriate forums and to
developing strategies for health promotion. Therefore, support countries in setting up strategies and
those involved should take as a guiding principle that, in programmes for health promotion.
each phase of planning, implementation and evaluation
of health promotion activities, women and men should The Conference is firmly convinced that if people in all
become equal partners. walks of life, nongovernmental and voluntary
organizations, governments, the World Health
COMMITMENT TO HEALTH PROMOTION Organization and all other bodies concerned join forces
The participants in this Conference pledge: in introducing strategies for health promotion, in line
 to move into the arena of healthy public policy, with the moral and social values that form the basis of
and to advocate a clear political commitment to this CHARTER, health for all by the year 2000 will become
health and equity in all sectors; a reality.
 to counteract the pressures towards harmful
products, resource depletion, unhealthy living
conditions and environments, and bad nutrition;
and to focus attention on public health issues
such as pollution, occupational hazards, housing
and settlements;
 to respond to the health gap within and between
societies, and to tackle the inequities in health
produced by the rules and practices of these
societies;
 to acknowledge people as the main health
resource, to support and enable them to keep
themselves, their families and friends healthy
through financial and other means, and to
accept the community as the essential voice in
matters of its health, living conditions and
wellbeing;
 to reorient health services and their resources
towards the promotion of health; and to share
power with other sectors, other disciplines and
most importantly with people themselves;
 to recognize health and its maintenance as a
major social investment and challenge; and to
address the overall ecological issue of our ways
of living.
The Conference urges all concerned to join them in their
commitment to a strong public health alliance.