Propagation Unit 2
Propagation Unit 2
4.1 Introduction
There are two basic ways of transmitting an electro-magnetic (EM) signal, through a
guided medium or through an unguided medium. Guided mediums such as coaxial
cables and fiber optic cables, are far less hostile toward the information carrying
EM signal than the wireless or the unguided medium. It presents challenges and
conditions which are unique for this kind of transmissions. A signal, as it travels
through the wireless channel, undergoes many kinds of propagation effects such as
reflection, diffraction and scattering, due to the presence of buildings, mountains and
other such obstructions. Reflection occurs when the EM waves impinge on objects
which are much greater than the wavelength of the traveling wave. Diffraction
is a phenomena occurring when the wave interacts with a surface having sharp
irregularities. Scattering occurs when the medium through the wave is traveling
contains objects which are much smaller than the wavelength of the EM wave.
These varied phenomena’s lead to large scale and small scale propagation losses. Due
to the inherent randomness associated with such channels they are best described
with the help of statistical models. Models which predict the mean signal strength
for arbitrary transmitter receiver distances are termed as large scale propagation
models. These are termed so because they predict the average signal strength for
large Tx-Rx separations, typically for hundreds of kilometers.
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Figure 4.1: Free space propagation model, showing the near and far fields.
The path loss, representing the attenuation suffered by the signal as it travels
through the wireless channel is given by the difference of the transmitted and re-
ceived power in dB and is expressed as:
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The fields of an antenna can broadly be classified in two regions, the far field and
the near field. It is in the far field that the propagating waves act as plane waves
and the power decays inversely with distance. The far field region is also termed
as Fraunhofer region and the Friis equation holds in this region. Hence, the Friis
equation is used only beyond the far field distance, df , which is dependent upon the
largest dimension of the antenna as
Also we can see that the Friis equation is not defined for d=0. For this reason, we
use a close in distance, do , as a reference point. The power received, Pr (d), is then
given by:
Pr (d) = Pr (do )(do /d)2 . (4.5)
Ex. 1: Find the far field distance for a circular antenna with maximum dimension
of 1 m and operating frequency of 900 MHz.
Solution: Since the operating frequency f = 900 Mhz, the wavelength
3 × 108 m/s
λ= m
900 × 106 Hz
. Thus, with the largest dimension of the antenna, D=1m, the far field distance is
2D2 2(1)2
df = = = 6m
λ 0.33
.
Ex. 2: A unit gain antenna with a maximum dimension of 1 m produces 50 W
power at 900 MHz. Find (i) the transmit power in dBm and dB, (ii) the received
power at a free space distance of 5 m and 100 m.
Solution:
(i) Tx power = 10log(50) = 17 dB = (17+30) dBm = 47 dBm
2×D2 2×12
(ii) df = λ = 1/3 = 6m
Thus the received power at 5 m can not be calculated using free space distance
formula.
At 100 m ,
PT GT GR λ2
PR =
4πd2
50 × 1 × (1/3)2
=
4π1002
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= 3.5 × 10−3 mW
Reflection, diffraction and scattering are the three fundamental phenomena that
cause signal propagation in a mobile communication system, apart from LoS com-
munication. The most important parameter, predicted by propagation models based
on above three phenomena, is the received power. The physics of the above phe-
nomena may also be used to describe small scale fading and multipath propagation.
The following subsections give an outline of these phenomena.
4.3.1 Reflection
Reflection occurs when an electromagnetic wave falls on an object, which has very
large dimensions as compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave. For ex-
ample, such objects can be the earth, buildings and walls. When a radio wave falls
on another medium having different electrical properties, a part of it is transmitted
into it, while some energy is reflected back. Let us see some special cases. If the
medium on which the e.m. wave is incident is a dielectric, some energy is reflected
back and some energy is transmitted. If the medium is a perfect conductor, all
energy is reflected back to the first medium. The amount of energy that is reflected
back depends on the polarization of the e.m. wave.
Another particular case of interest arises in parallel polarization, when no re-
flection occurs in the medium of origin. This would occur, when the incident angle
would be such that the reflection coefficient is equal to zero. This angle is the
Brewster’s angle. By applying laws of electro-magnetics, it is found to be
1
r
sin(θB ) = . (4.6)
1 + 2
Further, considering perfect conductors, the electric field inside the conductor is
always zero. Hence all energy is reflected back. Boundary conditions require that
θi = θr (4.7)
and
Ei = Er (4.8)
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for vertical polarization, and
Ei = −Er (4.9)
4.3.2 Diffraction
Diffraction is the phenomenon due to which an EM wave can propagate beyond the
horizon, around the curved earth’s surface and obstructions like tall buildings. As
the user moves deeper into the shadowed region, the received field strength decreases.
But the diffraction field still exists an it has enough strength to yield a good signal.
This phenomenon can be explained by the Huygen’s principle, according to
which, every point on a wavefront acts as point sources for the production of sec-
ondary wavelets, and they combine to produce a new wavefront in the direction of
propagation. The propagation of secondary wavelets in the shadowed region results
in diffraction. The field in the shadowed region is the vector sum of the electric field
components of all the secondary wavelets that are received by the receiver.
4.3.3 Scattering
The actual received power at the receiver is somewhat stronger than claimed by the
models of reflection and diffraction. The cause is that the trees, buildings and lamp-
posts scatter energy in all directions. This provides extra energy at the receiver.
Roughness is tested by a Rayleigh criterion, which defines a critical height hc of
surface protuberances for a given angle of incidence θi , given by,
λ
hc = . (4.10)
8sinθi
A surface is smooth if its minimum to maximum protuberance h is less than hc ,
and rough if protuberance is greater than hc . In case of rough surfaces, the surface
reflection coefficient needs to be multiplied by a scattering loss factor ρS , given by
πσh sinθi 2
ρS = exp(−8( ) ) (4.11)
λ
where σh is the standard deviation of the Gaussian random variable h. The following
result is a better approximation to the observed value
πσh sinθi 2 πσh sinθi 2
ρS = exp(−8( ) )I0 [−8( ) ] (4.12)
λ λ
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Figure 4.2: Two-ray reflection model.
which agrees very well for large walls made of limestone. The equivalent reflection
coefficient is given by,
Γrough = ρS Γ. (4.13)
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Γ⊥ = Er /Ei = η2 sin θi − η1 sin θt /η2 sin θi + η1 sin θt . (4.15)
Seldom in communication systems we encounter channels with only LOS paths and
hence the Friis formula is not a very accurate description of the communication link.
A two-ray model, which consists of two overlapping waves at the receiver, one direct
path and one reflected wave from the ground gives a more accurate description as
shown in Figure 4.2. A simple addition of a single reflected wave shows that power
varies inversely with the forth power of the distance between the Tx and the Rx.
This is deduced via the following treatment. From Figure 4.2, the total transmitted
and received electric fields are
T OT
ER = Eg + ELOS . (4.17)
Let E0 is the free space electric field (in V/m) at a reference distance d0 . Then
E0 d0
E(d, t) = cos(ωc t − φ) (4.18)
d
where
d
φ = ωc (4.19)
c
and d > d0 . The envelop of the electric field at d meters from the transmitter at
any time t is therefore
E0 d0
|E(d, t)| = . (4.20)
d
This means the envelop is constant with respect to time.
Two propagating waves arrive at the receiver, one LOS wave which travels a
0 00
distance of d and another ground reflected wave, that travels d . Mathematically,
it can be expressed as:
0 E0 d0 0
E(d , t) = 0 cos(ωc t − φ ) (4.21)
d
where
0
0 d
φ = ωc (4.22)
c
and
00 E0 d0 00
E(d , t) = 00 cos(ωc t − φ ) (4.23)
d
where
00
00 d
φ = ωc . (4.24)
c
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Figure 4.3: Phasor diagram of electric Figure 4.4: Equivalent phasor diagram of
For small values of θi , reflected wave is equal in magnitude and 180o out of phase
with respect to incident wave. Assuming perfect horizontal electric field polarization,
i.e.,
Γ⊥ = −1 =⇒ Et = (1 − 1)Ei = 0, (4.26)
the resultant electric field is the vector sum of ELOS and Eg . This implies that,
T OT
ER = |ELOS + Eg |. (4.27)
T OT E0 d0 0 E0 d0 00
ER (d, t) = 0 cos(ωc t − φ ) + (−1) 00 cos(ωc t − φ ) (4.28)
d d
However, when T-R separation distance is very large compared to (ht + hr ), then
2ht hr
∆≈ (4.30)
d
Ex 3: Prove the above two equations, i.e., equation (4.29) and (4.30).
Once the path difference is known, the phase difference is
2π∆ ∆ωc
θ∆ = = (4.31)
λ λ
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and the time difference,
∆ θ∆
τd = = . (4.32)
c 2πfc
When d is very large, then ∆ becomes very small and therefore ELOS and Eg are
virtually identical with only phase difference,i.e.,
E0 d0 E0 d0 E0 d0
| | ≈ | 0 | ≈ | 00 |. (4.33)
d d d
00
d
Say, we want to evaluate the received E-field at any t = c . Then,
00 00 0 00 00
T OT d E0 d0 d d E0 d0 d d
ER (d, t = )= cos(ωc − ωc ) − 00 cos(ωc − ωc ) (4.34)
c d0 c c d c c
E0 d0 ∆ωc E0 d0
= 0 cos( ) − 00 cos(0o ) (4.35)
d c d
E0 d0 E d
= 6 θ∆ − 000 0 (4.36)
d0 d
E0 d0
≈ (6 θ∆ − 1). (4.37)
d
Using phasor diagram concept for vector addition as shown in Figures 4.3 and 4.4,
we get s
T OT E0 d0 E0 d0 E0 d0
|ER (d)| = ( + cos(θ∆ ))2 + ( sin(θ∆ ))2 (4.38)
d d d
E0 d0 q
= (cos(θ∆ ) − 1)2 + sin2 (θ∆ ) (4.39)
d
E0 d0 p
= 2 − 2cosθ∆ (4.40)
d
E0 d0 θ∆
=2 sin( ). (4.41)
d 2
θ∆
For 2 < 0.5rad, sin( θ2∆ ) ≈ θ∆
2 . Using equation (4.31) and further equation (4.30),
we can then approximate that
θ∆ π 2πht hr
sin( )≈ ∆= < 0.5rad. (4.42)
2 λ λd
20πht hr 4πht hr
d > dc = = . (4.43)
5λ λ
T OT E0 d0 2πht hr ht hr
ER (d) ≈ 2 =k 2 . (4.44)
d λd d
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Therefore, using equation (4.43) in (4.1), we get the received power as
Pt Gt Gr h2t h2r
Pr = . (4.45)
Ld4
The cross-over distance shows an approximation of the distance after which the
received power decays with its fourth order. The basic difference between equation
(4.1) and (4.45) is that when d < dc , equation (4.1) is sufficient to calculate the
path loss since the two-ray model does not give a good result for a short distance
due to the oscillation caused by the constructive and destructive combination of the
two rays, but whenever we distance crosses the ‘cross-over distance’, the power falls
off rapidly as well as two-ray model approximation gives better result than Friis
equation.
Observations on Equation (4.45): The important observations from this
equation are:
1. This equation gives fair results when the T-R separation distance crosses the
cross-over distance.
1. In that case, the power decays as the fourth power of distance
K
Pr (d) = , (4.46)
d4
4.5 Diffraction
Diffraction is the phenomena that explains the digression of a wave from a straight
line path, under the influence of an obstacle, so as to propagate behind the obstacle.
It is an inherent feature of a wave be it longitudinal or transverse. For e.g the
sound can be heard in a room, where the source of the sound is another room
without having any line of sight. The similar phenomena occurs for light also but
the diffracted light intensity is not noticeable. This is because the obstacle or slit
need to be of the order of the wavelength of the wave to have a significant effect.
Thus radiation from a point source radiating in all directions can be received at any
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Figure 4.5: Huygen’s secondary wavelets.
point, even behind an obstacle (unless it is not completely enveloped by it), as shown
in Figure 4.5. Though the intensity received gets smaller as receiver is moved into the
shadowed region. Diffraction is explained by Huygens-Fresnel principle which states
that all points on a wavefront can be considered as the point source for secondary
wavelets which form the secondary wavefront in the direction of the prorogation.
Normally, in absence of an obstacle, the sum of all wave sources is zero at a point
not in the direct path of the wave and thus the wave travels in the straight line. But
in the case of an obstacle, the effect of wave source behind the obstacle cannot be
felt and the sources around the obstacle contribute to the secondary wavelets in the
shadowed region, leading to bending of wave. In mobile communication, this has a
great advantage since, by diffraction (and scattering, reflection), the receiver is able
to receive the signal even when not in line of sight of the transmitter. This we show
in the subsection given below.
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Figure 4.6: Diffraction through a sharp edge.
α=β+γ (4.50)
and
α ≈ tanα (4.51)
we can write,
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Figure 4.7: Fresnel zones.
φ = πv 2 /2. (4.54)
From this, we can observe that: (i) phase difference is a function of the height of
the obstruction, and also, (ii) phase difference is a function of the position of the
obstruction from transmitter and receiver.
As mentioned before, the more is the object in the shadowed region greater is the
diffraction loss of the signal. The effect of diffraction loss is explained by Fresnel
zones as a function of the path difference. The successive Fresnel zones are limited
by the circular periphery through which the path difference of the secondary waves
is nλ/2 greater than total length of the LOS path, as shown in Figure 4.7. Thus
successive Fresnel zones have phase difference of π which means they alternatively
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provide constructive and destructive interference to the received the signal. The
radius of the each Fresnel zone is maximum at middle of transmitter and receiver
(i.e. when d1 = d2 ) and decreases as moved to either side. It is seen that the loci
of a Fresnel zone varied over d1 and d2 forms an ellipsoid with the transmitter and
receiver at its focii. Now, if there’s no obstruction, then all Fresnel zones result in
only the direct LOS prorogation and no diffraction effects are observed. But if an
obstruction is present, depending on its geometry, it obstructs contribution from
some of the secondary wavelets, resulting in diffraction and also the loss of energy,
which is the vector sum of energy from unobstructed sources. please note that height
of the obstruction can be positive zero and negative also. The diffraction losses are
minimum as long as obstruction doesn’t block volume of the 1st Fresnel zone. As a
rule of thumb, diffraction effects are negligible beyond 55% of 1st Fresnel zone.
Ex 4: Calculate the first Fresnel zone obstruction height maximum for f = 800
MHz.
Solution:
c 3 × 108 3
λ= = 2 6
= m
f 8 × 10 × 10 8
q
λ(d1 +d2 )
H=
r d1 +d2
3
250×250
H1 = 8
500 = 6.89m
Thus H1 = 10 + 6.89 = 16.89m
(b) s
3
8 × 100 × 400 q
H2 = = 10 (0.3) = 5.48m
500
Thus
H2 = 10 + 5.6 = 15.48m
. To have good power strength, obstacle should be within the 60% of the first fresnel
zone.
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Figure 4.8: Knife-edge Diffraction Model
Given,
Gd (dB) = 20 log(0.5 − 0.62v) − 1 < v <= 0
Solution: s s
2(d1 + d2 ) 2 × 2000
v=h = 25 1 = 2.74
λd1 d2 3 10
(2.74)2
n= = 3.5
2
Thus n=4.
Knife-edge diffraction model is one of the simplest diffraction model to estimate the
diffraction loss. It considers the object like hill or mountain as a knife edge sharp
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object. The electric field strength, Ed of a knife-edge diffracted wave is given by
Z ∞
Ed /Eo = F (v) = (1 + j)/2 (exp((−jπt2 )/2)dt. (4.55)
v
Gd (db) = 20log(0.4 − sqrt(0.1184 − (0.38 − 0.1v 2 ))) 1 <= v <= 2.4 (4.60)
When there are more than one obstruction, then the equivalent model can be found
by one knife-edge diffraction model as shown in Figure 4.8.
d n d
P L(d)( ) =⇒ P L(dB) = P L(d0 ) + 10nlog( ) (4.62)
d0 d0
The value of n varies with propagation environments. The value of n is 2 for free
space. The value of n varies from 4 to 6 for obstruction of building, and 3 to 5 for
urban scenarios. The important factor is to select the correct reference distance d0 .
For large cell area it is 1 Km, while for micro-cell system it varies from 10m-1m.
Limitations:
Surrounding environmental clutter may be different for two locations having
the same transmitter to receiver separation. Moreover it does not account for the
shadowing effects.
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4.6.2 Log Normal Shadowing
d
P L(dB) = P L(dB) + Xσ = P L(d0 ) + 10nlog( ) + Xσ (4.63)
d0
z
Q(z) = 0.5(1 − erf ( √ )) (4.64)
2
and
Q(z) = 1 − Q(−z) (4.65)
So the probability that the received signal level (in dB) will exceed a certain value
γ is
γ − Pr
P (Pd > γ) = Q( ). (4.66)
σ
There are many empirical outdoor propagation models such as Longley-Rice model,
Durkin’s model, Okumura model, Hata model etc. Longley-Rice model is the most
commonly used model within a frequency band of 40 MHz to 100 GHz over different
terrains. Certain modifications over the rudimentary model like an extra urban
factor (UF) due to urban clutter near the reciever is also included in this model.
Below, we discuss some of the outdoor models, followed by a few indoor models too.
The Okumura model is used for Urban Areas is a Radio propagation model that is
used for signal prediction.The frequency coverage of this model is in the range of
200 MHz to 1900 MHz and distances of 1 Km to 100 Km.It can be applicable for
base station effective antenna heights (ht ) ranging from 30 m to 1000 m.
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Okumura used extensive measurements of base station-to-mobile signal attenua-
tion throughout Tokyo to develop a set of curves giving median attenuation relative
to free space (Amu ) of signal propogation in irregular terrain. The empirical path-
loss formula of Okumura at distance d parameterized by the carrier frequency fc is
given by
where L(fc , d) is free space path loss at distance d and carrier frequency fc , Amu (fc , d)
is the median attenuation in addition to free-space path loss across all environments,G(ht )
is the base station antenna height gain factor,G(hr ) is the mobile antenna height gain
factor,GAREA is the gain due to type of environment. The values of Amu (fc , d) and
GAREA are obtained from Okumura’s empirical plots. Okumura derived empirical
formulas for G(ht ) and G(hr ) as follows:
Correlation factors related to terrain are also developed in order to improve the
models accuracy. Okumura’s model has a 10-14 dB empirical standard deviation
between the path loss predicted by the model and the path loss associated with one
of the measurements used to develop the model.
The Hata model is an empirical formulation of the graphical path-loss data provided
by the Okumura and is valid over roughly the same range of frequencies, 150-1500
MHz. This empirical formula simplifies the calculation of path loss because it is
closed form formula and it is not based on empirical curves for the different param-
eters. The standard formula for empirical path loss in urban areas under the Hata
model is
PL,urban (d)dB = 69.55+26.16 log10 (fc )−13.82 log10 (ht )−a(hr )+(44.9−6.55 log10 (ht )) log10 (d)
(4.71)
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The parameters in this model are same as in the Okumura model,and a(hr ) is a
correction factor for the mobile antenna height based on the size of coverage area.For
small to medium sized cities this factor is given by
else it is
a(hr ) = 8.29(log10 (1.54hr ))2 − 1.1dB
Corrections to the urban model are made for the suburban, and is given by
Unlike the Okumura model,the Hata model does not provide for any specific path-
correlation factors. The Hata model well approximates the Okumura model for
distances d > 1 Km. Hence it is a good model for first generation cellular systems,
but it does not model propogation well in current cellular systems with smaller cell
sizes and higher frequencies. Indoor environments are also not captured by the Hata
model.
The indoor radio channel differs from the traditional mobile radio channel in ways
- the distances covered are much smaller ,and the variability of the environment
is much greater for smaller range of Tx-Rx separation distances.Features such as
lay-out of the building,the construction materials,and the building type strongly in-
fluence the propagation within the building.Indoor radio propagation is dominated
by the same mechanisms as outdoor: reflection, diffraction and scattering with vari-
able conditions. In general,indoor channels may be classified as either line-of-sight
or obstructed.
The internal and external structure of a building formed by partitions and obstacles
vary widely.Partitions that are formed as a part of building structure are called
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hard partitions , and partitions that may be moved and which do not span to
the ceiling are called soft partitions. Partitions vary widely in their physical and
electrical characteristics,making it difficult to apply general models to specific indoor
installations.
The losses between floors of a building are determined by the external dimensions
and materials of the building,as well as the type of construction used to create the
floors and the external surroundings. Even the number of windows in a building
and the presence of tinting can impact the loss between floors.
It has been observed that indoor path loss obeys the distance power law given by
where n depends on the building and surrounding type, and Xσ represents a normal
random variable in dB having standard deviation of σ dB.
4.9 Summary
In this chapter, three principal propagation models have been identified: free-space
propagation, reflection and diffraction, which are common terrestrial models and
these mainly explains the large scale path loss. Regarding path-loss, one important
factor introduced in this chapter is log-distance path loss model. These, however,
may be insignificant when we consider the small-scale rapid path losses. This is
discussed in the next chapter.
4.10 References
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3. J. W. Mark and W. Zhuang, Wireless Communications and Networking. New
Delhi: PHI, 2005.
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