CHAPTER 8

Social Case Work

Section- I
Social case work, a primary method of social work, is concerned with the adjustment and
development of the individuals towards more satisfying human relations. Better family life, improved
schools, better housing, more hospital and medical care facilities, protected economic conditions and
better relations between religious groups help the individual in his adjustment and development. But his
adjustment and development depends on the use of these resources by him sometimes due to certain
factors, internal or external, he fails to avail existing facilities. In such situations, social case worker helps
him. Thus, social case work is one to one relationship which works in helping the individual for his
adjustment and development.
I. Definitions of Social Case Work
Social case work has been defined by following thinkers:
Richmond (1915)
Social case work may be defined as the art of doing different things for and with different people by
cooperating with them to achieve at one and the same time their own and society's betterment. 1
Richmond (1917)
Social case work is the art of bringing about the better adjustments in the social relationships of
individual men, or women or children.2
Richmond (1922)
Social case work means, "those processes which develop personality through adjustment
consciously affected, individual by individual, between men and their social environment." 3
Hollis (1954)
Social case work is a method employed by social workers to help individuals find a solution to
problems of social adjustment which they are unable to handle in a satisfactory way by their own efforts. 4
Hamilton, Gordon (1956)
In social case work the client is stimulated to participate in the study of his situation, to share plans,
to make an active effort to solve his problems, using his own resources and whatever community
resources are available and appropriate.5
Perlman (1957)
Social case work is a process which is used by certain human welfare agencies to help individuals to
cope more effectively with their problems in social functioning.6
The credit goes to Mary Richmond for defining the social case work scientifically. In 1915, she said
that social case work is an art through which help is provided to people for their betterment as well as for
the betterment of society. It means that social case work is essential if any country wants to improve and
develop society and community. But this definition was not clear and, therefore, she defined it again in
1917, in which she emphasized its specific purpose i.e. better adjustment in the social relationships. Again
in 1922, she told that social case work brings about change in the personality of the individual for proper
social adjustment.
Hollis talks of finding a solution to the problems of individual client. According to Perlman, the case
worker's task is to restore or reinforce the client's ability to deal with the problem rather than to deal with
the problem for or with him.
Perlman, while defining the social case work process, has indicated the four-essential components of
social case work in their relationships to one another. A person with a problem comes to a place where
social worker helps him through a well defined process. The person is a man, woman or child, anyone
who finds himself, or is found to be, in need of help in some aspect of his social emotional living, whether
the need be for tangible provisions or counsel. As he begins to receive such help, he is called a client. 7 The
problem arises from some need or obstacle or accumulation of frustrations or maladjustments, and
sometimes all of these together, which threatens or has already attacked the adequacy of the person's
living situation or the effectiveness of his efforts to deal with it.8 The place is a social service agency or a
social service department of another kind of human welfare agency. It is a particular kind of social agency
and department in that it is set up to deal not with social problems at large but with human beings who
are experiencing such problems in the management of their own personal lives. Its purpose is to help
individuals with the particular social handicaps which hamper good personal or family living and with
the problems created by faulty person to-person, person-to-group, or person-to-situation relationships.9
The process, names 'social case work' to denote its centre of attention and its individualized aspect,
is a progressive transaction between the professional helper (the case worker) and the client. It consists of
a series of problem solving operations carried on within a meaningful relationship. The end of this
process is contained in its means to influence the client person that he develops effectiveness in coping
with his problem and/or to so influence the problem as to resolve it or vitiate its effects. 10
Evolution of Social Case Work
The social case work as a method of social work has emerged from the processes of industrialization
and its concomitant urbanization. It is the offspring of Charity organization societies movement, which
was introduced in the late 1870s. But the first theoretical formulations of the social case work are
associated with the publication of Mary Richmond's book 'Social Diagnosis' in 1917.
Case work has gone through several discernible stages. These are (i) the exploratory and
disciplinary, (2) the sociological, (3) the psycho-social11 and (4) the synthetic or integrated.
i) The Exploratory and Disciplinary Stage
Josephine Shaw Lowell, founder of the New York Charity Organization Society, and many other
social workers believed that the unworthy poor should be provided financial assistance. These workers
were motivated by desires to:
1. Deal kindly but firmly with individuals in need, primarily the self- respecting and working poor, the
public agencies to deal with others by repressive methods.
2. Reduce duplication in relief administration as between agencies.
3. Conduct careful inquiries into the extent of personal needs.
4. Help people with certain types of personal problems contributing to poverty such as sickness, and to
deny help to others, who were lazy, intemperate and extravagant.
5. Give their time and effort without remuneration to the alleviation of suffering and to the diminution
of extravagant relief administration.12
ii) The Sociological Stage
In 1901, Mary Richmond presented a chart showing the environment forces influencing the family
and argues for the analysis of social situation before providing any help. She wrote a very valuable book
'Social Diagnosis' in 1917, which reflects sociological point of view of social case work. In 1922, she
published another book 'What is Social Case Work? in which she defined the social case work as: "Social
case work consists of those processes which develop personality through adjustments consciously
effected, individual by individual, between men and their social environment." 13
iii) The Psycho-social Stage
World War I was a major turning point in the practice of the social case work. The Psychiatric Wave
forced the social case work away from its appropriate concern with social issues towards an
inappropriate preoccupation with mental phenomena. Influence of Freudian Concept spread and the
social case work became a psycho-dynamic case work. Valuable contributions were made by Towle,
Bibring, Turner, Austin, Bandler, Parad, Hollis, Smalley, Garrett, etc.
 The other contributors are Miss Robinson, who wrote a book 'A Changing Psychology in Social Case
Work', Taft who wrote a book 'A Functional Approach to Family Case Work.'
In this phase, the following contribution was made to the philosophy and practice of social case
work;
1. Interest in the cause of human distress conceived of as deriving from the social situation or physical
environment. Interest in the family as the social unit having most importance in the development of
human adjustment but with little appreciation of the nature of psychological interactions within the
family.
2. Efforts to find the most scientific way of doing things and the development of a methodology for
social diagnosis.
3. Belief that most people will make adjustments to life if their environment was favourable. If it is
unfavourable, the social worker has the function or removing or of having removed the disrupting
condition.
4. Interest in the effect of social environment upon human personality but without much
understanding of causation and mechanisms of behaviour.
5. Belief in the values of friendly contracts and their effects upon personality but with little awareness
of what in the net period was so energetically studied-psychological relationships and the dynamics
of interaction.
iv) The Synthetic or Integrated Stage
The Milford Conference in 1925 appointed a committee under the Chairmanship of Porter Lee to
define the nature of generic social work. Milford Conference accepted the report of the Committee which
recommended. "Social case work deals with the human being whose capacity to organize his own normal
activities may be impaired by one or more deviations from accepted standards or normal social life. The
use of norms is essential because without use of norms purposeful activity is difficult. Social history of
the client is significant for the particularization of the care. The purpose of social case work is to assist the
individual to develop his capacity to organize his own normal social activities."
Since the publication of the Milford Conference Report 1929, a number of books on social case work
theory and practice have been published, Lowry edited Reading in Social Case Work: 1920-1938 in 1939.
Hallis brought out Social Case Work in Practice in 1939. Hamilton published, Theory and Practice of
Social Case Work in 1940.
II. Basic Assumption of Social Case Work
Hamilton has described the following main assumptions of the social case work:
1. Individual and society are interdependent.
2. Social forces influence behaviour and attitudes, affording opportunity for self-development and
contribution to the world in which we live.
3. Not only are all problems psycho-social inner and outer but most case work problems are
interpersonal, that is, more than one person is likely to be involved in the treatment of the
individual, and particularly in case work the family unit is involved.
4. The client is a responsible participant at every step in the solutions of his problems;
5. At the center of the case work process is the conscious and controlled use of the worker-client
relationship to achieve the ends of treatment.14
III. Purpose of Social Case Work
The basic purpose of social case work is to enable the client to enjoy with some degree of
permanency, more satisfying, effective and acceptable experience in the social situation in which he finds
himself. To achieve this goal, efforts are made to bring effective changes in the client's environment or
social living situation, through clarifying the clients possibly distorted perception of it or strengthening
his capacities for coping with it.15 Its essential task is the facilitation of social relationship. According to
Witmer 'the chief aim of social case work is that of helping people to mobilize their capacities for the
solution of the problems that brought them to the attention of social agencies.'16
In general, the purpose of social case work is to help an individual client to solve his psycho-social
problems in such a way so that he finds himself capable of dealing with these problems at present and
also may solve in future if such problems arise. Thus social case work has the following objectives:
1. To understand and solve the internal problems of the individual.
2. To strengthen his ego power.
3. Remediation of problems in social functioning.
4. Prevention of problems in social functioning.
5. Development of resources to enhance social functioning.
IV. The 4Ps, 4Rs, and 4Ms of Case Work17
For many years, Perlman's (1957) 4 Ps (person, problem, place, and process) have proven useful to
social workers as a way of organizing their thoughts about a client, his or her situation, and the agency
context of social work intervention. Doremus (1976) suggests the 4 Rs (roles, reactions, relationships, and
resources) as a way of conceptualizing assessment in health care settings. In addition, the authors offer
the 4 Ms (motivation, meanings, management, and monitoring) as further reminders of important
elements in social work intervention.
A blending of the 4 Ps, 4 Rs, and 4 Ms results in a 12-item, easily remembered conceptual tool that
can help a worker sift through available data, organize it, and begin formulating an intervention plan. As
used here, the word client refers to an individual. However, the underlying ideas that make up the 4 P/4
R/4 M can be applied to work with other client systems, including couples, families, or small groups.
The 4 Ps
1. Problem
  What is the nature of the client's problem or concern? Its cause, intensity, frequency, and
duration?
  How does the client define or describe it? How do others who know the client define it? How
does the worker define it?
  Can this problem or situation be changed? What aspects of the problem can feasibly be
addressed in a change effort by the worker and client?
  How effective have previous efforts by the client, agency, or worker been n dealing with this
problem or concern?
  Is the problem or situation an emergency that requires as rapid response?
  What would the consequences be if the worker or agency does nothing for or with the client?
2. Person
  How are the various dimensions of the whole person (e.g., physical, emotional social,
economic, and spiritual) related to or affected by the client's problem, concern, or situation?
  What client strengths or assets can be used as a foundation on which to build an effective
intervention plan and change process?
  How might the client's usual ways of thinking and behaving become barriers to dealing
effectively with the problem or concern?
3. Place
  What meaning does the client assign to his or her involvement with the agency (e.g.,
hopefulness, stigma, fear, humiliation, etc.)?
  Can the agency provide the services needed by the client? If not, is referral to another agency
likely to be effective?
  Are the agency's own procedures, policies, or methods somehow contributing to the client's
problems?
4. Process
  What type of helping approach, method, or technique is the client likely to find acceptable?
  What approach, method, or technique is likely to be effective?
  How will the requirements of the helping process (time, fees, scheduling, etc.) affect the client's
current roles and responsibilities?
The 4 Rs
1. Roles
  What roles and responsibilities does the client have in life (e.g., parent, spouse, employee, etc.)?
  What do others (e.g., family, employers, etc.) expect of the client?
  How satisfied is the client with his or her role performance?
2. Reactions
  What are the client's reactions (e.g., physical, behavioral, and emotional) to his or her problems,
concerns, and situation?
  How do these reactions compare to his or her usual patterns? Is the client in a state of crisis?
3. Relationships
  What people are significant and meaningful parts of the client's life (e.g., family, peers, friends,
etc.)?
  How are they being affected by the client's problem or situation?
  How is the behavior of significant others contributing to the client's current problem or
situation?
4. Resources
 What formal and informal resources has the client used in the past to cope with similar
problems? Are these resources available to the client?
  What new or additional resources are now needed by the client? Are they available? Is the
client willing to use them?
  Is the client eligible for or able to pay for needed services and programs?
The 4 Ms
1. Motivation
  What does the client want to do about his or her problem or situation?
  What discomfort or aversive factors are pushing the client toward action?
  What factors of hope are pulling the client toward action?
  What can be done to increase client motivation?
2. Meanings
  What meaning does the client assign to his or her situation, and problems?
  What ethnic, cultural, and religious beliefs and values are important to the client and relevant
to the current problem or situation?
3. Management
  How can the worker best use his or her limited time, energy, and resources to help the client
deal with the problem or situation?
  What overall plan or strategy will guide the worker's activity with the client?
  How will work with this client affect the worker's other responsibilities? Stages of Team
Development Stage 1:
4. Monitoring
  How will the worker monitor his or her impact on the client and evaluate the effectiveness of
the intervention?
  How can the worker use peers, supervisors, or consultants to monitor and evaluate
intervention?
V. Client-Case Worker Relationship
The term 'relationship' in social case work was used for the first time by Miss Virginia Robinson in
her book: 'A Changing Psychology in Social Case Work' in 1939. Relationship is the case workers
responsible and disciplined use of himself in working with a client. The relationship is the channel
through which the mobilization of the capacities of the client is made possible. The relationship is the
medium through which the client is enabled to state his problem and through which attention can be
focused on reality problems, which may be as full of conflict as emotional problems. 18 A case work
relationship is the professional meeting of two persons for the purpose of assisting one of them, the client,
to make a better, a more acceptable adjustment to a personal problem. 19 Within the democratic frame of
reference, the professional relationship involves a mutual process of shared responsibilities, recognition
of other's rights, acceptance of difference, with the goal, not of isolation, but of socialized attitudes and
behaviour stimulating growth through interaction.20
Characteristics of Case Worker-Client Relationship
Perlman21 has described the following characteristics of case worker- client relationship:
1. Vital relationships between people rise out of shared and emotionally charged situations.
2. All growth-producing relationships, of which the case work relationship is one, contain elements of
acceptance and expectation, support and stimulation.
3. The identifying mark of a professional relationship is its conscious purposiveness growing out of the
knowledge of what must go into achieving the goal.
4. The case work relationship begins as the client shares some part of his problem and as the case
worker demonstrates that he feels with the client at the same time that he has professional
competence to being to dealing with the problem.
5. The case worker relationship may have several therapeutic values.
6. Relationship needs and difficulties from outside the case work situation may intrude into and
complicate the case work relationship and may have to be death with.
7. The case worker, too, has relationship reactions, and part of his professional skill in the management
of them.
Purpose of Relationship
The case work relationship is the dynamic interaction of attitudes and emotions between the case
worker and the client, with the purpose of helping the client to achieve a better adjustment between
himself and his environment.22 Thus, the purpose of establishing relationship is to help the client with his
psycho-social needs and problems. Its other purposes are:
1. Better solution of client's problem.
2. Exploitation of means for solving problem.
3. Stating reality and emotional problems.
4. Solution of the personal problem.
5. Development of personality.
The Principles of Case Worker and Client Relationship
Biestek23 has described 7 principles of case work relationship. These are:
1. Principle of Acceptance
 Acceptance is a principle of action wherein the case worker perceives and deals with the client as he
really is, including his strengths and weaknesses, his congenial and uncongenial qualities, his positive
and negative feelings, his constructive and destructive attitudes and behaviour, maintaining all the while
a sense of the clients' innate dignity and personal worth. The purpose of acceptance is therapeutic: to aid
the case worker in understanding the client as he really is, thus making case worker more effective; and
to help the client free himself and look at himself as he really is, and thus to deal with his problem and
himself in a more realistic way.
2. Principle of Individualization
Individualization is the recognition and understanding of each client's unique qualities and the
different use of principles and methods in assisting each towards a better adjustment. Individualization is
based upon the right of human beings to be individuals and to be treated not just as a human being to be
individuals and to be treated not just as a human being but as this human being with his personal
differences.
2. Principle of Purposeful Expression of Feelings
Purposeful expression of feelings is the recognition of the client's need to express his feelings freely,
especially his negative feelings. The case worker listens purposefully, neither discouraging nor
condemning the expression of these feelings, sometimes even actively stimulating and encouraging them
when they are therapeutically useful as a part of the case work service.
3. Principle of Controlled Emotional Involvement
The controlled emotional involvement is the case worker's sensitivity to the clients' feelings, an
understanding of their meaning, and a purposeful, appropriate response to the client's feelings.
5. Principle of Non-Judgmental Attitude
The non-judgmental attitude is a quality of the case work relationship, it is based on a conviction
that the case work function excludes assigning guilt or innocence, or degree of client responsibility for
causation of the problems or needs, but does include making evaluative judgments about the attitudes,
standards, or action of the client, the attitude which involves both thought and feeling elements, is
transmitted to the client.
6. Principle of Client Self-determination
The principle of client self-determination is the practical recognition of the right and need of clients
of freedom in making their own choices and decisions in the case work process. Case workers have a
corresponding duty to respect that right, recognize that need, stimulate and help to activate that potential
for self-direction by helping the client to see and use the available and appropriate resources of the
community and of his own personality. The client's right to self-determination, however, is limited by the
client's capacity for positive and constructive decision making, by the framework of civil and moral law,
and by the function of the agency.
7. Principle of Confidentiality
Confidentiality is the preservation of secret information concerning the client which is disclosed in
the professional relationship. Confidentiality is based upon a basic right of the client; it is an ethical
obligation of the case worker and is necessary for effective case work service. The client's right, however,
in not absolute. Moreover, the client's secret is often shared with other professional persons within the
agency and in other agencies; the obligation then binds all equally.
Friedlander24 has mentioned two types of principles.
A. Generic Principles
(i) The principle of acceptance
(ii) The principle of communication
(iii) The principle of individualization
(iv) The principle of participation
 (v) The principle of client self-determination
(vi) The principle of confidentiality
(vii) The principle of case worker self-awareness
B. Differential Principles
(i) In a stressful situation, involving a client who presents evidence of inadequacies in current role
functions, whose current mode of adaptation to this loss seems appropriate (not markedly
regressive) and who demonstrated the possession of a clear perception of the problems and
what may be needed for their solution-which is evidence of effective ego-functioning- the goal
and techniques of environmental modification and ego support are applicable.
(ii) In a stressful situation, involving a client who presents evidence of inadequacies in current role
functions and whose mode of adaptation seems either (a) appropriate (not markedly
regressive) or else, at the other extreme, (b) markedly in appropriate and regressive, and who
demonstrates the possession of either (a) a clear perception of the problems and what may be
needed for their solution-evidence of effective ego-functioning or (b) markedly in accurate or
distorted perception of the problems- evidence of grossly ineffective ego- functioning-the goals
and techniques of environmental modification and ego-support are applicable.
(iii) With a diagnosis of relatively strong ego-functioning, of some but not marked regressive
modes of adaptation, and of rather satisfying and effective performance in key social roles, the
case worker may engage with clients in the goals and techniques of clarifying the effects and
meaning of the clients' behaviour.
(iv) When problems in role fulfilment are bases primarily in intrapsyschic hindrances to effective
and satisfying modes of adaptation and the client's potential and satisfying modes of
adaptation and the client's potential level of ego-functioning is a high one, the goals and
techniques of uncovering the "forgotten causes of behaviour are applicable."
VI. Social Case Work Process
There are three phases of social case Work practice: Social investigation or psycho-social study,
diagnosis and treatment or management.
First Phase
1. Social Investigation (Psycho-Social Study)
Nothing happens on this earth without any reason. In other words, every happening has a definite
cause. Definite cause does not exist in vaccum rather in a natural phenomenon. It is very interesting to
note that today man is not just considered the creature rather a creator as well. This particular change in
the status of man has tempted him to quench his thirst of knowledge not only about the natural
phenomena rather today's man is much interested to understand human behaviours in a very scientific
and precise way. Social case worker is also interested in gaining this knowledge for its successful
functioning.
Before conceiving the term social investigation, Mary Richmond herself toyed with such terms as
"social-evidence" "learned seeking", "social inquiry" and ultimately shifted her choice upon the term social
investigation. Social investigation is the foundation upon which the various helping processes, actions
and treatment techniques are built. For every social work activity- whether it is at individual level of
family level or community and societal level, the social investigation is indispensable. Social
Investigations helps to find out the social realities of the clients and their families, to identify the problem
areas and to formulate treatment, rehabilitation and after care strategies.
It is rightly pointed out by Hamilton that social investigation is a psycho-social process. It
transcends much beyond the assessment of the individual client or family. The Intra-psychic forces are
inseparably linked with social forces. To understand the individual as psycho-social entity, the analysis of
his relationship with others and others related with him is equally important.
Contents of Social Investigation
 Perlman25 has given the following contents of the case work study in the beginning phase.
(1) The nature of the presenting problem
(2) The significance of this problem
(3) The cause (s), onset and precipitants of the problem
(4) The efforts made to cope with problem solving
(5) The nature of the solution or ends sought from the case work agency
(6) The actual nature of this agency and its problem solving means in relation to the client and his
problem.
Social case worker attempts to investigate the following facts:
(1) Nature of the Problem
He tries to know major complaints, beginning of the problems, the nature of the problem, severity of
the problem, implications of the problem, location of the problem, causation of the problem, scope of the
problem (who are other affected persons) etc.
(2) Client's Feelings and Reactions
Case worker attempts to find out attitude of the client towards his problem, the analysis and
interpretation made by him about his problem, the relationship between client and problem, capacities,
competencies and weaknesses of the client.
(3) Client's Efforts to Solve Problems
Social case worker acquires knowledge about the efforts made by the client to deal with his
problems, the help taken so far, help taking organization and agencies, effects of help, client's evaluation
towards these help receiving agencies and the time spent in these agencies
(4) Social Conditions
He investigates the clear picture of family, its environment and its impact on the client. He also
gains knowledge of schools and its effect on the client. Apart from these social agencies, he makes
attempts to know the impact of neighbour, working place and religious, economic and political
institutions.
(5) Psycho-social Development of the Client
In this area, case worker gets information about the pre and post natal care of the client, his early
development, childhood, schooling, socialization patterns, home environment, marital history,
occupational history, habits and relationship with others.
(6) Personality of the Client
For the proper diagnosis, the case worker gives much emphasis to gather information regarding
personality characteristics of the client i.e. knowledge, feelings, wishes, temperament, ego-strength,
sensitivity, adaptability, communication patterns, cooperation, sympathy, tolerance, responsibility,
expression of emotions, devotion to work, motivational state and level of aspirations and weaknesses in
his personality.
Techniques of Social Investigation
There are two fundamental techniques of social investigation, i.e. (i) Interview and (ii) Observation.
The process of social investigation is initiated and carried through by the process of interview.
Professional skill in this area requires not only theoretical knowledge about the psychology of human
behaviour but also considerable case work experience in which the worker's technique is repeatedly
analysed. The interview is used for securing information about the client as well as his problems
including his relationships with other persons in his social and personal environment. Through the
interview situation, the case worker attempts to instruct and guide both the client and others who play
significant roles in his life and attempts to manipulate the environment for the benefit of the client.
 Observation is always coupled with interviewing. It makes possible to record behaviour of the client
as it occurs. It yields clues as to the pathological patterns of communication, pathogenic relating and
defective role playing and polarization of power and authority among the family members which are of
etiological significance.
Tools of Social Investigation
The following tools are used by social case worker in collecting the relevant information for
diagnosis and treatment:
(1) Interview guide and schedule
(2) Life Chart
(3) Video recording of family interaction
(4) Tape recorded interview
Second Phase
2. Social Diagnosis
Diagnosis, like treatment, begins with the first glance between the help giver and help-seeker.26
Social diagnosis is the attempt to arrive at an exact a definition as possible of the social situation and
personality of a given client. It is a search for the causes of the problem which brings the client to the
worker for help. Diagnosis is (i) an explanation formulation in the light of known facts (both tangible fact
items and psychological fact items): (ii) an explanation made in the knowledge of other possible
explanations; and (iii) subject to change or revision whenever subsequent material warrants a different
explantion.27 Diagnosis is, therefore, concerned with understanding both the psychological or personality
factors which bear a causal relation to the client's difficulty and the social or environmental factors which
tend to sustain it.28
Content of Social Diagnosis
Content of the case work diagnosis falls into a triangular pattern. It consists of:
1. Nature of the problem brought and the goals sought by the client, in their relationship to;
2. Nature of the person who bears the problem (his social and psychological situation and functioning)
and who seeks (or needs) help with his problem, in relation to;
3. Nature and purpose of the agency and the kind of help it can offer and/or make available. 29
Process of Making Diagnosis
A diagnosis has been broken down into a number of stages: gathering the data, the diagnostic study,
the diagnosis itself or the evaluation and the diagnostic product.
(1) Gathering Data
Data are gathered from the interview of the client, repeat, agency's records, reports from other
members of the team, other agencies, schools, relatives. Home visit is also an important source of data
collection. The accuracy of data depends on worker's skill of interviewing, individualization, acceptance,
communication and involvement.
(2) Diagnostic Study
The study attempts to identify the problem areas which are important for social case work
involvement.
(3) Diagnosis or Evaluation
This means finding the nature of the problem, its organization and extent and who is going to be
affected. Factors responsible for the problem may be one or more than one of the following:
(i) Physical-physical illness or disability, how the sufferer feels, how his family and others feel. Effect of
physical illness-dependent, tired, irritable, depressed, self image lowering, distort relationship,
disrupt communication.
(ii) Psychological- The assessment is made of the quality of libidinal relationship, dependency,
narcissistic tendencies, sexual identification, quality of aggressiveness, channelization of
aggressiveness, nature of super ego, consistency of ego and superego, defense, used degree of
discomfort the problem cause him, the nature of desire to change it, the effect that change may have
upon other members.
(iii) Social-The following facets of social environment generally come within the diagnosis:
1. Income level-high, low, consistent, uncertain, effect on the present problem.
2. Housing-loan taken, rented, adjustment with landlord/tenant, overcrowding, basic facilities
lacking/sufficient.
3. Neighbourhood-tolerant/intolerant/supportive/conflict, views toward client etc.
4. Employment-job availability, prospects, remuneration, level, security, status, condition of
work, job satisfaction.
5. Religion- believes in values, offering support-consolation, expressive, outlets, sublimation,
reinforcing problems - guilt, tension.
6. Availability/quality/attitude and attitudes (client) to social organization and services : medical
facilities, courts, credit organizations, legal advice centers, Post office, social security,
7. Prejudice, tension etc.
8. Educational problems.
Types of Diagnosis
Perlman30 has described three types of diagnosis that is carried on in social case work process. These
are: Dynamic diagnosis, Clinical diagnosis and Etiological diagnosis.
(1) Dynamic Diagnosis
Dynamic diagnosis gives an understanding of the current problem of the client and the forces
currently operating within the client, within social environment and between him/his environment. It
gives the answers of the question- what is the trouble? What psychological, physical and social factors
contribute to it? what solution is sought? What are the means available within the client and his
environment? What are organized? The nature of such diagnosis is changeable because it is the beginning
phase of social work practice.
(2) Clinical Diagnosis
Under clinical diagnosis, the case worker attempts to classify the client by the nature of his
sickness/problem. He identifies certain forms and qualities of client's personality, maladaptation and
malfunctioning in his behaviour. The clinical diagnosis describes both the nature of the problem and its
relation to the client and the helping means and goals. Such type of diagnosis is useful only when it
becomes apparent that a disorder of personality accompanies the social disorder, creating and
complicating it.
(3) Etiological Diagnosis
Etiological diagnosis is concerned with the explanation of the beginnings and life-history of problem
of the client, basically that problem that lies in the client's personality make up or functioning. The history
of his development as a problem encountering, problem-solving human being may provide the case
worker with an understanding of what his client suffers from and what the extent of his coping ability is
likely to be.31 Etiological diagnosis is more useful in explaining or rigid reactions. When inspite of the fact
that the client's present problems are in the centre of attention, the clients responses are not in accordance
with, the past history and its appraisal in the light of client's current capacities, goals and problems are
used for the treatment. This type of diagnosis contributes to understanding the nature of the problem to
be dealt with, the person who has the problem, and the ways and means that can be anticipated as
helpful.
Data for Diagnosis
 The data for diagnosis can be collected by at least three primary means:
(1) Interviews
Interview guides are used for collecting information. There are number of standard guides prepared
by psychologist but most recent guide is of Goldfried and Davison32 having the categories of information:
client's behaviour during the interview and physical description, presenting problem (s) (nature of
problems, historical setting, events, current situation determinants, relevant organizmic variables,
dimensions of the problem, consequences of the problem): targets for modification, recommended
treatment (s), motivation of treatment, prognosis, priority for treatment, client expectation, other
information, comments, or observations.
(2) Checklists and Inventories
The following inventories may be used: Survey Schedule Questionnaire on client's perception of
himself, family functioning, marital functioning, sexual functioning and instruments for assessing
environments.
(3) Direct Observation
Observation in those situation in which the behaviour actually occurs, e.g., home or place of work
makes the work of diagnosing very easy.
Steps in Diagnosis
The following steps are taken while diagnosing a problem:
(1) The worker begins to focus on problematic behaviours. He begins with the survey of both functional
and dysfunctional behaviours in his environment. He classifies various complaints and problems in
terms of excesses and deficits. He evaluates client's personal strength as well as of his environment.
(2) He specifies the target behaviours. This involves an attempt at breaking down complex behaviours
into their component parts, being as clear and precise as possible about them.
(3) Baseline data are collected to specify those events that appear to be currently controlling the
problematic behaviours.
(4) The collected information is summarized in an attempt to anticipate any major problems in
treatment and as a way of beginning to establish objectives for treatment.
(5) Selecting priorities for treatment is the final step of the diagnosis.
(6) Concentration on one problem at one time makes treatment process more manageable and allows
both client and worker to channel their energies into one area. It is the best of handling and proper
use of available resources.
Third Phase
3. Social Treatment
Social case work consists of those processes which develop personality through adjustments
consciously affected between men and their social environment32. Generally, two types of efforts are
required for social adjustment-environmental modification/and/or change in behaviour and attitudes.
Early case work treatment was placed on modification through the environment. Later on the
development of ego psychology helped social case workers to use intensive and direct treatment
techniques. Now the aim of social case work treatment is to restore the individual to social functioning or
to help him develop this capacity in order that he may achieve at one and at the same time his own and
society's betterment.33
According to Hamilton, treatment is the sum total of all activities and services directed towards
helping an individual with a problem. The focus is the relieving of the immediate problem and, if
feasible, modify any basic difficulties which precipitated it36.
The objectives of social case work treatment are as follows:
(1) To prevent social breakdown;
(2) to conserve client's strength;
(3) to restore social functioning;
(4) to provide happy experiences to the client;
(5) to create opportunities for growth and development;
(6) to compensate psychological damage;
(7) to increase capacity for self-direction;
(8) to increase his social contribution.
Thus, the objective of social case work treatment is to alleviate the client's distress and decrease the
mal-functioning in the person-situation system. It is to enhance the client's comfort, satisfaction, and self-
realization. This may require enhancing the adaptive skills of his ego and the functioning of the person-
situation system.37
V. Social Case Work Treatment Process
Social case work treatment process begins with the initial contact with the client. The process of
treatment passes through many phases, i.e. (i) Initial phase, (ii) Motivation and role induction, (iii)
Primary contract, (iv) Diagnosis and assessment, (v) Establishing treatment goals, (vi) Developing
treatment plan, (vii) Preparation for actual treatment, (viii) treatment in practice (ix) Monitoring and
evaluating the effects of treatment, and (x) Planning of follow up termination of the therapeutic
relationship.
(I) Initial Phase
The main task of social case worker in the initial phase is to examine how the problem was brought
to his attention. He would attempt to focus on aspects of the problem that seem fit to case work
treatment. Here the decisions of the worker are tentative. The initial phase of social case work treatment
will be thought completed when the case worker meets the following conditions.
1. The issues have been sufficiently identified so as to substantiate that they are appropriate to the
purposes and goals of the service.
2. The participants understand the nature and meaning of the problem with enough explicitness to
permit engagement and participation.
3. The problem is appropriate to the programme, resources and services of the setting.
4. The problem fits the practitioner's skill and capabilities.
The social case worker develops a preliminary understanding of the problem and the client. He also
provides psychological support and help to the client and engages him in a therapeutic relationship. It is
quite possible that through this initial process of treatment, client may learn that he really does not need
further help as the problem has been sufficiently clarified and explained. It is also possible that the
agency may not have concrete service to the client and the case worker may become bound to refer the
case to the particular agency. If the case is to be continued with the case worker, he takes a decision
whether to move system-oriented treatment or towards person centred treatment.
(II) Motivation and Role Induction
One of the most important tasks of social case worker at the beginning of the treatment process is to
build and develop the therapeutic relationship between himself and the client. Worker's empathy,
warmth and genuineness feelings are highly motivating forces for the client to take part in the therapeutic
process. The objective of this phase is to minimizing premature terminations and enhance motivation to
continue the treatment. At this phase the worker finds the resistances of the client and its genuineness. He
explores client's perception of why he is involved in the treatment and how he feels about being in the
agency. He also encourages client to specify his expectations of clarifying the roles and responsibilities of
both himself and the client. He also clarifies the type of services agency can offer and tells the boundaries
to those services. These activities and role of the social case worker help to engage the client in
therapeutic planning.
(III) Primary Contract
 The objective of this phase is to develop a preliminary contract with the client. This contract may be
oral or in writing. The case worker, thus making psychological contract (relationship), sets the stage to
move towards more formal assessment.
(IV) Diagnosis and Assessment
Diagnosis and assessment process is ongoing throughout the entire treatment. The social case
worker provides detailed information about the problem situation that will help in establishing the
treatment goal, a strategy of treatment and selection of specific procedures of treatment. The case worker
assesses the client's ego strength, skillness, capabilities and capacities in relation to his problem. He
classifies the excesses and deficits in his behaviour and selects the specific treatment procedures to be
used to overcome the problem. He assesses whether the client needs advice, counsel, behaviour
modification, crisis intervention or consultancy services like teaching, consultation, interpretation,
supervision or provision of adult services i.e. material help; resource location and referral.
(V) Establishing Treatment Goals
The social case worker, after diagnosis and assessment of the problems of the client, establishes
goals for the solution of the problem. He selects any one or more goals out of the following: (i) prevention
of break down, (ii) ego strengthening, (iii) restoration of social functioning, (iv) creation of opportunities
for growth and development, (v) self direction experience, (vi) social participation experience, (vii)
change in the environment. The social case worker along with this work, points out the negative and
positive results that may come due to change in the behavioural patterns of the client or due to
environmental manipulation. Though the client has the major say in deciding on goals, the case worker
plays an important role by clarifying, a variety of alternative goals for his consideration.
(VI) Developing Treatment Plan
Treatment plan involves three major dimensions: formulating of strategy, selection of specific
treatment procedures and developing a method for evaluating the impact of the treatment programme.
The social case worker decides whether the primary thrust of the invention or treatment will be system
centred, person-centred or both. He, then, makes a judgement as to which of the key roles of the case
worker is most suited to the particular problem. The entire process of formulating a treatment strategy
may be depicted like this.38
Assessment and Establishment of Goals

Formulate intervention Strategy

System centred Person centered

Direct Environment

Increase behaviours Decrease behavours Change cognitive Patterns

Cognitive Problem solving Self-Control

Restructuring and Decision Making
(VII) Preparation for Actual Treatment
Preparation for actual treatment phase involves several specific steps such as collecting all possible
information, formation of action system, preparation of mediator (s) if needed, change of significant
elements in the client's environment to increase the probability of getting desired result, make attempt to
make the new behaviour acceptable to the client and to provide high level of close relationship with the
client.
(VIII) Application of Treatment Methods
In order to achieve the goals set by the case worker, conventionally the following methods of social
treatment have been mentioned:
1. Administration of Practical Services
2. Indirect Treatment (Environmental Manipulation)
3. Direct treatment
1. Administration of Practical Services
The client is helped to choose and use the social resources afforded by the community. Porter Lee 39
was the first social worker who emphasized and classified such resources into executive and leadership
Administration of practical services means to help the client in such a way that he could select and use
the resources available in the community. The social case worker helps the client with adequate
knowledge of available resources through the techniques of discussion, information, clarification and
direction. The use of services is essential to solve any kind of problem and if the problem is of social
nature, then it becomes more essential for the worker to help the client in this direction. These services
take the form of treatment as they satisfy his needs and give satisfaction. The client knows what type of
services he needs but he does not know how to reach to these services. It is the job of the case worker to
take the client to the resources. Money, medical care, nursery schools, scholarships, foster/homes, legal
aid, recreational facilities, etc. are such type of services that any person may need in order to resolve a
given problem in his daily living.
2. Indirect Treatment (Environmental Manipulation)
Environmental manipulation means to bring change in the social conditions of the client so that he
may be relieved from excessive stresses and strains. The case worker suggests as to what steps may or
may not help the client to cope better, with his problems. He plans with him as to his emotional,
professional and recreational activities. He gives appropriate advice to members of his environment and
modifies their attitude favourably. Though interview is used in this method but the main emphasis is
given to change in his conditions. When social resources and systematized social conditions are used as
main sources for the solution of the problem, it becomes social treatment. Home services camps, Group
experience activities, training and employment for livelihood and other activities of adjustmental nature
are such types of programmes. The purpose of such activities is always to minimize the load of tension in
the client.
The social case worker organizes such types of activities through which the client's experiences help
him in his personality growth and adjustment in the society. Though practical services are also made
available but the focus is always on change in conditions. Attempts are also made to change and modify
the attitude of parents, teachers, spouse, employer, friends and relatives in accordance with the needs of
the client.
In general, environmental modification (manipulation) is under taken by the case worker only when
environmental pressures upon the client are beyond the latter's control but can be modified by the case
worker.40
3. Direct Treatment
Perlman sees direct treatment as the provision of a systematic but flexible way in which the client
can work over his problem, his relation to it and possible solutions. Here the case worker exerts his
influence directly on the client. Direct treatment techniques are used where the client needs direction
because of his ignorance, anxiety and weaknesses of his ego strengths. The degree of influence that the
case worker is able to exert may depend on the relationship between himself and the client.
Modes of Direct Treatment
Direct treatment is given through counselling, therapeutic interviewing, clarification and
interpretation leading to insight. Supportive treatment for the direct benefit of the client is provided
through guidance, externalization of interests re-assurance, suggestion, persuation and advice.
(1) Counselling
Counselling is a personal help directed towards the solution of a problem which a person finds that
he cannot solve himself and on which he, therefore, seeks the help of a skilled person, whose knowledge,
experience and general orientation can be brought into play in an attempt to solve the problem. It is a
psychological help in which information and clarification is used for making the client aware about the
problem. It is always used for some particular purpose like marriage counselling, occupational
counselling, family counselling, school counselling, etc.
(2) Therapeutic Interviewing
Therapeutic interviewing is used where intra-psychic conflict is projected to the environment or
neuroses or behaviour disorders are acted out. The purpose of such interviewing is that of purpose of
psychotherapy which aims towards personality growth in the direction of maturing, competence and
self-actualization. For the analysis of the unconscious, the social case worker applies the techniques of
free association, dream interpretation, analysis of resistances and transference. For behaviour
modification, the social case worker makes use of the techniques of positive enforcement, negative
enforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment, systematic desensitization and covert
desensitization.
Sometimes faulty communication and faulty interaction play basic role in developing maladaptive
behaviour. For the improvement of interpersonal relations and correct the communication, the social case
worker practices marital and family therapy techniques and Transactional Analysis.
(3) Clarification
It is also a kind of counselling through which clarification of the client himself, his environment and
the public with whom he is associated, is made. The social case worker gives such understanding to the
client so that he becomes capable of understanding himself, his environment and his social network. The
clarification may consist of giving the client information about the environment or people in the
environment, which he does not possess and without which he cannot see clearly what steps he ought to
take.41
(4) Interpretation and Insight
Sometimes conflicting feelings and strong emotions lead the individual to distort reality so seriously
or react to it so inappropriately that understanding is impossible without a deeper perception. The social
case worker interprets the factors of the problem, related facts, attitudes of client and unconscious
feelings in relation to the reality situation. He helps the client to an awareness of his strong projection of
his inner needs and his subjective responses upon the outer world. Insight development is always
accompanied by some degree of clarification and psychological support.
(5) Psychological Support
Psychological support is useful in decreasing tension and guilt, increasing self confidence,
encouraging healthy functioning or a way of functioning that maintains the client's equilibrium and in
helping him to build up compensatory strengths and satisfactions. 33 The following help is provided to the
client. He is encouraged to express his feelings. The case worker accepts him and his feelings and shows
keen interest in him. He clarifies the problem and encourages to take his own decision. The social case
worker, through psychological support, does not develop understanding in the client but applies
reinforcement for his ego strength through the techniques of guidance, reassurance, suggestion,
precaution and advice.
(IX) Monitoring and Evaluation
Monitoring provides the crucial feedback to the case worker and the client regarding whether
established goals have been achieved, whether modifications in the programme are necessary and
whether the client is being helped in the real sense. The social case worker evaluates the content of the
programme and its effectiveness and inner strength gained by the client and success of himself in helping
the client.
(x) Planning Follow Up and the Termination of Therapeutic Relationship
 It is neither wise nor necessary for the termination to be an abrupt one. The frequency and amount
of contacts should be gradually decreased. Particularly, the follow-up should be planned on a
progressively diminishing basis, first, perhaps after two weeks, then a month, then three months, six
months and a year following the termination of the formal programme.

Section- II
Diagnostic and Functional Schools of Social Case Work
The nature of social case work is dynamic and continuous progress is being made in its techniques
and methodological procedures. In the beginning, the aim of social work was to help but, later on, due to
influence of psychology and psychiatry personality of the social case work, basic orientations of social
case workers are of different kind with the result that the diagnostic and functional schools appeared in
the practice of social case work.
Diagnostic School
The Diagnostic school is basically founded on the Freudian Theory of Psycho-analysis. The credit for
giving a shape to these thoughts in the form of a school goes to Mary Richmond who wrote the first book
on social case work i.e. social Diagnosis in 1917. However, the approach changed drastically as it was
influenced by the happenings of the world and growth of personality and social theory. The contributors
of this School were Marion Kenworthy (New York of School Work), Betsey Libbey (Family Society of
Philadelphia) and Gordon Hamilton, a teacher and writer. Others were Bertha Reynolds, Charlotte
Towle, Florance Day, Lucille Austin and Annette Garrett, who contributed by their writings and
practices.
The Diagnostic school is based on the following main foundation:
(1) Principles of Diagnosis
Social case work help is based on the understanding of each client individually and his problem. It is
essential because it gives a realistic basis for differentiation and given a base for the improvement of the
client's social situation and personal satisfaction and adjustment. In 1922, Mary Richmond 42 pointed out
that case work involved two types of insights, one into the individuality and one into the social
environment, and two types of actions, one through direct action of mind upon mind and another
through indirect action in the social environment. The diagnosis is based on the following principles:
(i) The diagnostic process consists of a critical scrutiny of a client situation complex and the
trouble, concerning which help is sought or needed for the purpose of understanding the
nature of the difficulty with increasing details and accuracy.
(ii) Diagnosis is based on the knowledge of the worker about the interplay of social and
psychological factors affecting the client.
(iii) The knowledge of interaction between inner and outer forces influencing the client makes the
process of diagnosis helpful and therapeutic.
(iv) Every problem of the individual should be understood in the light of multiple factors theory.
(v) In the initial stage also, relieving of pressure of stresses and strains on the client, helps the case
worker to arrive at a proper diagnosis.
(vi) The initial appraisal of personality and motivations and their significance in the development
of client's problem, provides the basis for planning the treatment of the client's problem.
(vii) For the solution of the problem of the client, it is of utmost importance to gain some knowledge
of his current capacity to work and to recognize the motivating forces in his behaviour.
(viii) The understanding of the psycho-dynamics and the pathological symptoms of the personality
of the client provides the basis for determining the kind of help that can be appropriately
offered.
(2) Principles of Treatment
 The main objective of the treatment is of alleviating the client's distress and decreasing the
malfunctioning in the person-situation system. The above objective is achieved by enhancing the adaptive
skills of his ego and functioning of the person-situation system. It is based on certain principles.
(i) The focus of the discussion in the interview is centred on the problem and ways of resolving it.
Attention is paid to know the obstacles (both situational and behavioural) that stand in the way
of solution.
(ii) Nature and extent of both the social and psychological factors differ in each situation.
Treatment goals and techniques are planned after the careful study of the particular needs of
the client.
(iii) The success of the treatment programmes is based on the utilization of the relationship
purposefully .
(iv) Change in the client is brought largely through a correctional emotional experience in the
relationship and through stimulating growth experiences in the social reality.
(v) Social therapy and psycho-therapy are the two broad classifications of social case work
treatment.
(3) Use of Techniques
The treatment objectives determine the use of techniques. They, include, within the framework of
relationship, encouraging, emotional, discharge, reassurance, support, suggestion, guidance and
direction, provision of new experiences, clarification interpretation, and so forth. 42
(4) Use of Relationship
The relationship is the medium of treatment through which the client is enabled to find new ways of
perceiving at his problems and of handling these. It gives the client a sense of being listened, being
understood and being given importance. The caseworker's understanding of the dynamics of the
relationship makes it possible to provide some gratification, protection and guidance to the client when
his ego needs support, and at the same time to help the client marshal strength to meet his life situation.44
1. Functional School
The 'functional approach' to social work practice was developed by faculty members of the school of
social work of the University of Pennsylvania. This approach is based on the personality theory of Otto
Rank. According to Functional School, social case work is a method for engaging a client through a
relationship process, essentially one to one, in the use of a social service towards his own and the general
social welfare. Function case work is a method of helping people through special services given by social
agencies, in such a way that the experience of using such services may be psychologically constructive.
Thus, the functional approach of social case work has two inseparable aspects.
(1) Potentials for help to a person is inherent in the existence of service. Inspite of the differences in the
clients and ways of using of agency's services, the kind of service an agency gives and its purpose
remain the same.
(2) The use of agency service gives psychological experience that differs from the form of another kind
of service regardless of the similarity of problem in the people using the two services.
Diagnosis
That diagnosis is most effective which is related to the use of some specific service and which is
developed in the course of giving the service. This school does not recognize the significance to
understand total situation of the client. The worker brings his own understanding through a process of
professional education and experience.
Functional diagnosis recognizes that people cannot be categorized and a plan with a specific kind of
service or plan on the base of firm diagnosis by category of clients, may deny potential growth and
change. In establishing a diagnosis, each individual makes his own diagnosis of himself and revises that
diagnosis as he in fact becomes different. Diagnosis is a way of engaging in a human relationship process
which frees the help seeker to determine his own goal for himself. He himself is the centre for change
capable to continuous growth and development.
Treatment
Functional school preferred to use the term helping process rather than treatment. The social case
worker is not responsible for treating someone who is the passive recipient of treatment because the
school believes that the centre for change resides in the client itself. Social case work through the agency
service seeks to release power for improved social functioning. No classification scheme is used as base
for engaging the client in certain form of helping. The distinctive characteristics of each person is served
on the basis of age, sex, personality pattern, cultural base, intelligence, mental and physical health, etc.
The process of establishing and using a diagnosis serves as the part of case work helping. It also
includes the use of time phases; beginning, middle, and ending within the total social case work process.
The 'content' of service is determined by the purpose of the agency within which the case worker is
functioning. His role is to achieve these goals assigned by the agency. Personality growth process takes
place through the media of time, space and motion. Time cannot be grasped, held, repeated or
postponed, but can only be used. It is upon this universal reality that the functional view of the social case
work gives importance to the use of time in the helping process. It gives emphasis upon the present
moment and the present relationship and its dynamic use of the ending of that relationship. Case work
activity consists in (1) meeting the projection with genuine regard for the client and respect for his need
as well as with psychological understanding and acceptance of the meaning of the projection, and (2) at
the same time differentiation between the projection and the reality that the case worker actually
represent.45 It is the awareness of the client himself and of the strength of his own will, which make him
to strengthen his capacity voluntarily. Treatment mechanisms are projection and identification and union
and separation, which continuously work in the helping process. The process has three phases:
beginning, middle and end. The beginning phase starts with the willingness of the client to participate in
the helping process. His willingness is essential as it releases a positive feeling and eagerness towards
help. The middle phase starts when the client feels that it is unnecessary to take part anymore because he
already feels so much better. In the middle phase, the client often attempts to use the worker as he had
used other meaningful persons in his life. The help, the client receives, enables him to take responsibility
and carry on his business of life. The end phase of the helping process brings fear of separation in the
client The Case worker gives him a chance to become conscious of his readiness to leave, so that he can
leave the agency without any fear.
Difference Between Diagnostic and Functional School
1. Diagnostic school follows the theory of personality developed by Sigmund Freud whereas
functional school is based on the theory of 'will' developed by Otto Rank. According to Freud,
personality is a composite of many interacting forces, reacting not only in each other but also to
favourable or unfavourable influences in the social environment. The strength and the nature of
balance of these forces are the result of individual's experiences primary of his relationships to
parents and other persons. The 'ego' is the chief of psychic energy, the strength of which is
determined largely by the favourable or unfavourable course of one's psycho-social development.
The functional school also believes that the process of development of personality takes place within
the interaction of inner instinctual needs and environmental experience, but such interaction takes place
and is autonomy. Because of this activity, since the beginning of life, is not only acted upon by inner and
outer reality but also acts upon it. Thus the ego (self) is the result of the creative use of inner and outer
experience through the 'will' and is not the product of the interaction of inner and outer forces.
2. According to Diagnostic School Projection is a defense mechanism by means of which an individual
(a) places the blame for his own shortcomings and misdeeds on others and (b) attributes to others
his own unacceptable impulses, thoughts and desires. Functional school believes that projection is a
technique of releasing of inner impulses upon an outer object and the appropriation of that object in
self-interest. In the relationship basically with the mother the individual projects had need (basically
of biological nature i.e. hunger) upon her, they are also invested with great psychic significance. The
 satisfaction of need by mother or other person has the psychic effect of creating a union with her.
Because complete union is not possible as he has when he was in wants, separation inevitably
follows. The will may use this separation constructively to create inner wholeness or destructively
by refusing to accept limitations.
3. In the diagnostic view, resistance is a manifestation of the ego's effort to avoid facing unacceptable
ideas and impulses which earlier it has succeeded in repressing. Treatment is considered something
to overcome in order to help the individual for achieving adjustment. In the functional view,
resistance is seen as an inevitable and necessary effort of the will to maintain control over a
relationship situation. Rather than making efforts to overcome resistance, the worker accepts the
validity of the client's/need to control a part of relationship and thus provides a new experience in
which the client may release a destructive use of will.
4. The attitude of both schools towards the client who comes for help is different. Diagnostic school
conceives of the individual as fashioned by the inter-relationship between his basic needs and his
physical and social environment. The problem or the psycho pathology is due to partial or total
inability of the ego to cope with inner and outer pressure. Functional School sees the client as the
fashioner of his fate though it does not deny the influence of inner drives and outer conditions on
personality development, believes that even pathological phenomena, like psychosis, is the effort of
the will to effect a solution of a psychic problem.
5. In the diagnostic view, the goal of treatment is to increase the individual's ego capacity or strength
whereas functional school tends to direct his effort towards helping the client to release his inner
capacity of feeling, organizing and acting.
6. Total information about the client's ego functioning, total personality, motivating forces, reality
pressures and his current feelings is essential according to diagnostic view for enabling the client to
take part in the therapeutic relationship. Functional school gives emphasis to the client's feelings in
the immediate situation, which includes both his problem and the case work relationship through
which he may solve the problem. Other informations are secondary.
7. Diagnostic school believes in giving planned and goal directed help to the client. It includes within
the framework of relationship, both psychological and social help. The nature of help is determined
by the case worker. Functional school gives full freedom to the client to give direction to his own
processes of change. Agency services are made available for initiating, sustaining and terminating a
process in human relationship. The worker does not attempt to classify a client and select a type of
treatment appropriate to him.
8. The diagnostic school accepts responsibility for appraising the client's capacities and weaknesses
and for organizing and arranging measures or supporter for self development. The functional school
believes in the client's right for choices and goals because of the intrinsic constructive value of the
use of self.

Section- III
Transference
Transference is the tendency in every human-being to relate the emotions and attitudes that have
developed during his growth to those people in his immediate environment. 46 The individual, who brings
to his object fantasied qualities, is manifesting the phenomenon of transferene. 47 This means that he is
transferring to a real person feelings, attitudes and fantasies which come from his unconscious mind and
which are residuals of his infantile experiences and conflicts.48 A patient's transference to the analyst is
only that part of the patient's reaction to the analyst which repeats the patient's reactions to a person who
has, at some previous time, played an important role in the patient's life.49
When a patient recounts free associations, he soon speaks of events or phantasies of vital interest to
himself, and when these are told, the listener is gradually invested with some of the emotions which
accompany them. The patient gradually begins to feel that the sympathetic listener is loved or hated, a
friend or an enemy, one who is nice to him or one who frustrates his needs and punishes him. The
feelings towards the listener become more and more like those felt towards the specific people the patient
is talking about, or, more exactly, those his unconscious "is talking about". This special case of object
displacement during psycho-analysis is called transference.
'Transfer' was introduced into social work literature by Jessie Taft in 1924, who described it as "an
emotional relationship to the client."50 Hamilton defines transference as a carrying over of irrational
elements from other relationships, particularly unconscious motivation. 51 All relationship are based on
previous experiences with people, however, the psycho-analytic term 'transference' referring to specific
irrational responses of the client to the worker, as though the worker was some person in the client's
previous experience, is frequently used to refer any positive or negative feelings of the client for the
worker. In this sense, the therapeutic relationship would be viewed as a transference relationship, as
opposed to a real relationship, thus permitting the worker to insulate himself or herself from any true
reactions and personally meaningful interactions with the client. 52 A simple example of transference
would be that of a client who come from a home where his father was an arrogant and domineering
person. As a man, the client has never been able to get along with his boss or any other figure of
authority. In the case work situation, he transfers to the case worker hostile feelings of the type he
originally felt toward his father and accuses the case worker of the same arrogant treatment he received
at the hands of his father.
Types of Transference
Transference are of two types: positive and negative. If the parents of the client have been friendly
and helpful, even though imperfectly or unsuccessfully but with the child's (client) interest at heart, he
will transfer a desire for help, friendship, guidance, emotional support and interest. It is a positive
transference. If during client's early development, the parents had not shown interest in him and were
indifferent, then the client will transfer feeling of unfriendliness, suspicion and distrust. It is a negative
transference. If the transference is positive, help can be given more quickly and easily. When the
transference is negative, then part of the work of the case worker is to help the client understand the
origin of the negative feelings and work towards making them more positive.
Counter Transference
Relationship is a two way process. The social case worker has also unconscious tendency to transfer
out the client. As in the case of transference, these counter transference feelings, both positive and
negative, are unconscious but operated with force. Therefore, it is the job of the case worker to recognize
his feelings and must control them.
Use of Transference
There are three stages in dealing and using transference in social case work. These stages are:
1. Understanding the transference,
2. Utilizing the transference,
3. Interpreting the transference.
Understanding of the transference is essential for the worker as it helps to understand the behaviour
of the client and to recognize its significance in his developmental process. It also explains the present
unconscious needs of the client. Understanding of the transference gives an opportunity to the worker for
the integration of factors i.e the present behaviour and problem, the environmental forces, the past
experiences and earlier relationships.
Utilization of the transference depends on the understanding of the social case worker of the
phenomena. It explains many cures or treatment of emotional disturbances by life situations and by
fortunate relationships with others permits the establishment of a recognition of a relationship between a
case worker and a client which allows for the utilization of such techniques as suggestion, advice,
counselling and education.
The interpretation of the transference, that is, confronting the individual with the awareness that his
behaviour is the repetition of a specific unconscious infantile constellation is definitely part of
psychoanalytical therapy and requires the preparation of the individual by the careful analysis of his
unconscious defenses.
Use of Transference in Diagnosis
The person who comes for help, knows external factors of his problem and has little resistance to
discussing them. In such cases, a positive reality relationship is sufficient for diagnosis. When the
emotional factors are involved in the problem, the client will like to disclose them easily and most of the
time will avoid on that particular issue. In such cases transference becomes necessary because, apart from
the resistance due to personal reasons involved in the problem, he is not fully aware about its existence in
him. Transference diminishes these resistances to some extent and thus helps him to talk more freely and
friendly. It is the transference which gives clues by which the social case worker infers the nature of the
underlying difficulties. It also gives insight into the client's personality and helps in identifying his
weaknesses as well as his strengths and ego functioning. On the basis of the understanding of the ego
strength, the social case worker prepares the treatment plan for the client.
Use of Transference in Treatment
In case work, transference is developed in terms of psycho-social interaction to reveal specific
relationships and situations rather than held within the worker-client focus, as such. Transference is
designed to free the patient sufficiently so that he may think and feel more realistically about his
behaviour and relationships. Transference promotes a feeling on the part of the client that his problem is
being shared and the case worker is genuinely interested in his welfare. This feeling of the client makes
him easy, calm, less burdened with anxiety and opens the road for fruitful solution.
The feeling of sharing of the client is his identification with the worker which transference develops.
Thus the transference helps in treatment in a number of ways:
1. The mature ego strengths of the worker serve to reinforce the weak ego strengths of the client.
2. The client feels relaxed.
3. The client starts abandoning resistances.
4. He perceives the problem situation more realistically.
5. The worker, when he does not responds neurotically, helps the client to see and bear the reality.
6. Identification of his ego power and capacity for reality testing and problem solving.
The effects of transference are many but it is the leaven of treatment, not treatment itself.

Section- IV
Counselling in Case Work
The social case worker not only offers financial relief, help in getting work, medical and the like to
his clients but, in addition to these, he also provides counselling help. While the term counselling is very
little used in case work circles, it is used here precisely to emphasize the fact that in giving the client an
opportunity to release his feelings and to find new solution to his adjustment problems, the case worker
is utilizing the same process as that used by the other professional individuals described. 53 The social case
worker in all settings gives much emphasis to the process of counselling for releasing client's inner
burden i.e. anxiety and strains. Mosty counselling services are rendered in schools/colleges, employment
offices, rehabilitation center, sanotoria, prisons, welfare agencies of different types, family welfare
centers, etc.
Counselling is provided to the clients under the following conditions;
1. The individual's under a degree of tension, arising from incompatible personal desires or from the
conflict of social and environmental demands with individual needs. The tension and stress so
created are greater than the stress involved in expressing his feelings about his problems.
2. The individual has some capacity to cope with life. He possesses adequate ability and stability to
exercise some control over the elements of his situation. The circumstances with which he is faced
are not so adverse or so unchangeable as to make it impossible for him to control or alter them.
3. There is an opportunity for the individual to express his conflicting tensions in planned contacts
with the counsellor.
4. He is able to express these tensions and conflicts either verbally or through other media. A conscious
desire for help is advantageous, but not entirely necessary.
5. He is reasonably dependent, either emotionally or spatially, upon close family control.
6. He is reasonably free from excessive instabilities, particularly of an organic nature.
7. He possesses adequate intelligence for coping with his life situation, with an intelligence rating of
dull, normal or above.
8. He is of suitable age-old enough to deal somewhat independently with life, young enough to retain
some elasticity of adjustment. In terms of chronological age, this might mean roughly from ten to
sixty.54
Counselling
Counselling work in social case work was started by Bertha Reynolds in 1932. Counselling is a
personal help directed towards the solution of a problem which a person finds he cannot solve himself
and on which he therefore, seeks the help of a skilled person, whose knowledge, experience and general
orientation can be brought into play in an attempt to solve the problem. 55
Counselling is essentially a process in which the counselor assists the counselee to make
interpretations of facts relating to a choice, plan or adjustment which he needs to make. 56 It is a face to
face situation in which, by reason of training, skill or confidence vested in him by the other, one person
helps the second person to face, perceive, clarify, solve and resolve adjustment problem. 57 The process by
which the structure of the self is relaxed in the safety of the relationship with the therapist, and
previously denied experiences are perceived and than integrated into and altered self is called
counselling.58 It is a warm, permissive, safe, understanding, but limited social relationship within which
therapist and patient discuss the affective behaviour of the latter, including his ways of dealing with his
emotionally toned needs and the situation that give rise to them. 59
Counselling aims at enabling individuals to solve present problems to prepare themselves for future
tasks, to attain higher standards of efficiency and well-being and to develop personalresources for growth
60

Classification is a most important technique of counselling. It is a tool through which the client
becomes aware of certain attitudes, feelings, reality verses and subjective concepts and permits him to see
himself and his environment in a more objective manner, which allows better control of himself and of
situations. Cousellirig may include the giving of information, explaining a regime and analysing its issue
and analyzing the steps involved in a course of action.61
Counselling is a psychological help which can be given even outside of the agency. In counsellig, no
solid help is provided. Only guidance is given to solve his problem.
Similarities between Case Work and Counselling
Counselling is one technique of social case work which is used to prepare the client to participate in
the treatment plan. It means that there are certain similarities in case work and counselling. These are:
1. Both have the Same Objective
The purpose of the social case work is to help an individual client to solve his psycho-social
problems in such a way that he finds himself capable of dealing with these problems at present and also
may solve in future if such problems arise. Counselling aims at enabling an individual to solve his
present problem, to prepare him for future tasks and to attain a higher degree of efficiency in dealing
with his problems.
2. Both Deals with the Same Types of Clients
 The 'client' is a man, woman, or child, anyone who finds himself, or is found to be, in need of help is
some aspect of his social-emotional living, whether the need be for tangible provisions or counsel. 62
3. Both Deals with the Same Type of Problem
The problems within the purview of the social case work are those which vitally affect or are
affected by a person's social functioning. The client of the case worker sees his problems as lying in some
interacting relationship between himself and some other persons or between himself and his
environment. Help is provided to the client for some readjustment of the self in relation to the demands
and expectations of the social role he carries. Help is also directed in the readjustment of some parts of his
social environment. If the client finds that his inner problems exert such power upon his problems of
social functioning, he may need counselling.
4. The Effectiveness of Both Depend on 'Relationship'
The relationship is the medium in case work as well as in counselling through which help is
provided to the client. It is the channel of the entire case work process and the counselling process,
through which the mobilization of the capacities of the client becomes possible, it helps throughout in
interviewing, study, diagnosis and treatment.
5. Both Believe in the Worth and Dignity of the Individual
Case work and counselling treat the client as an individual who has right to get help and reorganize
as a person of worth and dignity. He has every right to make his choice and decisions himself.
6. Both have Common Principles
Social case work and counselling both believe in the individualization of all clients irrespective of
their similarities in the problems. Both accept the client as he is and provide opportunities for self-
expression. Case worker and counsellor do not give their own judgement to the clients. Client has every
right to determine his own path for his easy recovery from mal functioning.
Difference Between Case Work and Counselling
1. In counselling, help is provided to the client without social service whereas the main base of help in
social case work is social service.
2. Agency is not essentially needed in counselling but social case work is always practised in an
agency.
3. Concrete help is not provided in counselling. Counsellor and client talk together on the problem but
in social case work concrete service is rendered along with oral discussion.
4. Counsellor is most of the time concerned with one type of problem as there are various counselling
agencies but in case work client is studied and understood as a whole.
5. Social case work gives emphasis on activity but in counselling, the client is made able to understand
his problem.
6. In counselling, emphasis is given to the problem and not the person concerned but in social case
work the emphasis is basically on the client and the type of service to be provided.
7. Counsellor is self-dependent in his counselling but case work services are provided through agency.

Section- V
Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy is an effort to understand the personality structure of patients, the mental
mechanisms which are at work and the specific relationships of psychological situations in the
precipitation of the illness.63 It may be defined as a process which utilizes psychodynamic principles to
bring about emotional growth, thus permitting greater development of the individual's capacities and
better social adjustment.64 As derived from psycho-analytic principles, psychotherapy is two-
person relationship which has the purpose of modifying attitudes and behaviour largely, though not
exclusively, through psychological process. It is essentially a relieving experience, though not always of
the remote past In general, psychotherapy aims towards personality growth in the direction of maturity,
competence and self-actualization.64 This involves the achievement of one or more of the following goals:
1. Increased insight into one's problems and behaviour,
2. A better delineation of one's self-identity,
3. resolution of handicapping or disabling conflicts,
4. changing of undesirable habits or reaction patterns,
5. improved interpersonal or other competencies,
6. modification of inaccurate assumptions about oneself and one's world,
7. the opening of a pathway to a more meaningful existence.
Different Systems of Psychotherapy
The following are the differing systematic viewpoints, goals and procedures of the major forms of
psychotherapy.
I. Psycho-analytic Therapy
Psychoanalytic therapy was developed by Freud which aims at uncovering repressed memories,
motives and conflicts-presumably stemming from problems in early psychosexual development. It helps
the client to resolve conflicts in the light of the adult reality. It follow the following techniques:
1. Free Association
The client is given an opportunity to say whatever comes into his mind, regardless of how personal,
painful and irrelevant it may be. He sits in a comfortable position and allows his mind to give a running
account of thoughts, feelings and desires. The therapist usually sits behind or records the expression
through devices and later interprets their material, which gives insight into the understanding, conflict
and motives of which he has been unaware so far.
2. Dream Interpretation
Dreams are unfulfilled desires. During sleep, defense mechanism's power is lowered and forbidden
desires and feelings may find an outlet. In dream interpretation, the therapist uncovers the disguised
meanings by studying the symbols that appear in the manifest content of the dream.
3. Analysis of Resistance
Sometimes, the client, while talking about an important area of his problem, suddenly switches
topics or he may give some glib interpretation to his associations. Since resistance prevents painful and
threatening material from entering awareness, it must be broken down if the client is to face his problems
and conflicts and deal with them in a realistic manner.
4. Analysis of Transference
Often, a client carries over and applies to the therapist attitudes and feelings that he (client)
developed in this relations with significant others in the past. By recognizing the transference, the
therapist may provide the client with the experience of having a good father (if father is a problem for the
client), thus he gives an opportunity to deal with the reality.
Types of Psychotherapy
(i) Behaviouristic Psychotherapy
Behaviouristic model views the maladjustment in the individual due to faulty learning of coping
patterns and failure of acquiring needed competencies. Therapist attempts to modify behaviour directly
by:
(1) Aversion therapy removal of undesirable behaviour by punishment;
(2) Systematic desensitization;
(3) Positive reinforcement for learning new competencies.
(ii) Humanistic Existential Psychotherapy
 Humanistic-existential therapy is based on the assumption that man has the freedom to control his
own behaviour. He can reflect upon the problems, make choices and take positive action. The client-
centred therapy of Carl Rogers is known as humanistic psychotherapy. The therapist's tasks is to present
such psychological climate for the client where he can feel unconditionaly accepted, understood and
valued as a person. He will choose his own path for the solution of his problem.
Existentialists are deeply concerned about the predicaments of the modern man, the breakdown of
traditional faith, the alienation depersonalization of man in contemporary culture and the lack of
meaning in many people's lives.66 Existential therapy calls for the therapist to share himself-his feelings,
his value and his existence-and not to let the client respond to him as anything other than he really is.67
(iii) Interpersonl Psychotherapy
Interpersonal therapy emphasized the role of faulty communication, interactions and relationships
in maladaptive behaviours. Therefore, attempts are made to improve mutual need gratification system,
social role expectation and communication patterns. Eric Berne (1964) developed an innovative technique
of interpersonal therapy, which is known as Transactional Analysis. It is based on the notion that there
are three 'ego stats' in human personality- Child, Adult and Parent, 'Parent ego state' is that part of the
personality, which one has corporated from his parents or from other parental model, when one says that
you should not eat too much' or 'do not go in cold', these statements are appropriate when they are
spoken to a child, but if they are used with the spouse, it means he is playing too active 'Parent' role.
'Child ego state' is that part of the personality which is a carryover from the childhood feelings. The
statements like 'I will eat as much as I like' or 'I play whole day' are the examples of the child responding
to other 'Parent'. This behaviour may be appropriate for a child but not for a mature adult. 'Adult ego
state' is that part of the personality, which processes information rationally and appropriately for the
present circumstances. An adult response to the parent might be 'I really don't think it is cold enough for
a sweater'
As long as such a participant reacts to the other in the way that he is being addressed, e.g., a child to
a parent, the transaction may continue indefinitely. But when one part decides to discontinue playing
child or addressed role, the game ceases and conflict occurs.
The therapist analyses the interactions among group members (often married couples) and helps the
participants to understand the ego stated in which they are communicating with each other.
Difference between Counselling and Psychotherapy
The most common differentiation is that counselling is dealing with a generally normal individual,
and psychotherapy is dealing with an abnormal person, or some would say that counselling does not get
to the same depth as psychotherapy; or some would say that counselling is concerned with the conscious,
whereas psychotherapy deals with the unconscious materials. According to Bordin 'counselling
relationship is characterized by less intensity of emotional expression, and relatively more emphasis on
cognitive and rational factors than in the case in psychothera py 68
This differentiation is only logical and for understanding the concept of both treatment processes. In
practice, there is no such differentiation as there is no clear and distinct line between the conscious and
the subconscious. Anyone, who works with the people who are under stress, is going to have a difficult
time cataloguing what he is doing as either counselling or psychotherapy on the basis of the conscious or
the subconscious.
Case Work and Psychotherapy
Social case work is a form of psychotherapy with a special orientation, differential aim and a
particular methodology, in effect, it is the application of psychotherapeutic principles in a setting and in a
manner which is uniquely its own.69
Thus, there are a number of points of similarities.
1. Both social case work and psychotherapy help an individual, who comes with emotional problems
and painful situations.
2. Interview techniques are the same.
3. Both type of workers try to put the client at case and make it possible for him to express his
problem.
4. Social case worker and psychotherapist both have skill in creating an atmosphere of confidence.
5. Both share the value of individuality, worth and respect of the client.
6. Both case work and psychotherapy believe in the client's self determination.
7. Both type of workers have training for helping the client in a systematic way.
8. Both recognize the role of emotional and unconscious processes in influencing the attitudes and
behaviour of the client.
9. Both provide emotional support to relieve immediate anxiety of the clients.
10. Both give importance to the transference.
Psychotherapy differs from social case work in many essential points.
1. Though social case work and psychotherapy give importance to the relationship but both have
different views. In psychotherapy, the client himself wants to establish rapport or thinks
psychotherapist as magician or omnipotent parent. In social case work, the situation is different. He
tries to establish a close relationship with the client or achieving his goal.
2. The case worker does not define the problems he deals with in terms of intrapsychic conflict. It is the
problem of the client in relation to a distressing situation, usually of an economic, health, or
interpersonal nature. Intrapsychic conflict within individual is the problem for the psychotherapy.
3. Psychotherpay deals with the people's feelings or with the impact of the personality on the situation
but case work deals with the client's stressful and painful situations.
4. The social case work is to help the client with his situational problems. It does not attempt to modify
the client's attitudes or his neurotic adaptations. Such types of change occur during the social case
work process itself. Psychotherapy is mainly concerned with changes in the neurotic behaviour of
the client.
5. The case worker respects the consciously expressed wishes of the client and helps in clarifying those
wishes. Psychotherapist accepts no such limitation.
6. Psychotherapist generally thinks that the client is a separate entity from social environment but in
social case work the client is seen as a unit of his social context.
7. Psychotherapy stresses on internal factors of the problem whereas the social case work gives equal
importance to internals as well as externals of the problem.
Difference Between Case Work, Counselling and Psychotherapy
1. Client
Social case work studies 'whole' individual for giving concrete help. Help is provided after
considering and analysing client's social, psychological, economic etc., factors. Clients have right to select
their own course of action or avail available resources. In counselling, the counsellor has limited relations
with client's social factors. He tries to know only that part which is interlinked with the client's problem.
Though the client has a right to receive counsel or not to receive but in the absence of concrete help, he
feels himself unable to take decisions. In psychotherapy, internal factors of the client's personality are
studied for treatment. Client has limited role in treatment process.
2. Problem
Social case work deals with psycho-social problems, which become a source of maladjustment for
the client. Counselling deals with the behavioural problems, which are solved through discussion or oral
conversation. Problems pertaining to personality disorders are treated in psychotherapy.
3. Help
In counselling, the nature of help is mostly therapeutic, which is provided to solve some specific
problems. Though in case work also the nature of help is therapeutic but in it concrete help has a specific
and primary place. Psychotherapy deals with the unconscious factors that are responsible for the internal
conflict in the client. Client's personality is the centre of focus for psychotherapy.
4. Relationship
Relationship is the medium for case work service. The utility of case work service is dependent on
the intensity of the relationship. Worker gives first preference to relationship. In counselling, the client
himself wants to establish closeness with the counsellor. It is the same with psychotherapy.

Section- VI
Theories of Social Case Work
(1) Psycho-analytic Theory
The first systematic attempt to discover the "unconscious" was made by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939).
Freud discovered his psycho-analytic model for realization of the important role played by unconscious
process in the determination of behaviour. Individual's behaviour is the result from the interaction of
three key sub-systems within the personality. Id, Ego and Superego. The Id consists of primitive,
biological, drived and basic energy of life 'Libido'. It is concerned with the immediate gratification of
instinctual needs. Ego mediated between the demands of the Id and the realities of the external world.
The third sub-system is 'superego', which develops by learning the taboos and moral values of the
society. It controls the 'Id' and directs the 'ego' to inhibit desires that are considered wrong or immoral.
The interrelationship between these sub-systems of the personality (intrapsychic) are of crucial
significance in determining the behaviour. There is a regular conflict between the instinctual needs and
demands of the Id with the demand of external world (Ego & Superego). The adequate resolution of such
conflicts by the ego is considered essential to personality adjustment. Psychopathology is the result of the
individual's inability to resolve these conflicts.
According to the psychoanalytic model, every moment of human life is determined not by one
psychological force operating alone but by whole constellations of the psychological processes. Some
of them are conscious, some are on the fringes of consciousness but can be drawn into conscious
introspection. This is the "dynamic unconscious" to which Freud attributes the key role in
psychopathology.70 All behaviours are a product of these three processes- the conscious, preconscious and
unconscious system. Psychoanalysis clarified the fact that human behaviour is normal precisely to the
degree to which it is determined by conscious and preconscious forces operating within the individual.
Psychopathology or neurotic behaviour occurs when the behaviour is determined by unconscious forces.
The processes of which individual is conscious can be influenced by appeals to reason, by argument,
by success and failure or by reward and punishments and thus he has the capacity to adapt external
realities and to learn from past experiences. But if the thoughts, feelings, behaviour and personality traits
are determined by unconscious psychological processes, they cannot be changed by argument, reason,
persuation, appeal or by rewards and punishment. Furthermore, since unconscious forces pursue the
symbolic representations of unknown goals which they can never attain, those cravings which are
determined by unconscious forces are unsatiable; and the behaviour which expresses such needs must
repeat itself endlessly, repeating errors as frequently as success, regardless of the happiness or
unhappiness which it occasions. Consequently, the extent to which behaviour is driven by unconscious
forces, it can learn nothing from experience and can never develop or change or grow. In the truest sense
of the word, it is enslaved.71
The realization that the human being harbours thought and wishes and feelings of which he himself
may be not aware has a long history. They operate unconsciously. Freud realized the influence of
unconscious forces upon conscious psychic processes through his observations upon psychopathology of
everyday life the dream (the royal road to unconscious and the neurotic symptoms). These three types of
psychic expressions are the disguised forms of unconscious wishes and desires which were repressed due
to anti-social nature.
 Psychoanalysis is also a therapeutic technique for the psychological treatment of psychopathological
disorders. This technique is directed towards uncovering and dealing with unconscious processes and
helping the individual to achieve more effective personality integration and coping techniques. It has four
basic tools at its command to deal with the unconscious free association, dream interpretation, analysis of
resistance and transference.
Ego Psychology
A great deal of psychoanalytic attention is currently being focused on the ego and its functions. This
focusing on the ego becomes possible after Freud's theoritical formulations in the 1920's, in 'The Ego and
the ID' and 'The Problem of Anxiety', and After Anna Freud's, 'The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence'.
The concept of ego designated those intrapersonal forces which constantly strive to balance the persons'
diverse and sometime conflating motivations with one another and with the demands of the outside
world.72 The ego represents the consciously functioning part of the personality, through which the
individual expresses himself and communicated with others.73 The ego is the sum total of the integrating
efforts of the personality, or, stated in another way, the sum total of all the mechanism of dealing with
conflict.74
The functions of the Ego are as follows;
1. Perception and the appraisal of the outer world.
2. Adaptions to the outer world;
3. Perception and appraisal of the self, of instinctual drives, of superego demands;
4. Specific functions which mature independently of, although interrelated with, id and superego,
including control of motor and sensory functions, languages, conscious ego interests,
5. Thought processes;
6. Defense functions;
7. Object relationship; and
8. The function of synthesis of creating priorities and other between various ego functions and
between the several parts of the personality.75
Case work method related to the functioning ego in its capacity to form relationships, to perceive
and act upon reality, to make some self- observations about the meaning of circumstances, relationships,
attitude, and subjectively felt internal pressures, aims, and values Concepts of ego functioning give
meaning to what might otherwise be considered data about superficial daily hebaviour. 76
Ego Development
Ego development is both a maturational process and a learning process. Both constitutional and
socio-cultural environmental factors exert specific influences in varying proportions at each stage of
growth. If the process of psychological development is smooth and unimpeded, the ego becomes strong
enough to bear inner and external pressure and to control and flexibly mediate between conflicting
internal and external forces. Ego impairment may occur in the following conditions:
1. The equipment for sensory perception, matter activity and memory may be defective.
2. There may be failure in the normal development of libidinal and aggressive drives.
3. The child may receive too much or too little gratification and frustration of a degree and kind
appropriate to his maturation. Since the immature ego needs both supportive stimuli and protection
from overwhelming amounts of inner and outer pressure, either of these possibilities will seriously
impede growth.
4. There may be insufficient or inadequate opportunities for identification with parents, teachers, peers
and other models whose real and unconscious attitudes toward reality and toward instinctual drives
are apparent inadequate performance and enjoyment of a variety of roles, relationships, and beliefs
compatible with the society of which they are a part.
5. It is also necessary that there be a successful resolution of conflicts between instinctual drives and
reality demands. (Not only ego functions but also the superego functions, it might be added, depend
upon these same factors, particularly processes of identification and the successful resolution of
conflicts.77
This concept of ego is more helpful in understanding the personality of parents and children in
troubled families. These concepts now illuminate the underlying therapeutic significance of case work's
specific efforts to make details of life more reasonable and more comfortable for parents whose ego
functioning is threatened by the tasks confronting them.78
Case work practice is directed towards the goal of ensuring a social- psychological environment
which promoted the development of nature autonomous ego functions, so that each individual is capable
of "exercising freedom under the law".79 Case work is also directed to helping individuals to resolve their
problems of adaptation through measures designed to support and strengthen ego functions as well as to
modify overwhelming stress or threatening demands in their social reality.80
Use of Ego Psychology in Case Work Treatment
Case work has used ego psychology most fully and systematically in developing concepts about
treatment directed to an individual client's problems of adaptation, and more specifically to those
adaptive problems related to, or caused by, underlying conflicts in the personality. 81
The autonomous ego functions are based upon an inherent capacity for maturation and for learning
through experience. It has ability for adaptation in social environment. Social case worker by using the
techniques of education and manipulation helps the client to make use of social resources for learning
and for relationships, which support a sense of self-esteem and identity with others. Case work, in
applying psycho social techniques, directs the client to change his motives and encourages to use
adaptive techniques for his motives and encourages to use adaptive techniques for his proper adjustment
in his social environment. He reduces his 'anxiety of inability' by psychological support and security and
thus the client reduces to use ego defense mechanisms. The social case worker gives knowledge to the
client about his mental, emotional and functional capacities and thus makes him capable of solving his
problem.
(2) Psycho-social Theory
Gordon Hamilton published an article on "The Underlying Philosophy of Social Case Work" in 1941,
in which the word 'diagnostic' was used to express psycho-social problems. Hamilton follows psycho-
social approach in the treatment of social work clients. Since then a number of changes have taken place
in the concept of psycho-social view. Now it is thought as a system theory approach to case work in
which diagnosis and treatment are directed toward person-in-situation gestalt. The client is seen in the
context of his interactions and transactions with the outer world. For proper diagnosis and treatment
client's social context must be understood and mobilized. Treatment must be differentiated according to
the need of the client.
Psycho-social Study
The social case worker starts his work with the knowledge of the needs of the client. He, on the basis
of the needs, assesses what kind of help is in need of. He also finds out the perception of the client about
his own problem, and his desire about the kind of assistance to be provided. He, then, himself tries to
arrive at his own understanding of what the client's trouble is, what factors contribute to it as etiological
agents what type of service in the client-situation gestalt can enable the client to improve his ego strength
and adaptability.
The social case worker tries to find out the history of the problem and its impact on the social
functioning of the client. He locates the important happening in client's life as precipitating factors for the
present problem. He gathers full data of the client's childhood and other stages.
Diagnosis of Assessment
Psychosocial approach believes that diagnosis is essential because it gives a realistic basis for
differentiation. On the basis of the collected data and available material, the social case worker tries to
assess the nature of the client's trouble, contributing factors and what are those splits where changes can
be brought in his behaviour without much effort Diagnosis process consists of three types of efforts:
dynamic, etiological and classificatory. In the dynamic diagnostic step, the case worker examines the
interaction of the client to his environment. He also examines the role of the units of the social systems in
relation to the client's problem. He further explores the interrelationship between one system to other
systems. Family is considered the basic centre for examination. Etiology is formulated, keeping in mind
the multiplicity of factors in the person- situation configuration. Lastly, the social case worker, on the
basis of dynamic diagnosis and etiological factors, classifies various aspects of the client's functioning and
thus prepares a route or the treatment process.
Treatment
1. Objective
The ultimate objective of the case worker using the psycho-social approach is the very broad one of
alleviating the client's distress and decreasing the malfunctioning in the person-situation system.82 To
achieve the above objective, the social case worker's job is to enhance the adaptive capacities and
functioning of the client in social systems.
2. Process
The social case worker gives much emphasis to indirect treatment or environmental modification.
He intervenes actively in the environment and provides necessary concrete help to the client. He helps
the client in locating the place or agency for his help. He also, sometimes mediated between the client and
resource when the client has weak ego strength Today the worker takes responsibility to secure financial
assistance for which the client is eligible i.e. proper health care, housing and educational resource. If the
situation demands to change or modify environment, he talks to the family members, school teachers or
employers and supplies the information about his problem. After preparing the favourable background,
he gives advices and makes suggestions for the welfare of the client.
Direct treatment is also provided for the ventilation of the client to accept concrete help.
Psychological support, classification, interpretation, counselling, etc. techniques are used to establish
rapport with the client.
(3) Functional Theory
The functional theory to social work practice was developed by the school of Social Work of the
University of Pennyslvania in 1930s. The functional theory worked from a psychology of growth and
believed that the centre for change was in the client. The theorist used the word 'helping' instead of
treatment. The social case work is not a form of social treatment but a method of administering some
specific social service and creating such psychological understanding in the client so that he may become
skilful in utilizing the agency services. The functional theory believes that the social case work is a
method for engaging a client through a relationship process, essentially one to one, in the use of a social
service towards his owned the general social welfare.83
Functional theory presents five principles for the practice of social work. 84
1. That diagnosis is most effective which is related to the use of some specific service and which is
developed in the course of giving the service.
2. The effectiveness of any social work process-primary or secondary, is furthered by the worker's
conscious, knowing use of time phases in the process (beginnings, middle, endings) in order that the
particular potential in each time, phase may be fully exploited for the other's use.
3. The use of agency function and function in professional role give focus, content, and direction to
social work processes, assures accountability to the society and to the agency.
4. A conscious knowing use of structure, as it evolves from and is related to function and process,
introduces "from" which furthers the effectiveness of all the social work processes, both primary and
secondary.
5. All social work processes, to be effective, require the use of relationship to engage the other in
making and acting on choices or decisions as the core of working towards the accomplishment of a
purpose identified as his own, within the purpose of the service being offered.
Initial Phase and Use of Time Phases
Functional theory believes that the social case work must use the concept of time phases properly
and consciously so that the client may accept and utilize available services. In the beginning phase, it is
on the worker's understanding of what is true for beginning that makes it possible to lessen the fear and
resistance and thus the mobilization of energy begins. Generally, in the beginning phase, the case worker
provides the knowledge of agency's services-conditions for availing service, requirement, eligibility etc.
He encourages immediate engagement of the client in expressing hopes, intentions and fears in respect to
what is being offered in the way of service. The goal in any beginning is to find a common base for
worker and client to work together towards a common purpose with the rule of the game known, and its
elements are broken down into what can be encompassed for immediate engagement. 85
The Middle time phase is characterized by the client's taking increased responsibility in utilizing
services and by deepening of the relationships involved. The social case worker directs the client in such
a way that he takes his responsibility in the solution of his problems. Ending phase is determined on the
basis of the appraisal of the achievement in the middle phase.
Diagnosis or Assessment
Functional theory does not believe in the understanding of the total situation of the client. The
worker brings his own understanding of man, in knowing the nature of the particular problem of the
client. He attempts to find out to know theparticular kind of individual services as well as his own
developing understanding of this specific individual. Diagnosis is considered a way of engaging in a
human relationship process which frees the other to define his own goals for himself as they fall within or
coincide with the goals of a specific programme being administered, and to work towards their
achievement, with the worker's help.86
Treatment
Functional school uses the term helping in place of treatment. The goal of the social case work is
congruent with the goals of the programmes of the social service that they administer. The social case
work attempts to release power for improved social functioning through consciously directing the client
to use the agency services appropriately.
(4) Behaviour Modification Theory
Behaviour modification theory is based upon the principles of learning and conditioning
propounded by Pavlov and Thorndike. The researches of B.F. Skinner developed the behaviour
modification approach further. The first paper dealing solely with behaviour modification in a social
work journal appeared in 1968.87
In essence, Behaviour modification can be defined as the planned, systematic application of
experimentally established principles of learning to the modification of maladaptive behaviour, specially
to decreasing undesired behaviour and increasing desired behaviours. 88
The goals of behaviour modification are congruent with the goals of social work. In fact, the
behaviorual approach deals, by and large, only with the problems in functioning, on the grounds that if
change is not somehow detectable in improved functioning, such change may be meaningless to the
client.89
The Problem
The bahaviouristic theory views the problem as essentially the result of a failure to learn necessary
adaptive behaviours or competencies and/ or the learning of ineffective and maladaptive bahaviours. It
may happen due to conflicting situations that require the individual to make discriminations or decisions
of which he feels incapable. The behaviouristic theory views the maladjusted person as different from
others only in that he has learned faulty coping patterns which are being maintained by some kind of
reinforcement and he has failed to learn needed competencies for coping with the problems of living.
Techniques of Behaviour Modification
The following techniques are used for behaviour modification:
1. Simple Extinction
In this technique, the reinforcement is removed to eliminate a maladaptive pattern of behaviour.
This is especially helpful where maladaptive behaviour is being reinforced unknowingly by others.
Through this techniques, learned behaviour patterns are made weaker and disappear overtime.
Systematic Desensitization
Systematic desensitization is a technique to deal with a wide variety of maladaptive emotional
behaviours, particularly involving anxiety, irrational fears and phobias and other forms of dysfunctions
(neurotic tendencies). This type of behaviour is being reinforced by the avoidance of a painful situation.
There are five basic steps in systematic desensitization (i) assessment, (ii) constructions of anxiety
hierarchies, (iii) training in muscle relaxation, (iv) imaginary training, and (v) implementation. The
method of sensitization is aimed at teaching the client to emit a response which is inconsistent with
anxiety while in the presence of real or imagined anxiety-producing stimulus.
(i) Implosive Therapy
In this technique, instead of banishing anxiety from the treatment, the social case worker attempts to
elicit a massive flood or implosion of anxiety. With repeated exposure in a safe setting, where no harm is
felt by the client, the stimulus loses its strength to elicit anxiety.
(ii) Assertive Therapy
Assertive therapy is used to develop more effective coping mechanism. In such a therapy, an
opportunity of role laying is given to the client.
(iii) Aversion Therapy
This technique is used for the modification of undesirable behaviour by the method of punishment,
which may involve either the removal of positive reinforces or the use of aversive stimuli. The first formal
use of aversion therapy was made by Kantorovich in 1930, who administered electric shocks to alcohlics
in association with the sight, smell and taste of alcohol. Since then, it is being used in the treatment of a
wide range of maladaptive behaviours i.e. smoking, drinking, drug dependence, gambling and in sexual
deviations.
(5) Cognitive Theory
Cognitive theory believes that an individual's thinking, which is conscious process, primarily
determines his emotions, motives and behaviour. Perlman's work on case work as a problem solving
process includes an important focus on cognitive events. The work of Werner has been the most specific
and comprehensive to translate cognitive theory into application for the case work practice. Werner lists
three premises on which this theory is based on:
1. When perception changes, there is change in emotions, motives (goals) and behaviour;
2. When goal changes it results in behaviour change;
3. Perception can be changed by new activities and new kinds of behavuiour. 90
The theory, thus, believes in reciprocal relationship between perception, emotion, goals and
behaviour. If the worker thinks that the client's goals are anti-social or self defeating and destructive, he
fulfils the therapeutic task of helping the client to reorient himself with a different set of goals. 91
The basic work involved in changing mis-conceptions and unrealistic expectations, is to identify and
alter the client's typical way of structuring his beliefs and thoughts. This process is called cognitive
restructuring.
The following techniques are used for cognitive restructuring:
1. Rational Emotive Therapy (RET)
This techniques is used in the area of modifying irrational statements of oneself. Some of the
irrational ideas that Ellis92 views at the core of emotional and behavioural problems are the following: 93
(1) It is a dire necessity for adult to be loved by every one for everything he does.
(2) Certain acts are awful or wicked and people who perform such acts should be severely punished.
(3) It is horrible when things are not the way one would like them to be.
(4) Human misery is externally caused and is forced on one by outside people and events rather than
caused by the view one takes of those conditions.
(5) If something is or may be dangerous or fearsome, one should be terribly upset about it.
(6) It is easier to avoid rather than face life's difficulties and self- responsibilities.
(7) One needs something stronger or greater than oneself on which to rely.
(8) One should be thoroughly competent, intelligent and achieving in all possible respects.
(9) Because something once strongly affected one's life, it should indefinitely affect it.
(10) One must have certain and perfect control over things.
(11) Human happiness can be achieved by inertia and inaction.
(12) One has virtually no control over one's emotions and one cannot help feeling certain things.
Rational Emotive therapy includes four stages:
(1) Presentation of rationals: The worker attempts to elicit the problems or significance of self-
statements in general without mentioning client's problems.
(2) Overview of irrational assumption: The worker presents a number of irrational self-statements
before the client and tries to make him realize that his statements are irrational.
(3) Analysis of client's problem in rational-emotive terms. Client is made aware of his problem
rationally and is provided the knowledge of how he has labelled the event.
(4) Teaching the client to modify internal sentences. In this stage the client is taught to change his
opinions and attitudes, which are anxiety provoking.
2. Problem-solving and Decision-making Cognitive Therapy
In this technique, the client learns how to solve problems, thereby discovering for himself the best
way of responding and deciding upon the most effective course of action. Problem solving is a
behavioural process-overt or cognitive. The basic steps in this therapy are:87
(1) Initial recognition of a difficulty,
(2) Identification and specification of the problem,
(3) Analysis of the problem,
(4) Summary restatement of the problem,
(5) Selection of objectives which are to be effected,
(6) Depiction of the criteria by which solution will be judged,
(7) Consideration of possible solutions,
(8) Testing proposals against criteria,
(9) Selection of a course of action,
(10) Operation Planning (how it is to be done)
(11) Implementation (actuation) of the plan,
(12) Subsequent evaluation of the solution in real life,
3. Self-control and Self-management Therapy
Helping clients to help themselves is an old case work catch phrase. Self control refers to the ability
of individuals to decrease behaviours that they or others perceive as harmful (or dysfunctional to
themselves or others) and to increase functional behaviours. 95 The role of case worker in this process is to
help client develop the knowledge about how, when and where to use strategies for change. The worker
acts as an instigation and motivation to help the client to start the programme and have motivating force
to complete it. A multi step guide has been presented by Watson & Tharp to use together by the case
worker and the client to develop a self-control plan:
1. List current dissatisfactions.
2. Select one particular problem of behaviour that occurs in a particular situation.
3. Describe the effect of the problem on beaviour such as escape from the aversive consequences.
4. Be as precise as possible in stating the behaviours that occur and the situations in which they occur.
Describe some behaviour in a situation that you wish to increase or decrease.
5. Gather your own baseline data. Count every instance of target behaviour and keep a record of your
count (It includes time and place).
6. Catalogue your reinforces. Answer three questions for each potential reinforcer (a) Is it a reinforcer
specifically formed? (b) Is it a strong reinforcer? It is accessible (can I find some way to use it).
7. Draw up a contract with yourself. State what the target behaviour is - and what reinforcement you
will gain by performing it. Specify the ways in which you will obtain reinforcement, e.g. the shaping
schedule. (At times, it might he helpful to designate a significant other, spouse or friend, as the
dispenser and withholder of reinforcers to ensure that there will not be any "cheating").
8. List and attempt to verify through self-observation possible antecedents to problem behaviors.
Devise a plan for intervention, for altering antecedents (or stimulus) control, but do not implement
the plan yet.
9. Identify the emotional components of the problem (e.g. anxiety response) and devise an in vivo or
self-desensitization plan. Develop hierarchy and practice relation.
10. Select one of the plans you have developed.
11. Continue to collect data on the problem behaviour. Make a graph of the data to determine if the
intervention plan is working. Do not reanalyze or change the plan or choose an alternative plan.
12. Consider termination, if the plan is successful.
Existential Social Work
From the existential view point, man's basic motivation is to find the best possible way of life to
actualize his potentialities and to fulfil it himself as a human being. However, in an age of profound
cultural change, traditional mores and beliefs are being questioned. As a result, the modern man suffers
from confusion and deep spiritual and emotional strains. 96
Existential thought have been developed by Kierkegoard, Sartre, Tillich and May. The major theme
of existentialism is that non-being continuously threatens to extinguish man's individuality (being) and
that man has to find the meaning of his existence in the face is such a threat. Essentially, man can resolve
his dilemma in one of the two ways:
1. By giving up his guest and finding some satisfaction in blind conformity and submergence in the
group,
2. striving for increased self-definition in the reality of his own existence.97
The first alternative is unauthentic and the pathway to anxiety and despair. Therefore, the basic
theme of this approach is the individual's existence is given but what he makes of it-his essence is up to
him. The despair to the modern man is traced to the fact that he has lost his freedom due to
depersonalization of mass society. Man should detach himself from the larger society and must chart his
own destiny by discovering his own highly individual meaning in life."
Many concepts of the existential theory, such as non being, freedom, meaning, authenticity,
obligation, commitment, existential anxiety, despair, have has a profound impact on the thinking of the
social workers. They had a profound impact on the thinking of the social workers. They now view the
modern man as alienated and estranged-stranger to God, to other man and to himself.
Krill has listed five organizing concepts of existential thought in the context of therapy.
1. Disillusionment
2. Freedom of choice
3. Meaning of suffering
4. Necessity of dialogue
5. Commitment98
Role Theory
Role is mainly a behavioural concept. Roles and statuses are interlinked as role is associated with
given social positions. Social role refers to the behaviour of status-occupants that is oriented towards the
patterned expectations of others (who accord the rights and obligation).99 Linton went on to observe that
each person in the society inevitably occupies multiple statuses and that, for each of these statuses, there
is an associated role.100
The concept of social roles in social work not only includes attitudes and emotions but it also
includes behaviour itself. Thus, when the social worker refers role, it also includes social functioning. If,
in any small group, we become leader or follower, newcomer or isolate, scapegoat or clown, we have
feelings about the position we occupy and about the role bahaviour associated with it. The other group
members also have feeling about our behaviour and their own role. 101
Thus the role concepts in social work are based on two formulations, one expressed by Perlman,
'Role implies that certain emotional values or sentiments tend to be injected in any human activities that
involve relationships with others, either into the activities themselves, or 'into the reciprocal relationships,
or both'. The other is the emotional and affective components in the role relationship. It helps to
determine the base of role differentiation. It is often assumed that the individual's wishes and capacities
are the determinants of his role. Attitudes and bahaviour patterns are the product of earlier life
experiences in social network. These experiences form the individual's self-image and self-evaluation
which in turn influence his expectations of acceptance, indifference or rejection in new group situations.
His expectations influence his life style. Approach to new social situations is affected by his past
experiences.
Role may be seen as a product of interplay between (i) individual members' needs and resources, (ii)
the solution in the social network, and (iii) the forces acting on the social network from the environment.
When there is internal or external difficulties, which are beyond the capacity of an individual, he feels
problem and fails to perform his role.
The social case worker with such clients suggests new ideas and ways of meeting the problem. He
gives new definitions to the problem and suggests solution to a difficulty that the external stimuli has
encountered. He clarifies the values pertinent to the what the social group is undertaking. He offers facts
or generalizations, which relate his own experience for understanding the problem. He spells out
suggestions in terms of examples, offers rational suggestions and tries to deduce how the suggestions
would work if adopted by the client. He mediates between other members, attempts to reconcile
disagreements and relieves tension in conflict situation. His efforts are also directed to keep
communication channels open by encouraging others to participate in the business of the client.
(i) Family Therapy
Family is the cradle in which the future is born and a nursery in which new democratic social order
is being fashioned. It is a procreative group, a child bearing group and a status giving group. The family
is a highly complicated network of forces expressed in family member's relationships. Family is a system,
which is composed of three sub-systems: marriage, parenthood and siblings. There are continuous
interactions and transactions among these sub-systems and certain relationship behavioural patterns
become autonomous. Because these family patterns are unconsciously integrated and, therefore, largely
outside the conscious awareness of the family and its members, and because they need to be understood
if the individual and family are to be assessed as correctly as possible for treatment strategy, direct
observation of family process and relationship is necessary.
(ii) Basic Assumption of Family Therapy
(1) Marital relationship system heavily influences the management of individual and family
development tasks. In order to understand the problem of the individual and the family, it is
necessary to understand the nature of marriage.
(2) The nature of the marital equilibrium affects all family members, but its effects on each of the
members differ.
(3) Children are affected developmentally by the parents of the marital equilibrium because they
interject the parents as models, guides and educators.
(4) Individual's developmental tasks, such as self control and self responsibility intimacy and distance,
separateness and dependence and individuation and inter-dependence, must be guided and
directed masterly by the family for the achievement of maximum self-realization both of individual
and family.
(5) Each developmental phase in the family has stressful situation, which requires new identifications,
role transitions and new relationships.
(iii) Basic Concepts of Family Therapy
The following are the concepts that influence the practice of family therapy.
(1) Whenever one member of a family is in trouble, all are in trouble. The symptoms in an individual
serve to balance forces within the family as well as his own intrapsychic foes. Understanding what
they represent for him and the family is quite necessary for the purpose of treatment planning.
(2) The nature of family structure, that is, identifications, object relationships, collusions, alliances, and
roles, are significant indexes of family functioning and are causatives in individual development. In
disturbed families, behavioural difficulties, symptoms, or delays in personal development indicate
faulty family structure that is expressed in poor role performance.
(3) Communication in the family is the channel through which the rules and roles, the processes of
identification and differentiation, the management of tasks, conflicts and resolution- in short, the
business of life is conducted. Family therapy relies on understanding the communication patterns in
the family and in intervening in those that are currently dysfunctional in the family system.
Diagnosis and Assessment
(i) Diagnosis is confirmed on the basis of various types of interviews with the client and the family. He
knows the content of the problem identification of the family and its members-their characteristics,
complaints and requesting, differing and similar perceptions, reactions and efforts made by the
family to deal with the problems.
(ii) The worker knows family structure and processes in the family responsibilities, roles, family
patterns of daily living, role performance, rolerelationships, reciprocal relationships, individuation,
dependency, and control of feelings, intimacy, aggression, anxiety, regressions, taboos, etc., capacity
for reality perception, use of defenses and resistances in the family, patterns of conflict and
resolutions, decision making, cultural and social influences, management of moral, ethical and
religious values, social aspirations and goals, patterns of verbal and non-verbal communications.
(iii) He records the family history and analyses its contents, history of marriage, child development,
important events, family functioning in stressful situations, individual's behaviour, symptoms,
adaptation and difficulties, ego strength on the family and its members to solve the problems.
Treatment
Immediate and long range goals include, characteristically, helping the family members to become
better attuned to each other's needs, to "hear" what the others are saying and they mean to overcome
fears, about expressing honest feelings, to learn how to communicate more directly and clearly and to
learn different ways of behaving and feeling.
Most of the techniques, in one-to-one treatment, such as guidance, advice, education, and reflection,
are used in family therapy, with the difference that they are always directed to the interactional process.
Suggestions, clarifications and interpretations may be directed to an individual, but only in the interest of
the total group.

References
1. Richmond, Mary : The Long View, Russel Sage Foundation, New York, 1930, 99. 374-75.
2. Ibid, p. 398.
3. Richmond, Mary: What is Social Case Work, The Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1922, p. 98.
4. Hollis, Florence: 'Social Case Work' Social Work Year Book, 1954, p. 474.
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1956, p. 23.
6. Perlman, Helena, Harris: Social Case Work- A Problem Solving Process, The University of Chicago
Press, Chicago, 1957.
7. Perlman, H.H. :op. eit., p.4.
8. Ibid, p. 4.
9. Ibid, p. 4.
10. Ibid, p. 4.
11. Merton, Robert K.: Social Theory and Social Structure (Englerged Addition), Amerind Publication
comp., 1968, p. 41
12. Clarke, H.I.: Principles and Practice of Social Work, Appleton Century Crofts, New York, 1947, p.
57.
13. Ibid, pp. 58-59.
14. Perlman, Helen, Social Casework A Problem Solving Process. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1957.
15. Friedlander, W.A.: Concepts and Methods of Social Work, Prentice Hall, Inc, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,
1958, p. 21.
16. Witmer, Helel L : Social Work: An Analysis of Social Institution, Rinehart and Company Inc., New
York, 1942. p. 178.
17. Doremus, Bertha. "The Four R's: Social Diagnosis in Health Care." Health and Social Work 1 (1976):-
121-139.
18. Austin, Lucille Nickel: "Trends in Differential Treatment in Social Case Work", Journal of Social Case
Work, 29:205, June, 1948.
19. Doremus, Bertha, "The Four R's: Social Diagnosis in Health Care. "Health and Social Work I (1976):
121-139.
20. Lyndon, Benjamin H.: "Development and Use", in Richard Sterba, Nenjamin, H.L. et al.,
Transference in Case Work, Family Service Association of American, New York, 1948, p. 16.
21. Hamilton, G.: Theory and Practice of Social Case Work, Columbia University Press, New York, 1951,
p. 27.
22. Perlman, Helen, Herris: Social Case Work- A Problem Solving Process, The University of Chicago
Press, Chicago, 1957, pp. 64-83.
23. Biestek, F.P.: op, cit. p. 12.
24. Biestek, F. P.: op. cit. pp. 23-120.
25. Friedlander, W.R.: Concepts and Methods of Social Work, Prentice Hall Inc, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,
1958, pp. 99-101.
26. Perlman, H.H. : op. cit. p. 115.
27. Perlman, H.H. "The Problem-Solving Model in Social Case Work" in Robert Nee (ed) op. cit. 163.
28. Sytz, Florence: "The Development of Method in Social Case Work" in Kasius, Cora (ed). Principles
and Techniques in Social Case Work, Family Service Association of America, New York, 1953, p.
320.
29. Aptekar, The Dynamics of Case Work and Counselling, Houghton Miflin, New York, 1955, p. 72.
30. Perlman, H. H.: Social Case Work- A Problem Solving Process, The University of Chicago Press,
Chicago, 1951, pp. 168-196.
31. Ibid, pp. 171-180.
32. Richmond, Mary: What is Social Case Work? Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1922, p. 98.
33. Richmond, M. : The Long View, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1930, p. 374.
34. Hamilton, G. :Theory and Practice of Social Case Work, quoted by Tilbury, DEF, op. cit., pp. ,149-
150.

37. Hollis, Florence: "The Psycho-Social Approach to Case Work in Robert Nee op. cit. p. 57.
38. Fisher, Joel: Effective Case Work Practice-an eelectic approach, Mc Craw Hill Book Company, New
York, 1978, p. 264.
39. Lee, Porter: 'Social Work as Cause and Function', in Hamilton Book, op. cit., p. 243.
40. Hollis, Florence: "The Techniques of Case Work" in Principles and Techniques of Social Case Work,
edited by Cora, Kasius, F.S.A.A. New York, 1953, p. 414.
41. Hollis, Florence, op. cit. p. 419.
42. Richmond, Mary," What is Social Case Work? Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1922, p. 101.
43. Kasius Cora: A Comparison of Diagnostic and Functional Case Work Concept. Family Service
Association of America, New York, 1950, pp. 20-21.
44. Ibid, p. 19.
45. Taft, Jessie: "Tie as the Medium of the Helping Process". Jewish Social Service Quarterly, Vol. XXVI
No. 2, 1949, p. 189.
46. English O. Spurgeon and Pearson, Gerald H.J.: Emotional Problems of Living W.U., Norton &
Company, New York, 1945. p. 537.
47. Heiman, Marcel: Psychoanalysis and Social Work, International Universities Press, New York, 1953,
p. 71.
48. Ibid, p. 71.
49. Parad, Howard J. (ed.): Ego Psychology and Dynamic Case Work Family Service Association of
America, New York, 1958, p. 54.
50. Taft, Jessie: The Uses of the Transfer within the Limit of the Office Interview. The Family.
51. Hamilton, G.: op. cit. p. 257.

53. Hamilton, G.: op, cit. p. 251.

54. Rogers, Carl. R.: Counselling and Psychotherapy, Houghton Mifflin Com., New York, 1942, pp. 7-8.
55. Fischer, Joel: Effective Case Work Practice, Mc Craw Hill Book Company, New York, 1978, p. 346.
56. Apteker, H.H.: The Dynamics of Case Work and Counselling, Houghten Mifflin Camp. New York,
1955, p. 110.
57. Smith, Gleen, F.: Counselling in the Secondary School, The Mac Millan Company, New York, 1955,
p. 156.
58. Williamson, E.G. and Foley, J.D.: Counselling and Discipline, McGraw Hill Book Company, 1949, p.
192.
59. Rogers, Carl, C.: "Client Centred Psychotherapy", Scientific American, 187:70, 1952.
60. Pepinsky, Harold B. & Pepinsky, Paulin, N.: Counselling: Theory and Practice, Ronald, New York,
1954, p. 3.
61. Mehta, H.P.:Conselling and Vocational Guidance in Encyclopaedic of Social Work in India, The
Planning Commission, Govt, of India, 1968, p. 200.
62. Rogers, Carl. R.: Counselling and Psychotherapy, Houghton Mifflin Com., New York, 1942, pp. 7-8.
63. Perlman, H.H.: op. cit. 4.
64. Weiss, Edward & English, 0. Spurgeon: Psychosomatic Medicine, W.B. Saunders Company,
Philadelphia, 1950, p. 16.
65. Ibid, p. 17.
66. Hamilton, G.: op, cit., pp. 254-255.
67. Coleman, James. G: op. cit., p. 677.
68. Ibid, p. 678.
69. Bodin, Edward S.: Psychological Counselling, Appleton Company Crofts, New York, 1955, p. 15.
70. Coleman, Jules V.: Distinguihing Between Psychotherapy, and Case Work in Kauis, Cora's Vook, op.
cit., p. 382.
71. Heiman, M. & KaufMan, M.: Psycho-analysis andSotial Work, International University Press, New
York, 1953, p. 5.
72. Ibid, p. 7.
73. Friedlander, W.A.: Concepts and Methods of Social Work, Prentice Hall, New York, 1958, p. 74.
74. Davison, E.H.: Special Case Work, p. 55.
75. Parad. H.J.: op. cit. p. 43.
76. Stamm, Isabel L.: Ego Psychology in the Emerging Theoretical Base of Case Work, in Kahn, A., (ed.),
Issues I, American Social Work, Columbia University Press, New York, 1959, pp. 88-89.
77. Ibid, pp. 88-89.
78. Ibid. p. 91.
79. Erikson, Erik H.: 'Growth and Crisis of the Healthy Personality". In Clyde Kluckhohn and H.A.
Murray (ed.), Personality in Nature, Society ad Cultureknopf, New York, 1953, pp. 185-225.
80. Knight, Rober: "Determinism 'Fredom' and Psychotherapy" Psychiatry IX, 1946, pp. 251-62.
81. Stamm, I. L.: op, cit. p. 96.
82. Ibid p. 103-104.
83. Hollis, Florence: The Psychosocial Approach to Case Work, Robert, Nee & Others op. cit. p. 67.
84. Smalley, Ruth E.: The Functional Approach to Case Work in Robert Nee, p. 81.
85. Ibid, p. 81-82.
86. Ibid, p. 101.
87. Ibid, p. 112.
88. Thomas, E.J.: "Selected Socio-Behavioural Techniques and Principles". An Approach to Inter
personal Helping, Social Work, Vol. 13, 1968, pp. 12-15.
89. Fischer, Joe; Effective Case Work Practice: An eelectivc, McGraw Hill Book Company, New York,
1978, p. 157.
89. Ibid, p. 157.
90. Werner, H.D.: "Cognitive Theory" in F.J. Turner (ed.), Social Work Treatment, Freed Press, New
York, 1974.
91. Ibid, p. 264.
92. Ibid, p. 264.
93. Ellis, A,; Reason and Emotinos in Psychotherapy, Lyle Staurat, New York, 1962.
94. Mahoney, M.J.: Cognitive and Behaviour Modification Balliger, Cambridge, 1974, pp.171-172.
95. Urban, H.B. and Ford, D.H.: Some Historical and Conceptual Perspectives on Psychotherapy and
Behaviour Changes, Wiley, New York, 1978, pp. 3-35.
96. Watson, D. and Thare, R.: Self-Directed Behaviour, Monterey Calif Brooks, 1972 quoted by Fischar,
J., op. cit. pp., 186-187.
97. Ahmad, M.R.: 'Social Case Work' in Surendra Singh & K.S. Soodan (ed.) Horizons of Social Work,
Jyotsna Publications, Lucknow, 1986, p. 85.
98. Coleman, Jones, C. : op. cit. p. 69.
99. Lowe, C. Marshall: pp. 125-178.
100. Merton, Robert K.: Social Theory and Social Structure (Englerged Addition), Amerind Publication
comp., 1968, p. 41.
95. Heap, Ken: Group Theory for Social Worker, Pergamon Press, New York, 1977, p. 140.
101. Richmond, Mary: What is Social Case Work? Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1922, pp. 98-99.
102. Hamilton, G.: op, cit., p. 22.

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