Bone Structure

and Function
OBJECTIVES MATERIALS
1 Identify bones as either long, short, flat, irregular, • disarticulated bones for bone classification
or sesamoid • Gross Features of a Human Long Bone: human
2 Describe the gross structure of a long bone and long bone cut longitudinally and transversely;
identify its parts • Gross Features of a Fresh Long Bone: dissecting
3 Describe the difference between compact microscope, dissecting tray, blunt probe and
(cortical) and spongy (cancellous or trabecular) forceps, disposable gloves, fresh chicken leg
bone or thigh bone, fresh beef long bone sectioned
4 Identify microscopic structures of compact and longitudinally
spongy bone • Microscopic Structure of Bone: compound
5 Describe the effect of collagen and mineral salts microscope and lens paper, prepared slides of
on bone hardness and flexibility cross-section of ground compact bone and
cancellous (spongy) bone, or use Real Anatomy
(Histology)
• Collagen and Mineral Salts: 3 chicken thigh or
leg bones: 1 raw, 1 baked for 2 hours or more at
250°F, and 1 soaked in an acidic solution (vinegar
or nitric acid) for 5 to 7 days

B ones are organs composed of a complex

arrangement of several tissues. A typical bone has
compact and spongy osseous tissues, cartilage, adi-
pose tissue, blood cells, and connective tissue membranes.
In addition, bones contain blood vessels and nerves.
and sesamoid. Long bones are longer than they are wide,
with a thick compact bone exterior. Distribution of spongy
bone in long bones is covered in detail later in this exer-
cise. Short bones are almost equal in length and width
and contain a thick interior of spongy bone covered by a
thin veneer of compact bone. Flat bones are relatively flat,
but may be curved, and contain a thin, spongy bone inte-
rior covered by a thin veneer of compact bone. Irregular
A. Classification of Bones bones are self-explanatory and do not easily fit into any
of these categories. Sesamoid bones (sesame = seed) are
Human bones have different shapes and distinct gross
small bones that develop in tendons (e.g., patella) for pro-
anatomical features. Bones are placed in five classifica-
tection against wear and tear.
tions according to their shapes: long, short, flat, irregular,

97
 98 EXERCISE 8 BONE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

■fJ=fJih'hl'I• Classifi_cation of Bones

According to Shape
1 Classify each of the bones your instructor has displayed 2
according to shape.
2 Discuss with the rest of the class which bones are dif-
ficult to classify and why. ■

B. Gross Features
of Long Bones
The enlarged proximal and distal ends of long bones are
called epiphyses (epi- = above, over; -physis = growing), 3
and the middle shaft area is called the diaphys~ (dia- =
through). Compact bone forms the exterior (or cortex)
of long bones and most of the diaphysis. A small layer of \
spongy bone lines the interior of the diaphysis. Spongy bone - - - - 13
also forms the interior of the epiphyses. The metaphyses are
the areas in an adult bone where the epiphyses and diaphy-
sis join. In a growing bone, the metaphyses contain a layer
of hyaline cartilage called the epiphyseal plate. Division of
cartilage allows the bone to grow in length. Bone growth
stops when the epiphyseal plate cartilage becomes ossified
and forms a bony structure called the epiphyseal line.
Articular cartilage (articul- = joint), composed of 4
hyaline cartilage, covers both epiphyses; and the rest of the
bone exterior is covered with a tough, connective tissue mem-
brane, the periosteum (peri- = around; osteo- = bone).
5
The hollow center of the bony diaphysis is called the
medullary cavity (medulla = marrow, pith), and a small
amount of spongy bone is found in this cavity. The med-
ullary cavity is lined with a connective tissue membrane • articular cartilage
called the endosteum (endo- = within). The endosteum • compact bone
also lines the cavities within the spongy bone of the epiph- • diaphysis (dle-AF-ih-sis) 2
yses. Both the periosteum and the endosteum contain • distal epiphysis
(e-PIF-ih-sis) 3
osteoblasts (-blast = builder) and osteoclasts (-klasis =
breaking) for bone formation, bone tissue repair, and bone • distal metaphysis
4
remodeling. (me-TAF-ih-sis)
Yellow marrow is a fatty substance found within the • endosteum 5
medullary cavity. Red marrow is found within the cavities (en-DOS-tee-um)
• epiphyseal (ep-i-PHY- 6
of spongy bone and produces blood cells.
zee-al or ee-PIF-ih-
The nutrient artery is a large artery that enters compact seal) line 7
bone near the middle of the diaphysis. The nutrient artery • medullary (MED-yoo-
immediately branch es into proximal and distal portions lar-y) cavity 8
which supply blood to the inner layer of compact bone, • nutrient artery
9
spongy bone, and red marrow. The nutrient foramen is the • periosteum
foramen through which the nutrient artery enters. (peri-OS-tee-um)
10
• proximal epiphysis
• proximal metaphysis 11
• spongy bone with red
Before Going to Lab marrow 12
1 Label Figure 8.1. 13

FIGURE 8 . 1 Features of an adult long bone.

 E X E RC I S E 8 B O N E ST R U CT U R E A N D F U N CT I O N 99

■ilj :fijh*hffj Gross Features

cut in cross-section. When viewed on a stained slide of
compact bone, there are dark areas with thin lines extend-
of a Human Long Bone ing between the lamellae. The dark areas are lacunae
1 Identify as many items as you can from Figure 8.1 on (Lacuna = little lake) that are found between concentric
a human long bone that is partially sectioned longitudi- lamellae, and the thin lines are canaliculi (small channels)
nally and transversely. that connect the lacunae. Osteocytes are mature bone cells
that reside in the lacunae, and osteocyte processes extend
2 Use a dissecting microscope to observe spongy bone in
through the canaliculi. Canaliculi allow nutrients from the
the epiphyses and lining the medullary cavity. ■
blood vessels in the central canal to diffuse to the osteo-
cytes embedded in the solid bone material. The canaliculi
are also the route by which waste materials are removed
SAFETY NOTE: Wear gloves when using fresh tissue! from these cells. Interstitial lamellae (inter- = between;
-stitial = to stand) fill in the spaces between the osteons.
Spongy (cancellous or trabecular) bone does not
contain osteons but instead has trabeculae (little beams}-
■fu =@•@•ffj Gross Features flat plates with a lattice-like network of thin, bony columns
of a Fresh Long Bone lined with endosteum. The trabeculae have lameUae,
1 Using gloves, examine a fresh chicken tibia (leg bone) lacunae, osteocytes, and canaliculi. Spongy bone has
or femur (thigh bone) and identify as many structures many spaces filled with red marrow. Blood vessels within
as you can from Figure 8.1. the red marrow provide the osteocytes with nutrients. This
• Note the shiny appearance of the articular cartilage. fragile spongy bone needs the protection of an outer layer
• Use a blunt probe and forceps to loosen the periosteum, of compact bone. Spongy bone is found in the epiphyses
ligaments, or tendons. of long bones and in the interior of short, flat, and irregular
• Locate the center of the diaphysis and look for the bones.
nutrient artery passing through a hole (nutrient
foramen) in the compact bone.
• Examine a cross-section of the bone to observe Before Going to Lab
marrow in the medullary cavity, spongy bone, and 1 Label the structures in Figures 8.2(a) and (b), and
compact bone. Figure 8.3(a) and (b).
2 Examine a longitudinal section of fresh beef bone.
• Find the epiphyseal line or the epiphyseal plate.
• Use a dissecting microscope to observe spongy bone
in the epiphyses and lining the medullary cavity. ■!4=\Jif §•A• Microscopic Structure
of Ground Compact
• Note the difference between the yellow and red bone
marrow. Bone and Spongy Bone
3 Clean up as directed by your instructor. ■ 1 Examine a prepared slide or use Real Anatomy
(Histology) to observe ground compact bone. Blood
vessels, osteocytes, and periosteum cannot be observed
C. Microscopic Structure on ground bone slides.
• Using the low-power objective lens, identify an
of Compact and osteon, a central canal, concentric lamellae, and
Spongy Bone Tissue interstitial lamellae. Count the number of osteons in
one field of view.
Compact (cortical) bone is composed of repeating units • Using the high-power objective lens, identify cana-
of osteons, with each unit having a central (Haversian) liculi and lacunae.
canal running longitudinally. The central canal contains 2 Examine a prepared microscope slide or use Real
blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves that serve Anatomy (Histology) to observe spongy bone. Note
compact bone tissue. The blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, that on slides of spongy bone the preparations are gen-
and nerves travel from the periosteum, dense regular con- erally demineralized (mineral salts removed) and do not
nective tissue covering the bone surface, to the central canal show the lamellae and canaliculi as depicted in the draw-
through perforating (Volkmann) canals. These canals run ing in Figure 8.2(b).
horizontally in compact bone and connect with the central • Using the low-power objective lens, identify the
canal. The main feature of each osteon is the concentric trabeculae.
rings, or concentric lamellae (lamella = small plate • Using the high-power objective lens, identify the lacu-
or ring), which look similar to the rings of a tree trunk nae, which appear as darker areas in the trabeculae. ■
100 E X E RC I S E 8 B O N E ST R U CT U R E A N D F U N CT I O N

Compact-- . .. .
bone ·• ;··. Medullary
Spongy •• •-· ~ avity
bone
3
Periosteum - -
4
2
.-=;:;,;.....,. - ~ . .

.,.:,ai,,o,,..::':~~:~"""iiii·:, t> .
Medullary cavity

~
(a) Osteons (Haversian systems) in compact bone and trabeculae in spongy bone

13

Osteoblasts aligned -.::::----...,

along trabeculae of .....___...1..,,,._
new bone

(b) Enlarged aspect of spongy bone trabeculae

9 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
(a) • periosteum
• blood vessels (per-ee-0S-tee-um)
• canaliculus 2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ • spongy bone 10 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
(can-a-LIK-yoo-lus) • trabeculae (trah-BEK-
3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
• central canal yoo-lee) of spongy bone 11 - - - - - - - - - -
• compact bone 4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ covered with endosteum
• concentric lamellae
s __________ (b) 12 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
(la-MEL-lee)
• lacuna (la-COO-na) • lamellae
6 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ • osteocyte in lacuna 13 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
• osteocyte (OS-tee-o-site)
• perforating canal • trabeculae covered with
endosteum 14 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
7 __________

8 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

FIGURE 8.2 Microscopic features of bone.

 EXERCISE 8 BONE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 101

(a)
• compact bone
• medullary cavity
• metaphysis
• proximal epiphysis
• spongy bone
2

2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
3

3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

4 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
4 5 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

- - 5

(a) Longitudinally sectioned femur (thigh bone)

(b)
• canaliculi
• central canal
6 • concentric lamella
• lacuna
7
6

8 7

(c)
..._.~........,:::.,-,,=~- Red marrow • osteocyte
10 • trabecula
10 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

11 - - - - - - - - - -
11

. . - ..
~
~
200X
(c) Photomicrograph of spongy bone

FIGURE 8 .3 Gross and microscopic features of compact and spongy bone.

 102 EXERCISE 8 BONE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

D . Role of Collagen DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

Collagen and Mineral Salts
and Mineral Salts
1 Compare the flexibility of the untreated, baked, and
in Osseous Tissue acid-treated bones.

The properties of osseous tissue are determined by its

extracellular matrix, which contains approximately 25%
water, 25% collagen fibers, and 50% mineral salts. Colla- 2 Which bone is brittle?
gen fibers are a fibrous protein that provide tensile strength
and flexibility so that bone does not break with normal
stress. The mineral salts consist mainly of calcium phos-
phate and calcium carbonate salts, giving the bone hard- 3 What substance has been damaged in the brittle bone?
ness. As we age, the collagen content of osseous tissue _ _ _ _ _ Why would this increase bone breakage?
decreases, causing bones to become brittle and break
more easily. Decreased mineral content of bone, as occurs
with rickets, causes bones to be soft and to bend due to
body weight. 4 Which bone is the softest?

■ftj =(Jdf ¢h4j Role o! Collagen

and Mineral Salts
5 What substance has been leached from the soft bone?
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ What clinical disorder is this bone
in Osseous Tissue simulating? ■
1 With your group, examine a chicken thigh or leg bone
baked at about 350°F for a minimum of 2 hours or until
brittle. Compare what happens when you try to bend a
baked and fresh bone.
2 Examine a chicken thigh or leg bone that has been
soaked in an acidic solution (vinegar or nitric acid) for
5 to 7 days. Try bending the bone soaked in the acidic
solution and compare this with the fresh bone and the
baked bone.
3 Clean up as directed by your instructor.
4 Answer Discussion Questions with your lab group.
■