NON-NURSING THEORIES

A. Systems Theory

Systems theory was first conceptualized by Austrian biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy.

It is content free and applicable to many fields of study. It may be applied to both living as well as non-living
structures and organizations Its function is to focus the attention on the diverse systems in which any
complex living entity participates.

Systems are organized wholes comprised of component parts that interact in a distinct way over time. In its
time it was revolutionary because it emphasized the interrelatedness and mutual in All systems are
composed of subsystems or parts that are in dynamic interaction with the rest of the system.

Every system functions as a whole with properties not evident in the isolated functioning of its parts. The
parts or subsystems are also systems in themselves, so there is actually a nested system of interacting
structures.

Systems respond to or interact with the environment in varying degrees. Therefore systems vary in their
capacity to be relatively “closed” or “open” in nature.

A. Change Theory

Kurt Lewin, universally recognized as the founder of modern social psychology theorized a three-stage
model of change that has come to be known as the unfreezing-change-refreeze model that requires prior learning to
be rejected and replaced.

Stage 1 – becoming motivated to change (unfreezing)

This phase of change is built on the theory that human behavior is established by past observational
learning and cultural influences. Change requires adding new forces for change or removal of some of the existing
factors that are at play in perpetuating the behavior. This unfreezing process has three sub-processes that relate to a
readiness and motivation to change.
• Disconfirmation where present conditions lead to dissatisfaction, such as not meeting personal goals.
However, the larger the gap between what is believed and what needs to be believed for change to occur, the more
likely the new information will be ignored.
• Previous beliefs now being seen as invalid creates “survival anxiety.” However,this may not be sufficient to
prompt change if learning anxiety is present.
• Learning anxiety triggers defensiveness and resistance due to the pain of havin
to unlearn what had been previously accepted. Three stages occur in response to learning anxiety: denial;
scapegoating & passing the buck; and maneuvering and bargaining.

It is necessary to move past the possible anxieties for change to progress. This can be accomplished by
either having the survival anxiety be greater than the learning anxiety or, preferably, learning anxiety could be
reduced.
Stage 2 – change what needs to be changed (unfrozen and moving to a new state)

Once there is sufficient dissatisfaction with the current conditions and a real desire to make some change
exists, it is necessary to identify exactly what needs to be changed. Three possible impacts from processing new
information are: words take on new or expanded meaning, concepts are interpreted within a broader context, and
there is an adjustment in the scale used in evaluating new input.

A concise view of the new state is required to clearly identify the gap between the present state and that
being proposed. Activities that aid in making the change include imitation of role models and looking for personalized
solutions through trial-and-error learning.

Stage 3 – making the change permanent (refreezing)

Refreezing is the final stage where new behavior becomes habitual, which includes developing a new self-
concept & identity and establishing new interpersonal
relationships.

C. Theories of Development

Developmental theories – provide road maps for explaining human development

Developmental task – a skill or growth responsibility arising at a particular time in an individual’s life, the
achievement of which provides a foundation for the accomplishment of future tasks.

1. Freud’s Psychosexual Development Theory

- Sigmund Freud, Austrian neurologist and founder of psychoanalysis

- Founded the first real theory of personality development
- Sexual instincts are significant in the development of the personality. Sexual energy, which Freud termed as
libido, was the driving force of human behavior.
- Adult behavior is the result of instinctual drives that have a primarily sexual nature (libido) from within the
person and the conflicts that develop between these instincts (represented in the individual as the id), reality
(the ego), and society (the superego).
- The term psychosexual is used to describe any sensual pleasure.
- A child’s sexual gratification becomes focused on a particular body part. During childhood, certain regions of
the body assume a prominent psychologic significance as the source of new pleasures and new conflicts
gradually shifts from one part of the body to another at particular stages of development.
- A person may remain stalled or “fixated” at a particular stage or regress to an earlier stage.

1. INFANT (0-1)
- “oral phase”
- Infants are so interested in oral stimulation or pleasure
- infants suck for enjoyment or relief of tension, as well as for nourishment
- Infants develop self-concept and meaningful existence
- RESIDUALS: overeating, gossiping, smoking, drinking alcohol, chewing gums, over jealousy
 2. TODDLER (1-3)
- “anal phase”
- Toddlers’ interests widen and their main focus is on the anal region, elimination takes on new
importance.
- Children find pleasure in both the retention and defecation of feces, maturation of nervous
control on bladder and bowel takes place.
- The focus of this stage is punishment and cleanliness.
- Ego and superego are developed.
- This anal interest is part of toddlers’ self-discovery, a way of exerting independence and thus
probably accounts for some of the difficulties parents may experience during toilet training.
- RESIDUALS: perfectionist, meticulous, organized, rigid, obsessive compulsive

3. PRESCHOOLER (3-6)
- “phallic phase”
- Children’s pleasure zone appears to shift from the anal to the genital area.
- Children may show exhibitionism, suggesting they hope this will lead to sharing exposure and
increasing knowledge of the two sexes.
- Boys experience “castration fear”, girls experience ”penis envy”.
- Gender identity develops (sense of being masculine and feminine).
- Superego is internalized.
- “oedipal/electra complex”
- RESIDUALS: exhibitionist, pedophile, voyeurism

4. SCHOOL-AGE CHILD (6-12)

- “latent phase”
- A child in which children’s libido (energy) appears to be diverted into concrete thinking such as
school activities.
- Socialization outside the home starts.
- “chum period” – bestfriend
- Homosexual stage of development

5. ADOLESCENT (12-18)
- “genital stage”
- The main events of the adolescent period are establishing new sexual aims and finding of new
love objects.
- heterosexual stage of development
- Child becomes independent and plans for the future.

2. Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory

- Erik Erikson stresses the importance of culture and society in the development of the personality.
- the most widely accepted theory of personality development
- A person’s social view of himself/herself is more important than instinctual drives in determining behavior. It
emphasizes a healthy personality as opposed to a pathologic approach.
- There are eight developmental stages covering the entire lifespan. At each stage, there is a conflict between
two opposing forces. The resolution of each conflict, or accomplishment of the developmental task of that
stage, allows the individual to go on the next phase of development.
- No core conflict is ever mastered completely, but remains a recurrent problem throughout life.
 Stage Virtue Task
Trust vs. mistrust (infant) Hope viewing the world as safe and reliable;
relationships as nurturing, stable and dependable

Autonomy vs. shame and Will achieving a sense of control and free will
doubt (toddler)

Initiative vs. guilt (pre-school) Purpose beginning development of conscience; learning to

manage conflict and anxiety

Industry vs. inferiority (school Competence emerging confidence in own abilities; taking
age) pleasure in accomplishments

Identity vs. role confusion Fidelity formulating a sense of self and belonging
(adolescence)

Intimacy vs. isolation (young Love forming adult, loving relationships and meaningful
adult) attachments to others

Generativity vs. stagnation Care being creative and productive; establishing the next
(middle adult) generation

Ego identity vs. despair Wisdom accepting responsibility for one’s self and life
(maturity)

Stage 1: Infancy -- Age 0 to 18 months

Crisis: Trust vs. Mistrust

Description: In the first year of life, infants depend on others for food, warmth, and affection, and therefore must be
able to blindly trust the parents (or caregivers) for providing those.

Positive outcome: If their needs are met consistently and responsively by the parents, infants not only will develop a
secure attachment with the parents, but will learn to trust their environment in general as well.

Negative outcome: If not, infant will develop mistrust towards people and things in their environment, even towards
themselves.

Stage 2: Toddler -- Age 18 month to 3

Crisis: Autonomy (Independence) vs. Doubt (or Shame)

Description: Toddlers learn to walk, talk, use toilets, and do things for themselves. Their self-control and self-
confidence begin to develop at this stage.

Positive outcome: If parents encourage their child's use of initiative and reassure her when she makes mistakes, the
child will develop the confidence needed to cope with future situations that require choice, control, and
independence.
Negative outcome: If parents are overprotective, or disapproving of the child's acts of independence, she may begin
to feel ashamed of her behavior, or have too much doubt of her abilities.

Stage 3: Early Childhood -- Age 3 to 6

Crisis: Initiative vs. Guilt

Description: Children have newfound power at this stage as they have developed motor skills and become more and
more engaged in social interaction with people around them. They now must learn to achieve a balance between
eagerness for more adventure and more responsibility, and learning to control impulses and childish fantasies.

Positive outcome: If parents are encouraging, but consistent in discipline, children will learn to accept without guilt,
that certain things are not allowed, but at the same time will not feel shame when using their imagination and
engaging in make-believe role plays.

Negative outcome: If not, children may develop a sense of guilt and may come to believe that it is wrong to be
independent.

Stage 4: Elementary and Middle School Years -- Age 6 to 12

Crisis: Industry (Competence) vs. Inferiority

Description: School is the important event at this stage. Children learn to make things, use tools, and acquire the
skills to be a worker and a potential provider. And they do all these while making the transition from the world of
home into the world of peers.

Positive outcome: If children can discover pleasure in intellectual stimulation, being productive, seeking success, they
will develop a sense of competence.

Negative outcome: If not, they will develop a sense of inferiority.

Stage 5: Adolescence -- Age 12 to 18

Crisis: Identity vs. Role Confusion

Description: This is the time when we ask the question "Who am I?" To successfully answer this question, Erickson
suggests, the adolescent must integrate the healthy resolution of all earlier conflicts. Did we develop the basic sense
of trust? Do we have a strong sense of independence, competence, and feel in control of our lives? Adolescents who
have successfully dealt with earlier conflicts are ready for the "Identity Crisis", which is considered by Erikson as the
single most significant conflict a person must face.

Positive outcome: If the adolescent solves this conflict successfully, he will come out of this stage with a strong
identity, and ready to plan for the future.

Negative outcome: If not, the adolescent will sink into confusion, unable to make decisions and choices, especially
about vocation, sexual orientation, and his role in life in general.
Stage 6: Young Adulthood -- Age 18 to 40

Crisis: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Description: In this stage, the most important events are love relationships. No matter how successful you are with
your work, said Erikson, you are not developmentally complete until you are capable of intimacy. An individual who
has not developed a sense of identity usually will fear a committed relationship and may retreat into isolation.
Positive outcome: Adult individuals can form close relationships and share with others if they have achieved a sense
of identity.

Negative outcome: If not, they will fear commitment, feel isolated and unable to depend on anybody in the world.

Stage 7: Middle Adulthood -- Age 40 to 65

Crisis: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Description: By "generativity" Erikson refers to the adult's ability to look outside oneself and care for others, through
parenting, for instance. Erikson suggested that adults need children as much as children need adults, and that this
stage reflects the need to create a living legacy.

Positive outcome: People can solve this crisis by having and nurturing children, or helping the next generation in
other ways.

Negative outcome: If this crisis is not successfully resolved, the person will remain self-centered and experience
stagnation later in life.

Stage 8: Late Adulthood -- Age 65 to death

Crisis: Integrity vs. Despair

Description: Old age is a time for reflecting upon one's own life and its role in the big scheme of things, and seeing it
filled with pleasure and satisfaction or disappointments and failures.

Positive outcome: If the adult has achieved a sense of fulfillment about life and a sense of unity within himself and
with others, he will accept death with a sense of integrity. Just as the healthy child will not fear life, said Erikson, the
healthy adult will not fear death.

Negative outcome: If not, the individual will despair and fear death.

3. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget
- Swiss psychologist who introduced the concepts of cognitive development or the way children learn and
think that have roots similar to those of both Freud and Erikson, yet separate from each.
- Defined four stages of cognitive development. Within each stage are four units or schemas. Each period is
an advance over the previous one. To progress from one period to the next, a child reorganizes his/her
thinking processes to bring them closer to adult thinking.
The four development stages are described in Piaget's theory as:

a.Sensorimotor stage (BIRTH TO 2 Y.O.) -children experience the world through movement and senses and
learn object permanence
- Sensorimotor intelligence is practical intelligence, because words and symbols for thinking and problem
solving are not yet available at this early stage.
- Babies relate to the world through their senses, using only reflex behavior (development of reflexes).
- Basic concept that people are entities separate from objects.
- “Primary” refers to activities related to a child’s own body and “circulatory reaction” shows that repetition of
behavior occurs (development of habits). E.g. The infant accidentally brings his/her thumb to the mouth,
enjoys this sensation, and so repeats it.
- “Secondary” refers to activities that are separate from a child’s body. Objects in the environment are
permanent and continue to exist even though they are out of sight or changed in some way, i.e. object
permanence.
- During the final phase of the infant year, infants begin to demonstrate goal-directed behavior.
- As infants go into a transition stage of becoming toddlers, they use trial and error to discover new
characteristics of objects and events.

b. Preoperational stage (2 Y.O. TO 7 Y.O.) – acquisition of motor skills

- Children are now able to use symbols to represent objects or something that is not physically present.
- Toddlers draw conclusions from obvious facts they see. This type of faulty reasoning (prelogical) leads
children to wrong conclusions and faulty judgment.
- occurs when the child is able to believe in something without knowing
- Intuitive thought—why she or he believes it.
- During this time, children tend to look at an object and see only one of its characteristics
(centering/centration).
- Centering contributes to the preschooler’s lack of conservation (the ability to discern truth, even though
physical properties change) and reversibility (ability to retrace steps).
- Preschool thinking is also influenced by role fantasy, or how children would like something to turn out.
Children use assimilation (taking in information and changing it to fit their existing ideas) as a part of this.
- Animism or “magical thinking” —The child believes that inanimate objects have "lifelike" qualities and are
capable of action. Example, a child plays with a doll and treats it like a real person. In a way this is like using
their imagination.
- Later on, children learn accommodation (they change their ideas to fit reality rather than the reverse).
- Egocentrism—a version of centration, this denotes a tendency of a child to only think from her or his own
point of view. Also, the inability of a child to take the point of view of others. Example, if a child is in trouble,
he or she might cover her eyes thinking if I cannot see myself my mom cannot either.
- Reasoning is transductive—because two events occur together, they cause each other, or knowledge of
one characteristic is transferred to another (e.g., all women with big bellies have babies).

c. Concrete operational stage (7 Y.O. TO 11 Y.O.) - children begin to think logically

- Occurs between the ages of 7 and 11 years and is characterized by the appropriate use of logic
- School-age children can discover concrete solutions to everyday problems and recognize cause-and-effect
relationships.
- Conservation—understanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or
appearance of the object or items. For instance, when a child is presented with two equally-sized, full cups
they will be able to discern that if water is transferred to a pitcher it will conserve the quantity and be equal
to the other filled cup.
- Reasoning tends to be inductive, proceeding from specific to general: school-age children tend to reason
that a toy they are holding is broken, the toy is made of plastic, so all plastic toys break easily.
d. Formal operational stage (AFTER 11 Y.O) – development of abstract reasoning
- The fourth and final of the stages of cognitive development of Piaget's theory. This stage, which follows the
Concrete Operational stage, commences at around 11 years of age (puberty) and continues into adulthood.
- It is characterized by acquisition of the ability to think in terms of possibility (abstract thought) and draw
conclusions from the information available. During this stage the young adult functions in a cognitively
normal manner and therefore is able to understand such things as love, "shades of gray", and values.

4. Havighurst’s Developmental Tasks

Robert J. Havighurst
- Stated that the number of tasks in different age levels depends on the person and the society he lives in.
- Added that biology and society have a lot influence, but personal values of the people who prepare them
have as much influences on identifying the task.
- If the individual fails to complete the task, it leads him to unhappiness, disapproval by society and problems
in later tasks. On the other hand, if the individual completes the task successfully, it leads him to happiness
and success with future tasks.

Havighurst identified six major stages in human life. They are:

a. Infancy and Early Childhood -Ages 0-6

• Learning to walk
• Learning to crawl
• Learning to take slid food
• Learning to talk
• Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
• Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
• Getting ready to read
• Forming concepts and learning language to describe social and physical reality

b. Middle Childhood - Ages 6-12

• Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
• Learning to get along with age mates
• Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism
• Learning on appropriate masculine or feminine social role
• Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
• Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
• Developing conscience, morality and a scale of values
• Achieving personal independence
• Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions

c. Adolescence -Ages 12-18

• Achieving new and more mature relations with age mates of both sexes
• Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
• Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively
• Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults
• Preparing for marriage and family life
• Acquiring a st of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior
• Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour
d. Early Adulthood - Ages 18-30
• Selecting a mate
• Learning to live with a partner
• Starting family
• Rearing children
• Managing home
• Getting started in occupation
• Taking on civic responsibility
• Finding a congenial social group

e. Midlle Age - Ages 30-60

• Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
• Achieving adult social and civic responsibility
• Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in one’s occupational career
• Developing adult leisure time activities
• Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person
• To accept and adjust to the physiological changes of middle age
• Adjusting to aging parents

f. Later maturity - 60 and over

• Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health
• Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
• Adjusting to death of a spouse
• Establishing an explicit affiliation with one’s age group
• Adopting and adapting social roles in a flexible way
• Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements

5. Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory

Lawrence Kohlberg developed a theory of the way children gain knowledge of right and wrong or moral reasoning.

Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)
1. Obedience and punishment orientation
2. Self-interest orientation (What's in it for me?)
Level 2 (Conventional)
3. Interpersonal accord and conformity (The good boy/good girl attitude)
4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation (Law and order morality)
Level 3 (Post-Conventional)
5. Social contract orientation
6. Universal ethical principles (Principled conscience)

Preconventional level
- Cultural labels of good/bad and right/wrong
- Children determine the goodness or badness of an action in terms of its consequences.
- They avoid punishment and obey without question those who have the power to determine and enforce the
rules and labels.
- Later, children determine that the right behavior consists of that which satisfies their own needs (and
sometimes the needs of others).
Conventional level
- The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults.
- Child follows rules because of a need to be a “good” person in his own eyes and eyes of others. Behavior
that meets the approval of others is considered to be good. One earns approval by being “nice.”
- It is important to obey laws, dictums and social conventions because of their importance in maintaining a
functioning society.

Postconventional level
- also known as the principled level
- Realization that individuals are separate entities from society now becomes salient. One's own perspective
should be viewed before the society's.
- Correct behavior tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that have been
examined and agreed on by the entire society.
- The most advanced level of moral development is one in which self-chosen ethical principles guide
decisions of conscience.

6. Sullivan’s Interpersonal Development

- Herbert “Harry” Stack Sullivan was an American psychiatrist who extended the theory of personality
development to include the significance of interpersonal relationships. He believed in the existence of
relationships, but not of individuals.
- One’s personality involved more than individual characteristics, particularly how one interacted with others.
- Inadequate or unsatisfying relationships produced anxiety, which Sullivan saw as the basis for all emotional
problems.

Sullivan’s Five Life Stages

Stage Ages Focus

Infancy Birth to onset of language • Primary need for contact and tenderness
• Prototaxic mode dominates (brief, unconnected
experiences that have no relation to one another).
• Primary zones are oral and anal.
• If needs are met, infant has sense of well-being; unmet
needs leads to dread and anxiety.

Childhood Language to 5 years • Parents are viewed as source of praise and acceptance.
• Shift to parataxic mode (experiences are connected in
sequence to each other); paranoid ideas and slips of the
tongue are indicative of a person operating in parataxic
mode.
• Primary zone is anal.
• Gratification leads to positive self-esteem.
• Moderate anxiety leads to uncertainty and insecurity;
severe anxiety results in self-defeating patterns of
behavior.

Juvenile 5-8 years • Shift to the syntaxic mode begins (thinking about self
and others based on analysis of experiences in a variety
 of situations).
• Opportunities for approval and acceptance of others.
• Learn to negotiate own needs.
• Severe anxiety may result in need to control or
restrictive, prejudicial attitudes.

Preadolescence 8-12 years • Move to genuine intimacy with friend of the same sex.
• Move away from family as source of satisfaction in
relationships.
• Major shift to syntaxic mode (the person begins to
perceive himself/herself and the world within the context
of the environment and can analyze experiences in a
variety of settings).
• Capacity for attachment, love, and collaboration emerges
or fails to develop.

Adolescence Puberty to adulthood • Lust is added to interpersonal equation.

• Need for special sharing relationship to the opposite sex.
• New opportunities for social experimentation lead to the
consolidation of self-esteem or self-ridicule.
• If the self-esteem is intact, areas of concern expand to
include values, ideals, career decisions, and social
concerns.
• Maturity may be defined as predominance of the
syntaxic mode.