ASSIGNMENT SOLUTIONS GUIDE (2020-2021)

MPC 003: Personality: Theories and Assessment

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SECTION-A
Answer the following questions in about 1000 words.
Q1. Discuss various issues in the study of personality.
Ans. For the understanding and explanation of personality, various theoretical models have been
proposed. The different models have explained personality with respect to their theoretical propositions
e.g. the Psychoanalytic theory explains personality taking intra-psychic and conscious-unconscious mind
into account whereas the Behaviorist model totally rejects this approach and emphasizes the role of
learning and environment in the shaping and development of personality. The Humanistic Model takes a
different approach. It is true that every model seems to be correct from its own perspective but when we
consider the other models, many of their features become redundant, irrelevant and may be invalid.
Therefore, one, who is interested in understanding the phenomenon of personality by going through
various theoretical accounts, may not be able to have a clear view of the personality as construct.
Therefore, there is a need of an eclectic model which incorporates the features of various models into it
and aids in shaping of personality.
Some other issues in personality that need to be attended to at length are:
1) Free will vs determinism. Means that whether our behaviour is directed by freedom intrinsic to our
nature or by the ultimately determined forces.
2) Uniqueness vs Universality. Implies that whether each person is unique in his own existence or is
driven by some universal behaviour patterns.
3) Physiological vs purposive motivation. Some researchers assume that we are pushed by basic
physiological needs like food, water etc. while others are of the view that we are pulled by our purpose,
goals, values, principles etc.
4) Conscious vs Unconscious motivation. Some researchers believe that our behaviour and experience are
determined by conscious forces whereas others say that we are not aware of the forces driving our
behaviour, i.e. the unconscious element.
5) Stage vs Non-stage theories of development. It is an extension of the nature nurture issue that whether
or not we all pass through predetermined stages of development like fetal, childhood, puberty,
adulthood, senescence controlled basically by genetics.
6) Cultural determinism vs Cultural transcendence. To what extent our personality is molded by our
cultures is the issue here. If not determined by culture, our transcendence is some other kind of
determinism.
7) Early Vs Late Personality Formation. This issue deals with if our personality characteristics are
established in early childhood or it is quite flexible in adulthood. This question relates to the issues of
genetics, external determination etc. Here, the major limitation resolution is the confusion in defining
personality characteristics.
8) Optimism Vs Pessimism. Whether humans are basically good or bad is the central issue here. The
attitude determines what we see when we look at humanity.
Personality related psychological research and studies are grouped in three main groups, viz., (i)
nomothetic, (ii) idiographic and (iii) complementary approaches to personality.
1. Nomothetic Approach: Nomethetic approaches are based on the tendency to see one’s personality as
constant, hereditary and resistant to change, whereas the influence of the environment is minimal. This
way, nomothetic approaches state that the way in which a person will act under certain circumstances
can be calculated and anticipated, foreseen. Gordon Allport (1934) identified this approach to personality
testing. The nomothetic approach relies on quantitative research methods such as self report and
questionnaires to establish universal behaviours. He understood that scientific progress for trait
psychology was rooted in a nomothetic approach.
Thus, nomothetically derived traits were employed by Allport to describe people. Allport (1937, 1961)
employed traits as the primary basis which can be used to describe people. Accordingly, he descriebd a
trait as a “neuropsychic structure that possesses the capacity to render many stimuli functionally
equivalent. Allport also assumed that traits are real. He formulated that traits are distinct and particular
to each person and their assessment shall be done uniquely.
2. Idiographic Approach: Allport also promoted another approach named as idiographic approach to the
study of personality. Here every individual is regarded as a combined system that can be independently
analysed scientifically. It means that each individual is examined deeply and no general laws are
considered important that are beyond the individual to be studied.
Under the idiographic process, he believed that a person’s traits can be put into various compartments
according to their pervasiveness in an individual’s personality. The most pervasive traits were referred to
as “cardinal” dispositions by Allport. If present, cardinal traits dominate the behaviour of an individual
aggressiveness, calmness etc. may be taken as examples. Another set of traits, known as “central
dispositions” comprise those that are pervasive for a given individual. For example, the traits talked
about while writing a letter of recommendation. More situational specific traits are termed as “Secondary
dispositions”. Allport argued that each person possesses a unique pattern of cardinal, central and
secondary traits and to understand a person, the uniquepattern examination is required.
Thus, the above discussion explains that the differences between a nomothetic and an idiographic
approach is not just a question of discovering on the part of the psychologist, but also the methods
employed are considered useful. The nomothetic point of view has experiments, correlation,
psychometric testing and other quantitative methods as its examples. On the other hand, the idiographic
methods include case studies, informal interviews, unstructured observation and other qualitative
methods.
Cross Cultural Issues: Personality and culture are interwoven and still their relationship cannot be
comprehended well. But it is also true that the culture of an individual is not the sole determiner of an
individual’s personality. The framework of individualism versus collectivism can be utilized to observe
this as it predisposes individualism or collectivism. It is one of basic differences that have been described
in varying national cultures. Factors such as personal achievement, egalitarian relationships, role
flexibility team and familial connections etc. are used to describe personality traits and differences
between individuals of various cultures (Hofstede, 2001). However, it is not possible to attribute all the
factors under individualism collectivism web only to the cultural influence. The framework of
individualism collectivism is mainly used to describe personality characteristics traits and habits
generating from within cultures where certain individualist or collectivist traits occur.
An element of doubt gets raised up while applying the principles of this framework in personality
perception of an individual as it may lead to stereotyping and misinterpreting of an individual’s
personality and his characteristic of behaviour. The individualism famework can be of more use in
describing cultural tendencies as a whole rather than describing individual characteristics and traits.
However, this does not imply that the individualism collectivism paradigm is naïve and can be excluded
in studying the domain of personality. It can be easily inferred from the above discussion that the
interplay between personality and culture is quite complex. It is also clear that even in adulthood,
personality can be affected by cultural expectations. Simultaneously, this is also to be acknowledged that
this individualism -collectivism orientation is not the only determining factor of personality.
Q2. Define behavioral assessment. Discuss the common characteristics and assumptions of behavioral
assessment.
Ans. Behavioral assessment refers to assessing and measuring various constituents of a behaviour that
are indicative of why a certain behaviour occurs and what cvauses that behaviour. These would include
overt behaviours, feelings, and cognitions and their controlling variables that could be both from within
the individual and outside of the individual. Behavioural assessment focuses on what a person does
rather than on what a person has or is. It is also said that behavioural assessment is more an exploratory
activity which tries to find out the range of procedures used to understand children, adults, groups etc.
This definition emphasises a hypothesis-testing problem-solving model of assessment, the goal of which
is to identify appropriate intervention strategies in order to remediate specified behaviour problems. The
history of behavioural assessment cannot be separated from behaviourism as a paradigm of scientific
psychology and its clinical application. Thus, behavioural assessment began when complex human
behaviours were first considered as a subject for scientific study (e.g., Staats 1963, Bandura 1969). Since
the 1960s, four main phases have been identified.
As for the nature of behavioural assessment, it may be stated that its main goal has been behavioural
change. Therefore, all conceptual and methodological features emerge from the attempt to define and
measure a particular behavioural problem and its causal or controlling conditions and design the best
treatment. The following five traits could be considered the essence of behavioural assessment: functional
analysis, triple response modes and multi-causality, idiographism, multimethodism, and the
experimental method.
The Theoretical Model Underlying the Application of Behavioral Assessment Procedures: The
theoretical underpinnings of the above concept of behavioural assessment stem from the interaction
between the person’s previous learning and the external and organismic environments within which the
person functions.
The setting in which the behaviour occurs is of primary importance. The biological makeup and
physiological functioning help the individuals to adapt and respond to the environment. Evaluating
behaviour requires assessment of the person, the setting, and the interaction between the two. Setting in
this context refers to the environmental circumstances that might be influencing the occurrence and
nonoccurrence of the behaviour. Environmental circumstances in turn refer to those environmental
events preceding the behaviour, both immediately and distally, and those following the behaviour.
Common Characteristics and Assumptions of Behavioural Assessment Methods: While there is a wide
variety of techniques available for carrying out behavioural assessment, they have certain features in
common.
1) They all focus on behaviour Both overt and covert behaviours are measured or evaluated as they occur
in specific situations. Behaviours are observed at a specific time and in a limited location The variables
and concepts with descriptions of behaviour are taken up objectively, as assessment requires objective
information, which is more useful than inferences or subjective interpretations.
2) All behavioural assessment methods believe in Quantification Behavior is quantified so as to allow for
reliable comparisons across time and persons and to allow for communication between persons. This
leads to greater objectivity of information.
3) All the behavioural assessment methods use trained, impartial observers Observers are trained in the
use of the various measurement techniques of behavioural assessment, recording of the same and
collecting information in an objective manner. Observers are expected to achieve a specified standard of
consistency in their collecting data, recording the information and interpreting the data.
4) All of them use empirically validated measures. It is important to have consistency in the measurement
across situations. The measures should be empirically validated.
5) All of them recognize errors and try to counteract the errors or minimise errors to the extent possible
using statistical methods. All assessment involves differing degrees of error causing unreliability of the
results. Hence it is important to minimize the errors and this is generally carried out through statistical
techniques..
6) All of these believe that the behaviour concerned occurs due to stimuli from the environment.
Assessment is directed toward discovering the situational influences on behaviour. The emphasis is on
public events and direct observation of behaviour in the natural environment, with behaviour being
recorded at the time of its occurrence whenever possible.
7) All these assessment techniques depend not on one but multiple sources of information. In addition to
the behavioural assessment, a wide-range of assessment strategies are used, including behavioural
interviews, checklists, rating scales, standardised instruments, self-reports, self-monitoring forms, and
observations, as no single test or source could give adequate information as to why a behaviour occurs.
8) All the behavioural assessment techniques ultimately place high emphasis on intervention. The
primary purpose of assessment is not to categorise or label a person but to obtain information that will
assist in developing effective intervention strategies. The emphasis on intervention results in the
application of the behavioural assessment model to the particular person, situation etc.
9) All the behavioural assessment techniques use continuous assessment. Assessment is continuous
throughout baseline, intervention, and follow up phases. The effectiveness of intervention strategies is
continuously evaluated.
10) Each of these behavioural assessment techniques emphasises on empirically based decision making
process. Decisions about specific assessment strategies and interventions are based on empirical data
available on the individual concerned from the person’s self and the environment in which the person
lives.
11) Most of these behavioural assessment techniques focus on individual person rather than groups.
Assessment focuses on the individual person rather than comparisons to a norm group. There is a
recognition of individual differences in behaviour and its determinants, leading to idiosyncratic
assessment and intervention.
12) High emphasis is placed on individual differences. Individual differences among persons are not
absolute. Differences must be seen in relative terms, with consideration given to situational and cultural
differences. It must be kept in mind that a certain behaviour considered normal in one setting may be
considered abnormal in another setting.
13) All behavioural assessment techniques not only look for causes contributing to the problem but also
try to solve the problem concerned, once the cause is known. The purpose of behavioural assessment is
problem solving, and hence identification of causes is extremely important so as to devise intervention
strategies to overcome the problem.
14) All the behavioural assessment techniques focus on developing adaptive behaviour in the individual.
The focus of behavioural assessment is on developing adaptive, positive, or desirable behaviour rather
than on control and reduction of undesirable behaviours. Hence behavioural interventions should be
designed and implemented with the benefit of the particular person concerned in mind.
Q3. Describe the Ink Blot techniques.
Ans. The Ink blot techniques consist of two popular techniques, that is, The Rorschach Test and The
Holtzman Ink blot test. In these tests the examinee has to respond to an unstructured situation composed
of some ink blots.
(1) Construction Techniques: All those situations are included here in which a story is constructed by the
examinee on seeing the stimulus material within some given time limit. The themes and mode of
responding are considered relevant in such tests. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), the Object
Relations Test are some of the examples of construction techniques. Some other tests like Draw-A-Person
test are also included in this category. In all these tests, the examinee constructs or produces
simple/complex statements in a story form or draws some picture or person.
(2) Completion Techniques: These include the situations where some incomplete sentences are presented
to the examinee and he can complete them in the form he desires. For example
I want ………..,
I feel excited about…………………..
The subject has to fill up the blanks and the responses given by the examinee are recorded and analysed
to get a picture of the individual’s personality. For example, Rotter’s Incomplete Sentences Blank. Some
people consider it as a semi projective technique.
(3) Expressive Techniques: These include those tests where some manipulative tasks are used by the
examinee to depict his or her personality. Some interaction with the given material is the theme of these
techniques. Some of the common expressive techniques include role playing, finger painting, play,
drawing etc. The characteristic feature of expressive techniques is that the examiner pays much attention
to the manner in which the given materials are manipulated by the examinee.
(4) The Rorschach Inkblot: Test Rorschach inkblot test was developed in 1921 by Swiss psychiatrist
Hermann Rorschach. It consists of 10 inkblots, five in black ink on a white background and five in colored
inks on a white background. The Rorschach test is a measure of both the intellectual and non intellectual
personality traits. While developing this technique, Rorschach experimented with a large number of ink
blots which were administered to different psychiatric groups. On the basis of such clinical observations
various psychiatric syndromes that differentiate response characteristics were taken up in the scoring
system. In the test , the subjects are asked to simply state whatever each inkblot looks like to them.
Responses are scored by the psychologists using predetermined categories, on key factors such as color
and shape, movement, whether the whole or part blot has been seen, and whether the response is given
in content to the whole or to peculiar details in the blot. These blots are frequently used for personality
description, diagnosis of mental disorders and for behaviour predictions (Watkins et al, 1995; Wiener,
1997). The whole procedure of The Rorschach Test is a combined set of three components, viz.,
performance proper, inquiry, and scoring. Let us deal with each of these one by one.
 SECTION-B
Answer the following questions in about 400 words.
Q4. Explain Allport’s trait theory.
Ans. A careful analysis of the theory reveals certain merits and demerits which are:
Merits: Allport developed his personality theory in academic settings instead of psychoanalytic settings.
For this reason, this theory gained much importance and recognition among academic psychologists.
According to Allport present and future are more important in understating personality than past of an
individual. Motivations and behavior of an individual can be better understood by present and future.
This characteristic of Allport’s theory helps understand the structure of personality more scientifically.
Allport’s idiographic approach to personality research is quite praise worthy as it aids understanding and
detailed analysis of personality. Allport made an important contribution to the field of psychology
through his explaination of personality in terms of traits.
Demerits: Feist criticized Allport’s theory saying that it is grounded more in philosophical speculations
and common sense than in scientific research. Psychoanalysts objected to Allport’s concept of proprium
which puts more emphasis of present and future and ignores his past. They say that such ignore of past
hinders complete understanding of personality. Past events and experiences that went into the shaping of
present personality can’t be totally delinked from the present personality.
Allport’s theory describes the functionally autonomous motives of a psychologically healthy person but
motive of children, psychotics and neurotics do not find any mention in his theory. Allport in his theory
failed to explain their behaviour. Allport in his theory does not mention how an original motive develops
into a functionally autonomous motive. For example, discipline and hard work which originally acted as
means to get rich and famous become functionally autonomous once the person is rich and famous. Thus
it is difficult to predict which motive of childhood develops into autonomous motive during adulthood.
Critics also point to the idiographic approach taken to the personality taken by Allport. According to
them nomothetic approach which requires study of several persons at the same time and subjecting the
data so gathered to statistical analysis is the only right method for studying personality. Allport’s theory
is based only on the study of normal and psychologically healthy persons and does not take account of
neurotics and others. This fact limits its applicability.
Some of the concepts in Allport’s theory do not lend themselves to empirical testing. For example,
functional autonomy is a concept that can’t be manipulated in experimental conditions. Psychologists
also refute Allport’s claim of discontinuity in the personality of children and adults and normal and
abnormal.
Further Allport do not make mention of the impact of social factor on personality.
Q5. Describe the psychological factors that influence the development of personality.
Ans. Heredity includes all those factors that we inherit from our parents. Such factors are innate, that is,
they are present in the individual before the time of birth or at the time of birth and determine the path of
development of our personality. Hereditary factors that contribute to personality development do so as a
result of interactions with the specific social environments in which people live. In other words,
personality is the sum total of what a person is. That is, it consists of behaviors, thoughts and feelings that
endure throughout life. Heredity is just like the blue print of our personality which defines the broad
limits of personality within which our personality will take shape. Hereditary factors include the
following: (i) Physique and physical health (ii) Endocrine system (iii) Nervous system.
1. Physique and Physical Health
By physical structure we mean height, color, constitution, composition of body etc. Generally, a person
with good physical structure and constitution enjoys good health. Traits of physical structure are largely
received in inheritance. For example, you would have observed that children of parents having good
height are often taller while children of parents with shorter height are often less tall. Similar is the case
with color, children of fair color parents are often fair and children of parents with dark complexion are
often dark. However, this rule is not followed in every case. Very often we see children having physical
characteristics or traits that do not appear similar to that of their parents but with their ancestors. This
means that heredity goes beyond our immediate parents. A child in fact is likely to receive biological
characteristics of ancestors in the previous seven generations.
Mendel (an Austrian Saint) through his experiments on pie nuts proved that children inherit the average
of the physical traits of their parents. For example, If the father is tall and mother is of short height, the
children in all probability gain average height of both parents. You must be wondering why I am telling
you all this about physical features. Actually our physical make up affect our mental or psychological
traits and ultimately our behaviour. Very often we notice that individuals with good physical structure
and beauty are centre of attraction of others. Their parents, neighbours, teachers and peers develop
favorable attitude toward them. As a result such children develop traits of selfconfidence, responsibility,
sociability, and punctuality and sometimes feeling of superiority as well, while children not gifted with
good physical structure and physical beauty are looked down upon by others. Consequently they
develop feelings of inferiority, emotional instability. They become shy and introvert.
The effects are more pronounced when the individual is actually afflicted with physical deformity. When
scores on emotional stability test of a group of crippled girls were compared with that of normal girls, it
was found that the crippled girls had significantly low mean scores on emotional stability. That means
they were less emotionally stable. You must have observed in your in surroundings that such individuals
often have tendency to seek other’s approval. Have you ever thought why do they behave like this? They
try to endear us by seeking our approval only to compensate their physical lack.
Endocrine System
Our glandular system affects our personality and behaviour a great deal. It is well known that the many
glands in our system regulate varied types of activities that are going on within our bodily system .
However the question arises as to how are these glands which regulate our system affect our personality.
You know at times we are very active but there are also times when we are depressed without any
apparent reason. Actually the reason for this lies in constant chemical changes taking place in our body.
These changes are a result of functioning of glands.
Glands are of two types — endocrine glands and exocrine glands. Of these, the more important one is the
endocrine glands. While secretions of exocrine glands go out of our body, the endocrinal secretions are
released directly to our blood stream. Following are some of main endocrine glands: (i) Pituitary gland
(ii) Adrenal gland (iii) Thyroid gland (iv) Pancreas and (v) Sex gland.
Nervous System
Why is it that some people are more intelligent, have more impressive personality? Does it have anything
to do with the nervous system? Does nervous system play any role in the formation of personality? Often
when we meet some intelligent persons we say he has more gray matter. But what do psychologists say
in this regard? Psychologists usually believe that a person with more complex and developed nervous
system has greater level of intellectual capabilities, and is considered more able to adjust with different
situations. Such individuals are viewed favourably by others and are praised for their personality traits.
Development of nervous system determines a person’s actual accomplishment in the society and his
social status in the society. For example, any maldevelopment in hippocampus leads to deficits in short
term memory in that the person is unable to process information from short term to long term memory.
Have you seen Amir Khan’s movie “Gazini” where the hero is unable to retain information. Just imagine
what would be your personality if cerebellum is under developed or gets damaged. Let me tell you, our
cerebellum coordinates our motor activities. When we walk it controls our gate. Now imagine what will
happen if cerebellum gets damaged. Our walk will be disorganised and we may become subject of
ridicule and fun. Such experiences do affect our thinking and psychological makeup.
Now we come back to gray matter, actually all our higher mental process are controlled and regulated by
cortex encased in the bony skull and if the bony skull is removed it appears gray colored. Now the
established fact is that greater the number of convulsions in cortex the more developed it is and the more
weighty it would be. Therefore, people with developed nervous system are more intelligent. Such
individuals are fast in developing traits like responsibility, punctuality, emotional stability, self-
confidence and ego-strength. On the other hand, individuals with less developed nervous system have
less ability to adjust. Because of their limited intellectual capabilities they often fall prey to many
character disorders and their personality development is adversely affected.
Q6. Define personality assessment. Discuss the purpose of personality assessment.
Ans. Assessment of personality refers to the measurement of personal characteristics of an individual. It
involves information gathering through interviews etc. and administering of psychological test to
understand the typical characteristics. Assessment is an end result of gathering information. It contributes
to furthering of research in the area and also helps in making appropriate decisions in regard to which
type of test to be applied and in what manner.
Assessment is based on the assumption that each individual differs from another in regard to the
personality traits. Even if they possess the same traits their behavior will vary in terms of their
experiences to different situations and thus a personality assessment will make this very clear as to what
actually contributes to this difference and what are typical of a particular person’s personality. A
distinctive feature of personality assessment is the scientific approach to personality measurement. That
is how the human characteristics are described quantitatively and qualitatively. The assessment also
throws light on how many traits are present and which of these is dominant and which one acts
negatively creating problems to the adjustment of the individual.
The sophisticated assessment and measurement of personality of an individual depends on the use of a
variety of concepts to provide trait definitions and entails the application of various methods of
observation and evaluation.
Personality assessment serves two purposes – theoretical and practical. Theoretically personality
assessment provides knowledge about different dimensions and aspects of personality development and
provides information about its nature. It provides impetus to research on personality and help develop
new theories about personality. Practical purposes of personality assessment is to know the strength and
weaknesses of a person. It tells which traits in a person are lacking and what are its implications for his
adjustment with the environment? It provides help in developing intervention program for persons who
need help to overcome some of their personality based difficulties. For example, if a person is extremely
shy and refuses to move with others even though in all other aspects the person behaves well, it would be
worth the while to know what is it in the person that makes the person so shy that the individual avoids
all relationships. For this a personality assessment will be helpful to understand the fact as to where the
problem lies and through which kind of counseling one can help the person overcome the problem.
Methods of personality assessment can be categorised under three headings:
1) Personality Inventories,
2) Projective Techniques, and
3) Observational methods
Purpose of Personality Assessment
Nunnally has opined that personality measurement aims at studying the four broad types of traits, viz.,
social traits, motives, personal conceptions and adjustment. These are being discussed in the following
section.
Social traits
Social traits are those traits, which determine how persons interact with other persons in society.
Examples of typical social traits are friendliness, honesty, dominance, responsibility, shyness, etc. Thus,
within social traits are included traits related to temperament and character.
Motives
Motives here include the non-biological drives such as the need to earn money and prestige, need for the
academic, achievement, need for affiliation, aggression, etc. These non- biological needs are often said to
constitute what is known as personality dynamics.
Personal conceptions
Under the trait of personal conceptions are included those methods which determine people’s attitude
toward self and others, a person’s values, interests, etc.
Adjustment
Adjustment in psychology refers to the establishment of a satisfactory relationship representing harmony,
conformance, adaptation or the like. It is a process of finding and adopting modes of behaviour suitable
to the environment or the change in the environment. Adjustment is the process by which a living
organism maintains a balance between its needs and the circumstances that influences the satisfaction of
these needs. Adjustment includes traits like the freedom from emotional worries or instability and other
related aspects of behaviour.
One general characteristic of these four types of traits is that they are correlated with each other, that is
they are not independent. For instance, a social trait, say dominance, is likely to influence motives,
personal conceptions (interests, attitudes) and adjustment. Similarly, an individual’s motive is likely to
influence the interaction of the person with others in society (social traits). It would also include the
individual’s personal conceptions and adjustment. To cite an example, let us say an individual is highly
prejudiced against a particular caste (personal conception). In such cases, the individual’s social
interaction, motives, and adjustment all would be similarly affected. Likewise, if a person has a
satisfactory general adjustment, That person’s social traits, motives and personal conceptions would be in
congruence with social norms. On the other hand, if an individual is maladjusted, s/he would have
extreme social traits, eccentric motives and personal conceptions.
Q7. Discuss the purpose and strengths of interview method.
Ans. The interview aims to describe the meanings of central themes in the life of the subjects. The main
task in this is to understand the meaning of what the interviewees say. Interviews also can focus on the
main aspects of the subject matter. The interview is as a follow-up instrument to get to know about
certain responses to the questionnaires, so that one can further investigate their responses.
An interview can be one to one or it can be one to many. Answers to the questions posed during an
interview can be recorded by writing them down (either during the interview itself or immediately after
the interview) or by tape-recording the responses, or by a combination of both.
Interviews can be conducted with varying degrees of flexibility that is high and low degree of flexibility.
As regards high flexibility, one can take an example of studying sensitive issues such as teenage
pregnancy and abortions. The investigator may use a list of topics rather than fixed questions. These may
include how teenagers started sexual intercourse, the responsibility girls and their partners take to
prevent pregnancy (if at all), and the actions they take in the event of unwanted pregnancies etc. The
investigator should have an additional list of topics ready when the respondent falls silent, (example,
when asked about abortion methods used, who made the decision and who paid).
The sequence of topics should be determined by the flow of discussion. It is often possible to come back
to a topic discussed earlier in a later stage of the interview.
The unstructured or loosely structured method of asking questions can be used for interviewing
individuals as well as groups of key informants. A flexible method of interviewing is useful if a
researcher has not much of an understanding of the problem or situation he is investigating, or if the
topic is sensitive. It is frequently applied in exploratory studies. The instrument used may be called an
interview guide or interview schedule.
In regard to low degree of flexibility, these interview methods are useful when the researcher is relatively
knowledgeable about expected answers or when the number of respondents being interviewed is
relatively large. In such cases structured questionnaires may be used so that large number of respondents
could be covered. To cite an example, after a number of observations on the (hygienic) behavior of
women drawing water at a well and some key informant interviews on the use and maintenance of the
wells, one may conduct a larger survey on water use and satisfaction with the quantity and quality of the
water.
Interviews also can focus on the main aspects of the subject matter, or can get to know what the topic has
to convey behind the scene and what the topic can convey. Interviews are generally easier for respondent,
especially if what is sought includes opinions or impressions. Interviews are time consuming and they
are resource intensive. The interviewer is considered a part of the measurement instrument and
interviewer has to be well trained in how to respond to any contingency.
Q8. Explain Thematic Apperception Test. Discuss its limitations.
Ans.

.
 SECTION-C
Answer the following questions in about 50 words.
Q9. Constitutional and environmental traits
Ans. Source traits can be divided into two subtypes-depending on their origin.
Constitutional traits derive from the biological and physiological conditions of the person. For instance,
recovery from cocaine addiction may cause a person to be momentarily irritable, depressed, and anxious.
Cattell would suggest that these behaviours result from changes in the person’s physiology and thus
reflect constitutional source traits.
Environmental-mold traits are determined by influences in the social and physical environment. These
traits reflect learned characteristics and styles of behaving and form a pattern that is imprinted on the
personality by the individual’s environment. Thus, a person who is raised in a rural setting behaves
differently from a person, who grows up in an urban area.
Q10. Difference between extrovert and introvert
Ans. Eysenck argues that individual differences in behavioral functioning can be discovered through
factor analysis and measured through the use of questionnaires and laboratory procedures.
A review of studies (Wilson,1978) concludes that
1) Extraverts have a greater tolerance for pain than do introverts.
2) They engage in more talk and coffee breaks at work than do introverts.
3) Excitement enhances their performance whereas it interferes with the performance of introverts.
4) Introverts prefer theoretical and scientific vocations (e.g., engineering and chemistry, whereas
extraverts tend to prefer people-oriented jobs(e.g., sales and social work).
5) Introverts report more frequent masturbation than do extraverts, but extraverts engage in sexual
intercourse earlier in life, more often, and with more partners than do introverts.
6) Introverts attain higher grades in college than do extraverts.
7) Also students who withdraw from college for psychiatric reasons tend to be introverts, whereas those
who withdraw for academic reasons tend to be extraverts.
8) Introverts show higher arousal levels in the mornings, whereas extraverts show higher arousal levels
in the evening.
9) Introverts work better in the morning, and the extroverts work better in the afternoon.
Q11. Nomothetic approach
Ans. Nomethetic approaches are based on the tendency to see one’s personality as constant, hereditary
and resistant to change, whereas the influence of the environment is minimal. This way, nomothetic
approaches state that the way in which a person will act under certain circumstances can be calculated
and anticipated, foreseen. Gordon Allport (1934) identified this approach to personality testing. The
nomothetic approach relies on quantitative research methods such as self report and questionnaires to
establish universal behaviours. He understood that scientific progress for trait psychology was rooted in
a nomothetic approach.
Thus, nomothetically derived traits were employed by Allport to describe people. Allport (1937, 1961)
employed traits as the primary basis which can be used to describe people. Accordingly, he descriebd a
trait as a “neuropsychic structure that possesses the capacity to render many stimuli functionally
equivalent. Allport also assumed that traits are real. He formulated that traits are distinct and particular
to each person and their assessment shall be done uniquely.
Q12. NEO-Personality Inventory
Ans. A third objective test, the NEO-Personality Inventory(Costa & McRae,1989), is used to measure
aspects of personality that are not linked to psychological disorders. Specifically, it tends to measure the
“big five” dimensions of personality, as these dimensions appear to represent basic aspects of personality.
The NEO-PI is a highly-regarded assessment of personality. Based on the FiveFactor model, the NEO PI-
R measures the interpersonal, motivational, emotional, and attitudinal styles of adults and adolescents. It
consists of 240 personality items and 3 validity items, and is available in two forms. Form-S is designed
for self-reports and Form-R is written in the third person for observer reports.
The NEO PI-R was designed to provide a general description of normal personality relevant to clinical,
counseling and educational situations. NEO PIR items and materials were designed to be easily read and
understood. The five domains (factors) measured by the NEO PI-R provide a general description of
personality, while the facet scales allow more detailed analysis. These five factors and their facet scales
include:
Neuroticism (Anxiety, Hostility, Depression, Self-Consciousness, Impulsiveness, Vulnerability)
Extraversion (Warmth, Gregariousness, Assertiveness, Activity, ExcitementSeeking, Positive Emotions)
Openness to Experience (Fantasy, Aesthetics, Feelings, Actions, Ideas, Values)
Agreeableness (Trust, Modesty, Compliance, Altruism, Straightforwardness, Tender-Mindedness)
Conscientiousness (Competence, Self-Discipline, Achievement-Striving, Dutifulness, Order,
Deliberation)
Reliability and Validity
Internal consistency coefficients range from .86 to .95 for domain scales, and from .56 to .90 for facet
scales. Stability coefficients ranging from .51 to .83 have been found in three-year, six-year, and seven-
year longitudinal studies of the original NEO-PI factors. The NEO PI-R has been validated against other
personality inventories and projective techniques.
Use of NEO PIR
This test can be effectively used in counseling and clinical settings with adults as well as senior high
school and college students. It is also very effectively used in business and industrial settings. This test is
used in Psychological research, including studies in sport psychology and recreation.
Q13. Types of validity
Ans. The most important classification of types of validity is that prepared by a Joint Committee of
American Psychological Association, the American Educational Research Association and the National
Council on measurements used in education. There are three types of validity:
i) Content validity
Content validity is the representative ness or sampling adequacy of the content. Consider a test that has
been designed to measure competence in using the English language. How can we tell how well the test
in fact measures that achievement? First we must reach at some agreement as to the skills and knowledge
that comprise correct and effective use of English, and that have been the objectives of language
instruction. Then we must examine the test to see what skills, knowledge and understanding it calls for.
Finally, we must match the analysis the test content against of course content and instrumental objectives,
and see how well the former represents the latter. If the test represents the objectives, which are the
accepted goals for the course, then the test is valid for use.
ii) Criterion validity (Predictive validity and Concurrent validity)
The two types of criterion validities are predictive validity and concurrent validity. They are much alike
and with some exceptions, they can be considered the same, because they differ only in the time
dimension. They are characterized by prediction and by checking the measuring instrument either now
or in future against some outcome.
Example: A test that help researcher / teacher to distinguish between students who can study by
themselves after attending the class and those who are in need of extra and special coaching, is said to
have concurrent validity. The test distinguishes individually who differ in their present status. On the
other hand, the investigator may wish to predict the percentage of passes during the final examination for
that particular period. The adequacy of the test for distinguishing individuals who differ in the future
may be called as predictive validity.
iii) Construct validity.
Both content and criterion validities have limited usefulness for assessing the validity of empirical
measures of theoretical concepts employed in extension and development studies. In this context,
construct validity must be investigated whenever no criterion or universe of content is accepted as
entirely adequate to define the quality to be measured. Examination of construct validity involves
validation not only of the measuring instrument but of the theory underlying it. If the predictions are not
supported, the investigator may have no clear guide as to whether the shortcoming is in the measuring
instrument or in the theory.
Construct validation involves three distinct steps.
a) specify the theoretical relationship between the concepts themselves
b) examine the empirical relationship between the measures of the concepts
c) interpret the empirical evidence in terms of how it clarifies the construct validity of the particular
measure.
Indeed strictly speaking, it is impossible to validate a measure of a concept in this sense unless there is a
theoretical network that surrounds the concept
Q14. Strengths of case study method
Ans.

Q15. Senior Apperception Test

Ans. The 16 stimulus pictures on this test, which was designed specifically for older adults, reflect themes
of loneliness, uselessness, illness, helplessness, and lowered self-esteem, in addition to positive and
happier situations. As in the case of the Gerontological Apperception Test (Wolk and Wolk, 1971), a
similar instrument, responses to the pictures on the Senior Apperception Technique reflect serious
concerns over health, getting along with other people and being placed in a nursing or retirement home.
Both tests have been criticized for inadequate norms and possible stereotyping of the elderly.
Q16. Sheldon’s somatotype personality
Ans. Sheldon on the basis of physical constitution categorised personality into somatotypes. For this he
analysed nude photographs of 4000 students and classified their personality into three basic types. These
three types are: (i) Endomorphic (ii) Ectomorphic (iii) Mesomorphic.
i) Endomorphy – Such persons are short and fatty with a round shape of body. Endomorhphic people are
similar to “pyknic” type mentioned by Kretschmer. They like to eat and drink and make merry. They are
gregarious by nature and have leisurely attitude toward life. Temperament wise Sheldon termed them
“viscerotonia.”
ii) Mesomorphy – These people are muscular types. Their muscles and bones are quite well developed
and they are physically well shaped. These people generally are considered to be toughminded, risk
taking, assertive and aggressive. They like to boss over others. Sheldon called these personalities as
“somatotonia”
iii) Ectomorphy – Such people are tall but thin. Sheldon called them “cerebrotonia”. These people like to
remain away from people.
Q17. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Ans.
Q18. Extraversion and cortical arousal
Ans. According to the arousal theory, Eysenck (1990) provides a biological explanation of extraversion in
terms of cortical arousal via the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS).
Activity in the ARAS stimulates the cerebral cortex, which, in turn, leads to higher cortical arousal.
Cortical arousal can be measured by skin conductance, brain waves, or sweating
Because of the different levels of ARAS activity, “introverts are characterised by higher levels of activity
than extraverts and so are chronically more cortically aroused than extraverts”
Based on the Yerkes-Dodson law, which suggests that arousal and performance have an inverted-U
relationship, the arousal theory of the PEN model assumes that “some intermediate level of arousal is
optimal for performance”