CHAPTER 5

GEOMETRIC DESIGNS

BASIC CONCEPTS
The word geometry is derived from the two greek words geo(meaning
earth) and metron(meaning measure) – which means “Earth Measure”. In
ancient times, geometry was used to measure land and to build structures like
the pyramid of Giza in Egypt.

Source:https://abrilsuperinteressante.files.wordpress.com/2018/07/
578007310e216345751e7faeesfinge1.jpeg

Today geometry is used in many fields like geology, physics, medicine,

astronomy, mechanical drawings, art and design and many more. If you expect
to become an artist, a designer, a machinist, a carpenter or a tinsmith, or to
engage in a related occupation, the knowledge learned in geometry will be of
great value to you. If you expect to be a dentist or a physician, the habits of
thinking acquired in geometry will help you to make better decisions.

In the study of algebra and trigonometry you learned many facts about
squares, rectangles, triangles and circles. In geometry you will learn many more
interesting facts relating to these and other plane figures. You will also learn how
to prove these facts. In proving facts you will use a type of reasoning which you
can apply to your daily life.

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EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
Euclidean Geometry is the study of two-dimensional and three-
dimensional figures on the basis of axioms and theorems employed by the greek
mathematician Euclid. Two-dimensional Euclidean geometry is called plane
geometry and three-dimensional Euclidean is called solid geometry. Euclid is one
of the greatest among mathematicians and because of his contribution to
geometry he is often referred to as the “Father of Geometry”.

Any statement that is assumed to be true on the basis of reasoning is a

postulate or axiom. The postulates or axioms by Euclid are the foundations of
plane geometry and the five postulates of Euclid are:
1. A straight line can be formed by joining any two points.
2. Any straight line can be extended indefinitely on both sides.
3. A circle can be drawn with any center and any radius.
4. All right triangles are congruent to one another.
5. Two lines are parallel to each other, if they intersect the third line and
the interior angle between them is 180 degrees.

POINTS, LINES and PLANES

The study of geometry starts with a single point and branches out to lines
and planes and then to three dimensional objects. We will start by introducing
three basic geometric concepts namely point, line and plane.

A point is the most fundamental object in geometry. It is represented by

a dot and named by a capital letter and it has no dimension, meaning it has no
length, width or thickness but position only. A line is a series of points that
extends in two opposite directions without end. It has a length which is either
finite or infinite. It is represented by any two points on the line or by a single
lowercase letter.

Illustration:
m

A B
´
line AB or AB line m

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 In geometry, there are two subsets of lines namely line segments and
rays. A line segment is a subset of a line that has two distinct endpoints and it
can be named by naming their endpoints. Unlike a line, a line segment does’nt
extend infinitely. Rather, it is finite with measurable length. While ray is a subset
of a line extending infinitely far in one direction from a point called its origin.
Remember that rays are always named with two endpoints, the first point must
be the endpoint. The three points involved in naming a pair of opposite rays
must always lie in a straight line.

Illustration:

A B C D
´
line segment AB or AB CD
ray CD or ⃗

Points that lie on the same line are called collinear points and two lines
that meet in a single point are called intersecting lines.

A plane is flat surface extended infinitely far in all directions. It contains

an infinite number of points and lines. A plane has no definite length, width and
thickness. It is usually represented by a four-sided figure and is named by at least
three of its points that are non-collinear.

Illustration:

G
 W
S

plane GSW
Points that lie on the same plane are called coplanar points and lines that
lie on the same plane are called coplanar lines.

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EXERCISES:
1. Give some physical representations of the following (a) point, (b) line,
(c) plane, (d) perpendicular lines, (e) intersecting lines, (f) parallel planes,
and (g) a plane parallel to a line.
2. Given three non-collinear points M, G, and R. (a) how many distinct lines
can be drawn and (b) how many plane/s can be determined?
3. How many line segments does a triangle contain?
4. What kind of line is formed when a piece of cardboard is folded?
5. Given point A. Draw a line segment BC through A. How many lines can
you draw through point A.
6. Draw two intersecting planes.

ANGLES
An angle () is a geometric figure formed by two rays with a common
endpoint. The rays are called the sides of the angle and their common endpoint
is called the vertex of the angle. There are three common ways of naming an
angle: (1) by a capital letter at its vertex; (2) by three capital letters, the middle
letter being the vertex letter and the other two letters being the names of points
on the sides of the angle; and (3) by a small letter of greek letter like α,  within
the angle.

Illustration:
A

C
B, ABC or 

In geometry, angles are classified according to their degree measure.

Angles can be either acute, obtuse, right, straight or reflex. An angle whose
measure is more then 00 but less than 900 is called an acute angle. An angle
whose measure is more than 900 but less than 1800 is called an obtuse angle. An
angle whose measure is exactly 90 0 is called a right angle. An angle whose

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measure is equal to 1800 is called a straight angle and an angle whose measure
is more than 1800 but less than 3600 is a reflex angle.

TYPES OF ANGLE PAIRS

Angle pairs deals with two angles. Two angles which has a common side
is called an angle pairs. The two angles in angle pairs are related to each other.
There are different types of angle pairs, namely; complementary angles,
supplementary angles, vertical angles, adjacent angles and linear pair of angles.

Two angles are complementary angles when their sum is a right angle or
900 and two angles are supplementary angles when their sum is exactly a
straight angle or 1800, each angle is a complement or supplement of the other.

D E

500 400

A B C
Here, ABD and CBE are complementary angles while ABD and DBC are
supplementary angles.

When two angles intersect to each other, angle pairs are formed. In this
type of angles, the angles formed by two pairs of opposite rays and have a
common vertex are called vertical angles. Vertical angles are always congruent
and opposite in direction. While adjacent angles are angles that have a common
side and a common vertex.
R
S

M T

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Here, SAM and RAT are vertical angles while SAM and SAR are adjacent
angles.
The last type of angle pairs is the linear pair. A linear pair of angles is a
pair of adjacent angles formed by intersecting lines that are supplementary and
the noncommon sides are opposite rays.

C A V
Here, CAS and SAV form a linear pair of angles.

EXERCISES:
1. Given the figure.

D
A

E
B

F
C F
Name four angles of this figure that seem to be right angles. Name two
acute angles and two obtuse angles.

2. Given the triangle ABC. (a) what kind of angle is angle A? angle B? and
angle C? (b) If m A = 430 what is the supplement of angle A.
BF

CF
AF

3. Find the measure of the angle formed by the hands of a clock at 3:30.
4. One of two complementary angles is twice the other. Find the angles.
5. Find the angle which is four times as large as its complement.

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POLYGONS
The word polygon comes from two ancient Greek words: poly meaning
many, and gon, meaning angles. In  geometry, a polygon  is a closed
plane figure that is bounded by a finite number of straight line segments.  These
segments are called its sides or edges, and the points where two edges meet are
the polygon's vertices  or corners.(singular: vertex). The interior of the polygon is
sometimes called its body. Any polygon may be classified as convex polygon or
concave polygon. A polygon is called convex polygon if and only if the lines
containing the sides do not contain points in the polygon’s interior. A polygon
that is not convex is called nonconvex or concave polygon.

Illustration:
Decide whether each figure is a polygon or not. If a figure is a polygon classify
each as convex polygon or concave polygon.

A. B. C. D.

CLASSIFICATION OF POLYGONS
Polygons are named by writing their consecutive vertices in order and
polygons are primarily classified by the number of its sides.

Number of Name of Polygon Number of Number of Sides

Sides Sides
3 triangle or trigon 7 heptagon
4 quadrilateral or tetragon 8 octagon
5 pentagon 9 nonagon or enneagon
6 Hexagon 10 decagon

An n-gon is a polygon with n sides; for example, a polygon with seventeen

sides is a 17-gon. In general, a polygon with more than ten sides is called n-gon.
We often refer to such polygons simply as 11-gon, 12-gon, 13-gon and so on.
Although names exist for some polygons with more than ten sides.

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Number of Name of Polygon Number of Number of Sides
Sides Sides
11 undecagon 40 tetracontagon
12 dodecagon 50 pentacontagon
13 tridecagon 60 hexacontagon
14 tetradecagon 70 heptacontagon
15 pentadecagon 80 octacontagon
16 hexadecagon 90 enneacontagon
17 heptadecagon 100 hectogon
18 octadecagon 1,000 chiliagon
19 enneadecagon 10,000 myriagon
20 icosagon 100,000 decemyriagon
30 tricontagon 1,000,000 megagon

THEOREMS ON ANGLES OF POLYGON

Everything you need to know about a polygon doesn’t necessarily fall
within its number of sides. You may also need to find the measure and sum of
interior angles or exterior angles, the number of diagonals when working with
polygon. For this reason, it is important to consider the following theorems on
angles of polygon.

 The sum of the angle measures of an n - sided convex polygon is

180(n – 2).
 The measure of each interior angle of a regular polygon is [180(n – 2)]/n.
 The measure of each exterior angle of a regular polygon is 360/n.
 The sum of the measures of the exterior angles of a convex polygon is
3600.
 The number of diagonals of an n-sided convex polygon is [n (n-3)] / 2

EXERCISES:
1. Determine how you can slice a triangle so that the resulting pieces are
two quadrilaterals and two triangles. Use two slices. Each slice must cut
all the way through the triangle.
2. Determine how you can slice a square so that the resulting pieces are
four triangles and two squares. Use three slices. Each slice must cut all
the way through the square.

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 3. Find the measure of each interior angle and the number of diagonals of a
regular nonagon.
4. Three angles of a convex pentagon are congruent. Each of the other two
angles has a measure of four more than twice that of each of the three
angles. Find the measure of each angle.
5. The measure of an exterior angle of a regular convex polygon is 30. How
many sides does the polygon have? Name the polygon according to the
number of sides it has.

TRANSFORMATIONS
Transformation refers to the movement of figures or objects in the
rectangular coordinate plane. There are four types of transformation; namely
(1) translation, (2) rotation, (3) reflection and (4) dilation. These transformation
can be classified as rigid transformation or non-rigid transformation. Rigid
transformation is a transformation that do not change the size and shape of the
original figure, this includes translation, rotation and reflection. While non-rigid
transformation change the size but not the shape of the figure. In performing
transformation, the first figure or object you start with is called the pre-image
and the final figure is called the image .

TRANSLATION
In geometry, translation means “moving”. A translation move each point
in a given direction with a fixed distance and a given vector. The pre-image and
its image have the same size and shape, and they face in the same direction.

Note: The vector < 2, 3 > tells you to add 2 to the x values and add 3 to the y
values.

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Illustrations:

Source: https://dr282zn36sxxg.cloudfront.net/datastreams/f-d
%3A6c3a93baa48db6b287f05b8482b0af2f4c99ae57d7e02986402a6b8e%2BIMAGE_TINY
%2BIMAGE_TINY.1

Source: https://dr282zn36sxxg.cloudfront.net/datastreams/f-d
%3A353b5df3a27e11e3642d0a66c98c6387c5bb7ef6f312aa5c36d9c244%2BIMAGE_TINY
%2BIMAGE_TINY.1

Example: Triangle ABC has coordinates A(3,−1),B(6,−5) and C(−2,−2). Translate

△ABC using the vector ⟨−2, 5⟩. Determine the coordinates of △A′B′C′.
Solution: Left as an exercise

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ROTATION
Rotation means turning around the center. A rotation is a transformation
that turns a pre-image about a point called the center of rotation and the angle
called the angle of rotation.

Illustration:

Source:https://dr282zn36sxxg.cloudfront.net/datastreams/fd
%3Aa7f1ba8ada39c311e4f9e9aa6b3ac389318a62cb1199fe12d1256c1a%2BIMAGE_TINY
%2BIMAGE_TINY.1

Here, notice that the pre-image or image A is rotated about the origin and the
angle of rotation 900 clockwise direction. Common rotations about the origin are
shown below.
Center of Rotation Angle of Rotation Pre-image(Point P) Rotated Image(Point P’)
(0, 0) 900 or -2700 ( x, y ) ( –y, x )
(0, 0) 1800 or -1800 ( x, y ) (–x, –y)
(0, 0) 2700 or -900 ( x, y ) ( y, –x )

Example: Locate the rotated image P’ of point P(–2,3) described by the

following.
a) about the origin at 900 c) about the origin at 1800
0
b) about the origin at –90 d) about the origin at 2700

Solution:
a) about the origin at 900 c) about the origin at 1800

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 P(–2, 3)  P’(–3, –2) P(–2, 3)  P’(2, –3)
b) about the origin at -900 d) about the origin at 2700
P(–2, 3)  P’(3, 2) P(–2, 3)  P’(3, 2)

REFLECTION
A reflection transforms the pre-image into mirror image. An object and
its reflection image have the same shape and size, but the figure face in opposite
direction. A reflection is a transformation that takes the figure called the pre-
image and flips/reflect it across the line called the line of reflection to create a
new figure called the image.
Illustrations:

Source:https://dr282zn36sxxg.cloudfront.net/datastreams/fd
%3Aa49dccf76243c853e9570570377cde87b1cc1e0b9b71135931b86ee6%2BIMAGE_TINY
%2BIMAGE_TINY.1

Here, the pre-image ABC has been reflected across the line x = 0 or y-axis.

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 Source: https://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/images/reflection-parinacota.jpg
In the picture the mountain is reflected in the water.
By examining the coordinates of the reflected image, you can determine the line
of reflection. The common lines of reflection are the x-axis, y-axis, or the lines
x = y or y = -x and the rules of reflections are shown below

Type of Reflection Pre-image(Point P) Reflected Image(Point P’)

Reflection about the x - axis ( x, y ) ( x , –y)
Reflection about the y - axis ( x, y ) (–x , y)
Reflection about the line x = y ( x, y ) ( y , x)
Reflection about the line y = -x ( x, y ) ( –y , –x)

Example: Find the image of the point P(3, -4) that has undergone a reflection
across the following lines.
a) about x- axis d) about the line y = –x
b) about the y - axis e) about the line x = 1
c) about the line x = y f) about the line y – 2 = 0

Solution: Left as an exercise

DILATION
In geometry, two figures are said to be similar if they have the same
shape but not necessarily the same size. One way to make similar figure is by
dilating. A dilation makes an object larger or smaller meaning it is an
enlargement or reduction of the figure with a given scale factor that retains the
shape but not the size. To get the coordinates of the vertices of dilation image
multiply the coordinates of the vertices of the pre-image by a scale factor. If the
scale factor is greater than 1 it is an enlargement, if the scale factor is less than 1
but greater than 0 it is a reduction and if the scale factor is equal to 1 the pre-
image and dilation image are congruent. Most dilations in the rectangular
coordinate system use the origin(0,0) as the center of dilation. For a dilation not
at the origin just simply measure the distances.

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Illustration:

Source: http://image.tutorvista.com/content/feed/tvcs/dilation.gif

Here, the pre-image is the ABC and its image is the A’B’C’ . The dilation is an
enlargement and the center of dilation is the origin with scale factor r = 2.

Source: https://mathbitsnotebook.com/Algebra1/FunctionGraphs/DilX3.jpg

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Here, the pre-image is the quadrilateral ABCD and its image is the quadrilateral
A’B’C’D’ . The dilation is a reduction and the center of dilation is point A(–3, 6)
with scale factor r = 1/3.

Example: Given ABC with A(0, 1), B(3, –1) and C(–2, –2). Draw the pre-image
and dilation image of ABC with a center of dilation at the origin and scale factor
r= 3.
Solution:
Since the scale factor of dilation is r = 3, the new coordinates of the dilation
image are A’(0, 3), B’(9, -3) and C’(–6, -6).

Draw now the pre-image and dilation image.(Left as an exercise)

Note: For a dilation with center of dilation is not at the origin watch the
following videos.
Videos
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Yap2t_v034
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Tm8RGRZjjg
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pAsKeX6gSIM

EXERCISES:
1. In each of the following, a pre-image and a transformation are given.
Find the corresponding image point.
a) Pre-image: (3, 5); Transformation: ( x, y )  ( y, – x)
b) Pre-image: (-2, 1); Transformation: ( x, y )  ( –2x, 3y)
c) Pre-image: (4, -3); Transformation: ( x, y )  ( 5 – y, x – 3)
2. Which uppercase letters of the alphabet produce the same letter after
being rotated 1800.
3. The coordinates of the vertices of triangle MGR are M(2, 0), G(0, 2), and
R(2,–3). Find the coordinates of the vertices of the image after a
translation of <–3, 2>. Plot both the pre-image and its image using a
graphing paper.
4. What single translation accomplishes the same as the translation <5, 3>
followed by the translation <2, –1> followed by the translation<–3, –4>?
5. Point A(–2, 4) is reflected over the line x – 1= 2. Give the coordinates of
its reflection image.
6. Draw rectangle CAVS with vertices C(–3, 4), A(3, 4), V(3, –3) and S(–3, –3)
on graphing paper. Quadrilateral CAVS is rotated 90 0 clockwise about the
origin. Draw the image and give the coordinates of its vertices.

15
 7. Given the pre-image ABC with vertices A(4, 2), B(6, 8) and C(8, 4). Find
the coordinates and draw the image A’B’C’ under dilation of scale factor
r = 1/2 with center of dilation at (2, -3).
8. Give an example of reflection and dilation found in our environment.
FRACTALS
Fractal is a new branch of geometry and art. Some of us recognize
fractals only as a beautiful images or pictures used in computer backgrounds.
The term fractal was derived from the latin word fractus meaning “fragmented”
or “ broken”. The concept of fractal geometry was first used by a Polish
mathematician Prof. Benoit Mandelbrot in 1975. Benoit Mandelbrot was born in
Warsaw, Poland in November 20, 1924. A fractal is a never ending pattern. They
are created by repeating a process over and over in a loop. The following are
examples of fractals.

Source: http://mathworld.wolfram.com/images/eps-gif/Fractal1_1000.gif

A fractal known as “Endlessly Repeated Geometric Figures” is constructed

as follows.

Construction of Sierpinski Triangle

The Sierpinski Triangle is an interesting geometric construction that was
discovered by a Polish mathematician Waclaw Sierpinski and one of the simplest
fractal construction in fractal geometry.

Step 1: Draw an equilateral triangle. It serves as the original figure.

16
Step 2: Use the midpoints of each side as the vertices of a new equilateral
triangle. This leave us four new smaller congruent triangles. The area of each
triangle is exactly one-fourth of the original and the new smaller triangles are
similar to the original figure. Shade the middle triangle. We now have what we
call the shaded the motif figure.

Step 3: Observe that there are three new white triangles within the original
equilateral triangle. Using the three white triangles apply the motif figure.

17
Step 4: Notice that there are nine new white triangles within the original
equilateral triangle. Again, apply the motif figure to each of these nine white
triangles.

When we repeat the process over and over, we call each repetition as an
“iteration”. In constructing Sierpinski Triangle Step 2 would be our iteration rule.

The first six stages of the Sierpinski Triangle

Construction of Koch Snowflake

The Koch curve or Koch snowflake was developed by a Swedish mathematician
Niels Fabian Helge Von Koch. The Koch Snowflake is an example of a fractal
figure that is self-similar, meaning it looks the same on any scale.

Step 1: Similar to Sierpinski Triangle, the Koch Snowflake begins with an

equilateral triangle. It serves as the original figure.

18
Step 2: Divide each side of the equilateral triangle into three congruent line
segments. Put an equilateral triangle of side length one-third in the middle and
delete its base. See figure below.

Step 3: Notice that the new concave polygon has twelve congruent line
segments. The new figure now looks like a star. Apply Step 2 to each of these
twelve line segments.

19
In each step, the number of sides of the polygon approaches infinity and its
perimeter and area is getting higher.

The first six stages of the Koch Snowflake

20
EXERCISES:
1. Given the two figures:

a)
b)
a) If the left figure is the motif figure, what is the original figure?
b) How many motif figures are contained in the right figure?

2. Create the fractal using the following original figure and motif figure:

Original Figure Motif Figure

a)

b)

c)

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d)

e)

f)

22