REGULATIONS

Propellers must meet the requirements as laid down by the CAA/EASA. These are
published by the CAA/EASA and called Certification Specification P (CS-P). CS-P
covers all the requirements that a propeller has to meet before it can be certified by
the CAA/EASA. The specification includes:

* Materials.
* Fixed pitch and variable pitch propellers.
* Propeller systems - hydraulic, electrical and de-icing systems.
* Control and indication systems.
* Lightening strike protection.
* Overspeed and overtorque protection.
* Bird strike protection. The blade must be able to withstand the impact of a
bird at its most critical position without failure. Bird mass is specified in the
aircraft specification but must not be greater than 1.8kg.

CAAIPS CAP562 Leaflet 11-39 (was AN4 until ANs were discontinued) provides a list
of manufacturer’s propellers that are approved for use on aircraft manufactured in
the UK. The list is comprehensive quoting engine types and approved propellers
(with stated pitches and diameters).

CS-23 deals with light aircraft (commuter aircraft and general aviation aircraft) and
also states some requirements for propellers. Besides some general points it
specifies clearances between the propeller blade tip and the airframe, and the
propeller blade tip and the ground. These minimum values are:

* Tip to Ground. 18cm (7”) – nose wheeled aircraft.

23cm (9”) – tail wheeled aircraft.
Aircraft must be in horizontal take-off position (ie tail wheel well clear of the ground)
with the shock absorbers normally deflected.

In case of a flat tyre and flat shock absorber (nearest the propeller), it
must still maintain a positive clearance. If the shock absorber if of the
spring type the loading must be taken to be 1.5g.

* Tip to Structure. 2.5cm (1”) radially and 1.27cm (0.5”) longitudinally.

* Tip to Water (seaplanes and float planes) the minimum clearance is 46cm
(18”).

DEFINITIONS

-1-
Various terms will be used throughout these books to describe the operation of both
fixed pitch, adjustable and variable pitch (VP) propellers.

The terms described below should be understood and committed to memory, and
this section can also be used as a reference section during your studies. Also many of
definitions are discussed in more detail further in the text.

Accumulator. An hydraulic component used to store hydraulic fluid under pressure

and used in propeller systems to aid propeller unfeathering.

Aerodynamic Twisting Moment (ATM). This is a twisting moment caused by the

centre of pressure being forward of the pitch change axis (usually) and this causes a
moment (force x distance) which tends to turn the blade into coarse pitch
(increasing blade angle). Centrifugal Twisting Moment (CTM) and ATM act in the
same direction when the propeller is windmilling.

Aerofoil. The cross section of a wing or blade in-line with the chord line and at right
angles to the span.

Alpha Control. Used on many turbo prop aircraft. It is a throttle setting used in flight
only and controls the power of the engine with the pitch of the VP prop being
controlled automatically to give the required torque consistent with the engine
throttle setting.

Angle of Attack. The angle between the chordline of the propeller blade and the
relative airflow. Varies during flight due to rpm and forward speed. With increasing
rpm the angle increases and with increasing forward speed the angle decreases. Can
also be varied on a VP propeller and a two position propeller. The ideal angle for a
blade segment is between 2° to 4°.

Anti-icing System. A system to help prevent icing on propellers and propeller hubs
(and on other parts of the airframe).

Automatic propeller. A propeller which changes blade angles in response to

operational forces and is not controlled from the cockpit. Sometimes called an
Aeromatic Propeller.

Asymmetric. Not symmetric. Most blade aerofoils are asymmetric (though not all).
That is, the top surface (blade back) being more curved than the bottom (blade face)
surface.

Asymmetric Thrust. See p Factor.

-2-
Fig. 2 PROPELLER TERMS 1

Auto Feathering System. A system that automatically feathers the propeller

should the engine fail at high power settings. It is activated by a low torque signal
from
the engine torque meter system. See the book in this series entitled Engine
Instrumentation.

Back. See Blade Back.

Beta (β) or Blade Angle Control. On some gas turbine engines a form of control
known as Beta or Blade Angle Control is used for ground operations. This may be
applied to either single or double acting propellers. With this system, the throttles
operate in a gated quadrant and the Beta range is from the Flight Idle pitch to the
Reverse Pitch settings.

During flight the throttles cannot be closed below the Flight Idle gate, and the
Propeller Control Unit (PCU) operates normally to maintain any pre-selected rpm
(within the Alpha range).

In the ground idling and reversing range (BETA range), the throttles control
propeller pitch directly to vary power at both positive and negative blade
angles, at constant propeller speed, and the governor mechanism of the PCU is
overridden.
-3-
Blade. One arm of the propeller from hub to tip. It is an aerofoil designed to rotate
about an axis to create lift (helicopters) or thrust (helicopter rear rotors and
propellers).

Blade Angle. The angle between the blade chord line, at a particular station along
the blade and the plane of rotation. Fixed on fixed pitch propellers and variable
(usually automatically) on VP props to keep a constant torque on the engine (figure
4). May be called Pitch Angle. The VP prop angular range is from reverse pitch, say
20° to zero degrees then past zero degrees through the ground (BETA) range to the
flight (ALPHA) constant speed range – the blade angle becoming coarser until it
reaches the fully feathered position at 90°.

Note. Not all VP props have reverse pitch.

-4-
Blade Axis. This is defined by the geometry at the root pitch change bearings. It is
the axis about which the blade is moved when it changes pitch.

Fig. 3 BLADE TERMS

Blade Back. The cambered side of the blade corresponding to the top side of an
aircraft wing.

Blade Cuff. An aerodynamic collar fitted to the blade shank to improve cooling
airflow to the (piston) engine.

Blade Face. The opposite side to the blade back. The flat side of the blade aerofoil.
Sometimes called the Thrust Face.

Blade Index Number. The maximum blade angle on a Hamilton Standard

counterweight propeller.

Blade Paddle. A tool used to turn the blades in the hub.

Blade Pitch. The angle between the chord line of the blade and the plane of
rotation. Variable for VP props.

Blade Root. That part of the blade where it is faired smoothly into the propeller hub.
Usually inside the spinner.
Fig. 4 BLADE PITCH

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Blank Shank. The area of the blade next to the root. It is thick, strong, well rounded
and produces virtually no thrust forces. It is outside the spinner.

Blade Station. The radial location of a blade element (thin cross sectional slice)
usually expressed as a decimal fraction of the propeller radius. Sometimes
expressed as a linear distance from a reference such as the spin axis.

Blade Sweep. Tangential change in the centroids (centroid = centre of mass) of all
the blade elements from the radial axis. Some propellers have trailing sweep.
Leading sweep is rare. Some modern propellers have a varying trailing sweep where
the change increases from root to tip.

Blade Tilt. Change in the position of the centroids of each blade from the plane of
rotation. When viewed from the side the blades appear to bend forward (forward
tilt) or backwards (backward tilt). Blade tilt is rare.

Blade Twist. Two definitions: (1) Unwanted variation in pitch from root to tip
caused by ATM and CTM. (2) Natural twist in the blade which reduces blade angle
from root to tip.

Blade Vector Diagram. A vector diagram showing the forces acting on the blade
(figure 7).
Fig. 5 BLADE STATIONS

-7-
Blade Width Ratio. Ratio of the mean (average) chord length to the propeller
diameter.

Boot. Ice elimination component (often made of rubber) attached to the leading
edge of the propeller blade.

Boss. The centre portion of a fixed-pitch propeller.

Brake Horse Power (BHP). The power available at the output shaft of an engine.

Brush Block. The component of a de-icing and/or reversing system which is mounted
on the engine nose case and holds the brushes which transfer electrical power to the
slip rings of the propeller hub.
Fig. 6 PROPELLER TERMS 2

Camber. The curvature of the back and face of a propeller. The greater the camber
(within reason) the greater the ability of the propeller to absorb power. This means a
more powerful engine could be used and more thrust created.

Centre of Pressure. The point on an aerofoil section of a blade where all the thrust
forces are said to act.

Centrifugal Force. The force on a rotating propeller which tends to throw the blades
out from the propeller centre.

Centrifugal Twisting Moment (CTM). A moment set up by the centrifugal forces

acting on the blade which tend to rotate the blade towards fine pitch (figure 15).

Chord Line. An imaginary straight line starting at the centre of curvature of the
leading edge of the blade aerofoil section and ending at the trailing edge.

-8-
Club Propeller. Used for bench testing engines. Has short stubby coarse pitch blades
to provide the necessary torque to the engine but with a reduced propeller area.
Used within a safety cage.
Comparison unit. This is used in a synchronization or synchrophasing system which
compares the signals of the master engine and the slave engine/s and sends a
signal to correct the slave engine rpm or blade phase angle.

Cone. The component used in a splined-shaft installation which centres the propeller
on the crankshaft.

Constant speed system. A system which uses a governor to adjust the propeller
blade angle to maintain the required rpm.

Contra rotating propellers. Two sets of propellers on the same axis, one rotating
clockwise and the other rotating anticlockwise. Cancels out any torque reaction on
the aircraft on a single engined aircraft.

Controllable-pitch propeller. A propeller whose pitch can be changed in flight by the

pilot’s control lever or switch.

Counter rotating propellers. Applies to twin engined aircraft. Most propellers rotate
clockwise when viewed from the rear. Some twin engined aircraft have one rotating
clockwise and the other rotating anti-clockwise. Helps reduce the effect of the p-
factor (see p-factor) and torque reaction.

Critical range. The rpm range at which destructive harmonic vibrations exist.

De-icing system. An ice removal system which allows ice to form and then breaks it
loose. Works in cycles.

Disc Area. The frontal area swept by the rotating propeller. Calculated as πd2/4
where d is the diameter of the propeller.

Discing. This is the condition when the blades are set (temporarily) at a zero blade
angle in relation to the plane of rotation. It occurs during the transition from fine to
reverse pitch. Normally achieved fairly quickly with a low engine power setting (to
reduce the risk of engine over speeding).

Dome assembly. The pitch-changing mechanism of a Hydromatic propeller.

Effective Pitch. The distance the propeller actually moves through the air in one
revolution.

Effective Propeller Thrust. The net thrust from the propeller. Propeller thrust minus
the drag due to the slipstream equals effective propeller thrust or net thrust.

Face. The flat or thrust side of the propeller blade.

 -9-

Fig. 7 PROPELLER TERMS 3 – VECTOR DIAGRAM

Feathering. Causing, or moving, the blades of a VP prop to move to the fully

feathered position. That is, move to the 90° angle of attack position so the blades lie
in-line with the airflow so causing little drag. Used when the engine is shut-down in
flight to reduce drag and stop the propeller/engine windmilling.

Fixed-pitch propeller. A propeller, used on light aircraft, whose blade angles cannot
be changed.

Flanged crankshaft. A crankshaft whose propeller mounting surface forms a flat

surface 90° to the crankshaft centre-line. Normally drilled to allow for the propeller
(usually wooden) to be bolted to the shaft.

Frequency generator. An engine rpm signal generator used on some synchronization

systems.
Geometric Pitch. The theoretical distance a propeller moves forward in one
revolution. That is, the amount it would move forward if it was cutting through a
solid and there was no slip (figures 7 and 8) .

Governor. The propeller control device in a constant-speed system.

Go No-go gauge. A gauge used to measure wear on shafts and holes and wear
between the splines of a splined crankshaft.

- 10 -
Ground-adjustable propeller. A propeller which can be partially disassembled on the
ground to change the blade angles.

Helix Angle. The angle between the resultant direction of the airflow and the plane
of rotation. Sometimes called the Angle of Advance.

Hub. The central portion of a propeller which is fitted to the engine crankshaft and
carries the blades.

Hydromatic. A trade name for Hamilton Standard hydraulically operated propellers.

Integral Oil Control Assembly. A self-contained propeller control unit used on some
aircraft.

Leading edge. The forward edge of a propeller blade or aerofoil.

Fig. 8 SLIP

Mach Crit (MCRIT). The linier speed of any part of a propeller (any blade station) is
related to the its distance from the spin axis, so the further a blade station is away
from the spin axis the faster will be its liner speed at any given rpm. This means that
the propeller tip travels at the highest liner speed and at high rpm the tips of some
propellers will reach Mach 1 (the local speed of sound). When any part of the
propeller reaches Mach 1 this is called MCRIT.

- 11
-
At MCRIT shock waves are set up similar to those on mainplanes of high-speed aircraft
and compressibility effects are experienced. To help prevent these scimitar type
blades are fitted to some high-speed turbo-prop aircraft (figure 9). The blade has a
highly sweptback leading edge to try and keep all the blade within any shock-waves
that might form.

Fig. 9 ‘SCIMITAR’ TYPE BLADES

Figure 9 shows a propeller system each with 6 blades, and with some aircraft there
are even more blades per hub. These are called Open Rotors.

Mach Number. Named after Ernst Mach, an Austrian physicist and is the ratio of an
object’s linear speed to the local speed of sound (762mph [340m/s] at sea level
under standard atmospheric conditions).

Master Station. Since the blade angle changes along its length from root to tip the
angular setting of the blade must be measured from a particular station. This station
is called the Master Station.

Overhaul Facility. An approved maintenance facility for major overhauls and repairs.

Paddle Blade. Has a wide chord maintained to the tip which is square shaped (figure
11).
Pitch. The same as geometric pitch. Often used interchangeably with Blade Angle.

Pitch Distribution. The change in the pitch along the propeller blade. This causes the
blade to twist along its length.

Pitch Lock. A mechanism used on some propellers to limit the pitch and prevent
excessive over speeding of the propeller.
Plane of Rotation. The plane in which the propeller rotates at right angles to the
propeller shaft.

Power-off Drag. This condition will occur in the air when the engine power is
reduced, the propeller blades will go to a finer pitch in an effort to maintain rpm,
producing higher drag levels due to the larger blade area facing the normal airflow.

Propeller. A device having blades radiating from a hub for converting engine horse-
power into usable thrust.

Propeller Disc. The disc-shaped area in which the propeller rotates.

Propeller Efficiency. This is a measure of how much of the available power (Brake
Horse Power BHP) the propeller converts to thrust (Thrust Horse Power THP). It is
usually at a maximum at about 350 knots airspeed.

Thrust Horse Power

% Propeller Efficiency = x 100
Brake
Horse Power

Propeller Repair Station. See Overhaul Facility.

Propeller Slip. The difference between Geometric and Effective Pitch.

Propeller Synchronising. In order to reduce vibration and noise on multi engined

aircraft it helps to have all engines running at the same rpm. Synchronising is the
process of achieving this. It can be carried out manually by the use of an instrument
on the flight deck called a synchroscope which shows the speed of all engines related
to the ‘master’ engine. On most modern propeller driven aircraft the process is
carried out automatically using propeller rpm data, a control computer and
automatic speed control of the engines. A master engine is still used.

Propeller Synchrophasing. Vibration and noise can be further reduced if all the
propellers rotate in some fixed geometric (phase) relation one to another. In other
words each blade of all the propellers is at a different angle at any instant when
viewed from the front. This can be achieved by using electrical signals from the rpm
tacho system to slightly bias the propeller control units.

Propeller Track. The arc subscribed by the propeller blades as the propeller rotates.

Pulse Generator. A unit which generates a discrete signal related to the speed of
rotation and position of the propeller in a synchronising/synchrophasing system.

Fig. 10 SYNCHRONISING/SYNCHROPHASING

Pusher Propeller. A propeller fitted to an engine at the back in such a way that it pushes
the aircraft forward. Most propellers are fitted to the front of the aircraft/engine and are
classed as Puller or Tractor propellers. Pusher propellers are fitted at the back of the
fuselage or wing and the loads in the prop shaft are torsional (which is usual) and
compressive. Pushers are rare because of the disadvantages. These include:
* The possibility of damage from any debris kicked up from the landing gear.
* The high probability of pilot injury if he/she has to bail out.
* The problem of the engine moving forward in a crash landing, (because of its
high mass) and moving into the cockpit.

Some aircraft are fitted with a pusher and a puller.

p-Factor. Sometimes called Asymmetric Blade Effect or Asymmetric Thrust. It occurs

when the aircraft is at a high angle of attack (A of A). Assume the propeller is rotating
clockwise (when viewed from the rear). At high aircraft A of A the down going blade
(the right one when viewed from the rear) is meeting the airflow coming slightly
upwards so is operating at a higher A of A and therefore that blade is producing
more thrust than the others. On the other side of the disc the up-coming blade is
experiencing the opposite effect – reduced A of A and less thrust. So the thrust
centre line has moved laterally to the right, away from the disc centre line and
towards the down-going blade (figure 11).

On a twin engined aircraft the engine with the down going blade nearest the
fuselage (the left one in figure 10) is the more critical engine in failure mode because
if it fails then more rudder correction is required by the pilot than if the other one
failed (distance b is greater than distance a in figure 10).

On single engined aircraft the p-factor will tend to make the aircraft yaw.

Radial Clearance. The distance from the edge of the propeller disc to an object near
the edge of the disc, perpendicular to the crankshaft centreline.

Reversing. Rotation of the propeller blades to a negative angle to produce a braking

or reversing thrust.

Safe tying. The installation of a safety device such as wire locking or a split pin to lock
a nut or similar.

Fig. 11 ASYMMETRIC THRUST

Selector valve. Propeller control unit in a two position propeller system.

Shank. The thickened portion of the blade near the centre of the propeller.

Shoe. See Boot.

Shoulder. The flanged area of the butt of a propeller blade which is used to retain the
propeller blades on the hub.
Slinger Ring. The fluid distribution unit fitted to the rear of, and rotating with, the
propeller hub using a fluid anti-icing system.

Slip. Propeller efficiency loss. The difference between Geometric Pitch and Effective
Pitch (figures 7 and 8).

Snap ring. A component of a splined or tapered shaft installation which is used to aid
in the removal of the propeller.

Solidity. A measure of the capacity of the propeller to absorb power. It is the ratio
between that part of the propeller disc viewed from the front which is solid (the
total frontal area of all the blades) and the part which is air (figure 12). At a given
radius (r) solidity on some propellers can be found by:

Number of blades times Chord (x) at radius r

Circumference at the radius R

In more simple terms it is:

Total frontal area of blades

Total disc area

Solidity can also be applied to the helicopter main rotor and tail rotor.

Spider. The central component on controllable-pitch propellers which mounts on the

crankshaft and has arms on which the blades are fitted.

- 15 -
Splined shaft. A cylindrical shaped shaft which has splines on its surface to match
with a female splined hole on the propeller. Ensures propeller rotates with the shaft.

Static rpm. The maximum rpm that can be obtained at full throttle on the ground in a
no-wind condition.

Subsonic. Where the relative airflow is below the local speed of sound.

Supersonic. Where the relative airflow is above the local speed of sound (greater
than Mach 1).
 Fig. 12 SOLIDITY

Symmetric. An object which has an exact mirror image about its centre line. A
symmetric blade can produce thrust if it is rotated at a positive angle of attack.

Synchronization System. A system which keeps all engines at the same rpm.

Synchrophasing System. A refined synchronization system which allows for the

adjustment of each propeller phase angle relative to the propeller phase angles of
the other engines (figure 10).

Tachometer-generator. An rpm sensing unit producing an ac signal the frequency of

which is directly related to rpm. Often call a tacho-generator or tacho.

Tapered Shaft. A crankshaft design whose propeller mounting surface tapers to a

smaller diameter and acts like a cone seating surface.

Thrust Bending Force. A force which tends to bend the propeller blades forward
when they are producing thrust.
Thrust Face. The blade face of the propeller.

Thrust Horse Power (THP). The actual thrust the propeller is producing.
Not used a lot these days.

Tip. The portion of the blade farthest from the hub.

Torque. Measured as force times distance with units of ft lbs (imperial),

or Nm (Newton metres) (SI). It is a measure of the amount of twist in a
shaft. May be applied to a stationary or rotating shaft. It is a good
measure of the real power being transmitted to the propeller.

Torque Bending Force. A force which tends to bend the propeller blades
in the opposite direction to the direction of rotation when absorbing
engine power.

Torque Reaction. The reaction from a propeller under power to try and
rotate the airframe in the opposite direction to the propeller. Can be a
problem for single engined aircraft with powerful engines and high
torque applied to the propeller.

Tractor Propeller. A propeller fitted to the front of an engine so that it

pulls the aircraft forward. The most common method. The stresses in
the prop shaft are torsional and tensile.

Transonic. Where some parts of the airflow over a blade are supersonic
and other parts are subsonic.

Two Position Propeller. A propeller which can be changed between two

blade angles in flight.

Windmilling. The condition where the airflow over the propeller blades
causes the propeller to rotate – and causes the engine to rotate as well.
This effect can occur on the ground in high winds or in flight at low
power settings, usually when the aircraft is descending. With engine
failure in flight the propeller will windmill unless fully feathered (VP
props).