EM 1110-1-2908

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Chapter 10 10-4. Cost Control

Instrumentation
The instrumentation program should be well planned to
assure that all necessary data will be collected and that
excessive costs are not incurred. The main expenses of
10-1. Scope an instrumentation program include instrument purchase,
installation, maintenance, data gathering, and data inter-
This chapter provides general guidance for the selection pretation. Excessive costs in each of these areas are
and use of instrumentation to monitor cut slopes such as incurred if instrument types and placement are planned
might be necessary for the construction of rock founda- unwisely leading to more instrumentation than is neces-
tions and roads as well as structures founded on rock such sary for the intended purpose or difficulty in interpreting
as dams, lock walls, and retaining structures. Instrumen- data due to lack of information. The instrumentation
tation for monitoring ground vibrations, water levels, and program must be flexible enough to allow for changes
pore-water pressure measurements are discussed in more necessary due to actual conditions encountered during
detail than other instrumentation because of their wide- construction.
spread use. The limitations as well as data interpretation
and evaluation considerations are also discussed. Detailed 10-5. Types and Number of Instruments
descriptions and installation considerations, of the various
types of instrumentation discussed herein, can be found in The parameters which are most often measured are defor-
the referenced publications. The chapter is divided into mation, load/stress, pore-water pressures and water levels,
four sections as follows: Planning Considerations; Typi- and ground vibrations. The types of instrumentation used
cal Applications; Types of Instruments; and Data Interpre- to measure these parameters are listed in Table 10-1. The
tation and Evaluation. number of instruments and various types that will be
required on a specific project are dependent on the pur-
Section I pose of the structure and the geologic conditions. The
Planning Considerations instrumentation program for every project should be
designed specifically for that project and the expected
10-2. General conditions and should use the principles of rock mechan-
ics. Rock instrumentation must reflect conditions over a
Instrumentation is necessary on a project to assure that large area of rock. Measurements made over small areas
design criteria are being met, thereby assuring the safety will yield data so influenced by small random features
of the structure, gain information valuable to future proj- that it will be meaningless. Great care should be taken to
ect design, monitor suspected problem areas to determine assure that the particular instrumentation used will yield
safety and remedial measures required, and monitor effec- the type of information required at the necessary
tiveness of remedial measures. accuracy. An instrumentation program should be kept as
simple as possible and still meet the objectives of the
10-3. Program Initiation

An instrumentation program should be planned during the Table 10-1

Types of Rock Foundation Instruments
design of a project. The specific areas and phases of the
project from which data need to be gathered are deter- Pore-Water Ground
mined using the rock mechanics analyses and models Deformation Load/Stress Pressure Vibration
discussed in previous chapters. In order to obtain the
Surveying Load Cells Piezometers Seismographs
most complete picture of how a rock mass is responding Inclinometers Piezometers
to the construction and operation of a project, instrumen- Extensometers Uplift Pressure
tation should be installed where possible before or during Settlement Cells
construction. Early installation rarely increases the cost Indicators
Heave Points
of the instrumentation program, but does require more
planning.

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program. A complicated instrument is generally harder to the instruments and surveying methods used may be
maintain and less reliable than a simple type. Simple, found in TM 5-232, “Elements of Surveying” and
direct measurements are most easily and quickly TM 5-235, “Special Surveys.”
interpreted.
(2) Surface deformation. In most cases, however,
Section II additional instrumentation will be required to provide the
Applications information which enables the investigator to find or to
define the causes of the movement and to monitor the rate
10-6. General of movement. Tension cracks which appear at the crest
of a slope or cut face may be monitored by surface type
This section describes some of the more common appli- extensometers. This type of extensometer generally con-
cations of rock mechanics instrumentation. The discus- sists of anchor points installed on either side of the zone
sions are divided into two general topic areas related to to be monitored. The zone may be one joint or crack or
project features addressed in this manual. These two several such features. A tape or bar, usually composed of
topic areas include cut slope instrumentation and invar steel, is installed between the anchor points. A
structure/foundation instrumentation. Newcastle extensometer may be installed on the tape to
allow for very accurate readings which are necessary to
10-7. Cut Slope Instrumentation measure the small initial indications of movement. For
measuring larger movements, which would occur later and
The number, types, and location of instruments used in when continuous measurements are required, a bar and
cut slopes are highly dependent on the cut configuration, linear potentiometer can be installed between the stakes.
the geologic conditions that are involved, and the conse- See Chapter 8 of the Canada Centre for Mineral and
quence should a failure occur. As a rule, however, instru- Energy Technology (1977b) for details. If very large
mentation associated with cut slopes can be grouped into measurements are expected, a simple inexpensive system,
instruments used to make surface measurements and those which uses a calibrated tape to measure the change in
used to make subsurface measurements. distance between the two anchor points should be used.
The tape can be removed after a reading is made. This
a. Surface measurements. Surface measurement instrument aids in the determination of the surface dis-
instruments are primarily used to measure surface defor- placement of individual blocks and differential displace-
mations. Since surface instrumentation reveals little as to ments within an unstable zone. Dunnicliff (1988)
underlying mechanisms causing deformation, the instru- provides an excellent review of the various types of sur-
mentation is used to detect new areas of distress or pre- face monitored extensometers.
cursor monitoring of rock masses subject to impending
failure. The degree of precision required by the intended b. Subsurface measurements. Subsurface instrumen-
purpose of instrumentation dictates the type of instrument tation provides greater detail of mechanisms causing dis-
used to measure deformation. tress. Because subsurface instruments require installation
within a borehole and the cost associated with such instal-
(1) Surveying. If the slope is stable, then periodic lations, their use is typically limited to monitoring known
surveying of the floor and sidewalls using permanent features of potential instability or to investigate suspected
monuments and targets may be the only instrumentation features. Subsurface deformation measurements monitor
required. Precise, repetitive surveying of a network of the relative movement of zones of rock with respect to
such survey points is a relatively inexpensive method of each other. Piezometric pressure measurement along
detecting slope movement, both vertical and lateral. zones of potential instability monitor the influence of
When a problem is detected, surveying can be used to ground water with respect to stability.
define the area of movement. Evaluation of problem
areas is required to determine if additional instrumentation (1) Subsurface deformations. Subsurface deforma-
is required. Depending on other factors, surveying may tions within rock slopes are commonly measured with one
be continued, perhaps with increasing frequency, until of two types of downhole instruments, inclinometers, or
remedial measures appear to be inevitable. In other cases, borehole extensometers.
the failure of the slope may be more acceptable than the
cost of the remedial measures and surveying would be (a) Inclinometers are installed behind the slope, on
continued until the slope failed, to insure the safety of flat slopes where drilling access is available, or into the
personnel and equipment when failure occurs. Details of slope and are bottomed in sound, stable rock. Successive

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measurements of deflections in the inclinometer are used information is very important if there are claims that
to determine the depth, magnitude, and rate of lateral conditions in nearby areas have been changed due to
movement in the rock mass. While commonly installed activities at the project. Piezometers are discussed in
in vertical boreholes, inclinometers are available that Section III, of this manual.
allow installation in inclined to horizontal boreholes.
Because successive deflection measurements can be made (3) Anchor loads. When the instruments discussed
at small intervals, the device is ideally suited to precisely above indicate that remedial measures such as rockbolts
locate and define as well as monitor zones of instability. are necessary to stabilize a slope, then these same
Detailed descriptions of inclinometers can be found in instruments are used to monitor the effectiveness of the
EM 1110-2-1908 (Part 2), “Instrumentation of Earth and remedial measures. The actual load or tension acting on a
Rock Fill Dams” and Dunnicliff (1988). rockbolt is monitored with a load cell. This information
is to assure that bolts are acting as designed and that the
(b) Borehole extensometers are often placed into the maximum load on the bolt is not exceeded. A representa-
face of a cut or slope to help in determining the zones tive number of bolts in a system are usually monitored.
behind the face which are moving. When a deep cut is The types of load cells include the hydraulic, mechanical,
being made, extensometers may be installed in the walls strain gaged, vibrating wire, and photoelastic. The strain-
as the excavation progresses to monitor the response of gaged load cell is the type most often used to monitor
the slope to an increasing excavation depth. Multiposition rockbolt systems. Load cells are described in the Rock
borehole extensometers (MPBX), rod or wire, are able to Testing Handbook as well as Dunnicliff (1988).
monitor relative movement of a number of different zones
at varying distances behind the cut face. Such measure- 10-8. Foundation/Structure Instrumentation
ments help to determine which zones are potentially criti-
cal and rate of movement. MPBX’s are particularly As in the case of cut slopes, foundations and structures
helpful in distinguishing between surficial and deep-seated such as dams, lock walls, and retaining structures may
movement. Extensometers may be equipped with require a large number and variety of instruments. These
switches that automatically close and activate warning instruments are frequently similar or the same as those
devices when a preset movement limit is reached. Unless required for slope monitoring and are divided into three
care is taken to isolate downhole wires or rods, installa- general categories dependent upon what observation is
tions at great depths are not always practical due to the being measured. The three categories include deformation
difficulty of obtaining a straight borehole. It is necessary measurements, piezometric pressure measurements, and
to eliminate, as much as possible, the friction effects load/stress measurements.
between the extensometer wire or rod and the borehole
wall. Friction effects can introduce large errors which a. Deformation measurements. Deformations of
make interpretation of the data impossible. The maxi- foundations and structures are generally observed as
mum measurable deformation is relatively small ranging apparent translation, rotation, or settlement/heave. Appar-
from approximately 0.5 to several inches, but this limit ent deformations may actually be the result of a combina-
can be extended by resetting the instrument. Extenso- tion of the above deformation modes.
meters are described in EM 1110-2-1908, Part 2 and
Dunnicliff (1988). (1) Translation. Translation deformations caused by
foundation/structure interactions are generally apparent as
(2) Piezometric pressure. Drainage of a cut slope is sliding along planes of weakness. It is essential to define
often necessary to increase its stability by reducing pore- the planes along which translation occurs and evaluate the
water pressures in the slope. The effectiveness of any severity of the problem at an early stage. Translation
drainage measure should be monitored by piezometers. measurements of foundations and structures are generally
Piezometer data should also be used to determine when monitored with subsurface techniques discussed under cut
maintenance of a drainage system is necessary. Piezo- slope instrumentation.
meters should be installed during site investigation activi-
ties to determine the ground-water system. Preconstruc- (2) Rotation. A tiltmeter may be used to determine
tion installation is important not only for design of the the rate, direction, and magnitude of angular deformation
project but also to determine if construction will adversely which a rock mass, a structure, or a particular block of
affect nearby ground-water users. Data should be rock is undergoing. A tiltmeter, unlike an inclinometer,
obtained before, during, and after construction so that a measures only at a discrete, accessible point. The device
cause-affect trend can be determined, if there is one. This may be permanently buried with a remote readout or may

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be installed directly on the rock or structure surface. If consist of an anchor point that is placed in a borehole at
there is weathered rock at the surface, the device may be or below the expected elevation at the bottom of the exca-
mounted on a monument which is founded in or on intact vation. The elevation of the anchor is determined. The
rock. The tiltmeter consists of a reference plate, which is drill hole is filled with a bentonite slurry which contains a
attached to the surface that is being monitored, and a dye to aid in relocating the instrument hole during con-
sensing device. A portable sensing device may be struction. As excavation proceeds, a probe of known
installed on the reference plate for each reading or a length is lowered to the top of the anchor point and the
permanent, waterproof housing containing the sensing elevation of the anchor point is determined by optical
device may be installed directly on the surface to be mon- leveling. An alternative method uses a linear potentio-
itored. In the second case, readings may be made from a meter as the sensing element in the borehole. This type
remote readout station. Tiltmeters may also be installed of settlement gage is described by Hanna (1973).
directly on a structure. Tiltmeters are described in more Settlement/heave gages are also described in EM 1110-2-
detail in the Rock Testing Handbook and Dunnicliff 1908 (Part 2) and Dunnicliff (1988). The method used
(1988). for anchoring the reference point to the rock and protec-
tion of the instrument during construction are important
(3) Settlement/Heave. Settlement refers to compres- considerations.
sion of the foundation material whereas heave refers to
expansion. Mechanisms that cause settlement are dis- b. Piezometer pressure measurements. As in rock
cussed in Chapter 5. Mechanisms which cause heave slopes, piezometers are often installed during site invest-
were also briefly discussed in Chapter 5, but are discussed igations and monitored to determine preconstruction con-
in greater detail in Chapter 12. ditions. A thorough understanding of the preconstruction
conditions is very important not only for determining the
(a) Settlement of a foundation beneath a structure effects of such conditions, especially seasonal variations,
may be determined by repeated surveying of the elevation on the construction and operation of the structure but also
of a settlement gage monument installed directly on the for determining the effects of the structure on the ground-
foundation and protected from frost and vandalism. water flow system. Dewatering activities, construction of
Points on the structure itself may likewise be surveyed to ground-water cutoffs, and reservoir filling may affect
determine settlement, especially if direct access to the local ground-water elevations and flow systems at some
foundation is not possible. Settlement indicators may also distance away from the project possibly producing adverse
be used to measure settlement. Settlement indicators are affects. Once construction begins, piezometers that are
capable of measuring single or multiple points and operate not destroyed should continue to be monitored. This
on the same principle as a manometer. In areas beneath information can be used as an indication of how ground-
buildings or other areas where direct access to the instru- water conditions and pore pressures change due to various
ment is not available, a remotely read instrument may be construction activities such as removal of overburden or
used as described by Hanna (1973). The instrument is the added weight of the structure. Additional piezometers
installed in the foundation before the structure is built. are installed when the structure is finished to monitor the
The elevation of the measuring point is calculated using performance of cutoffs and drainage systems as well as to
the elevation of the readout point and a pressure reading measure pressures in the foundation underneath a structure
at the measurement point. The original elevation of the or in abutments. The flow rate through the drainage
measuring point must be determined for comparisons to system should be measured as another method of monitor-
later readings. ing its performance. Unexplained changes in seepage
rates may warn of a serious problem even before it is
(b) The floor of an excavation may require monitor- reflected by piezometer or other instrumentation data.
ing for heave or rebound. Heave is not common in all Calibrated weirs or simply a stopwatch and calibrated
rock or foundation conditions. Heave measurements give container for lower flows are commonly used to measure
valuable information for use in design of other structures drain flows. Other critical areas should also be instru-
in similar rock masses and conditions. These measure- mented as determined during design. Piezometers are
ments are also important to correlate performance with described in more detail in Section III.
design assumptions, especially when the foundation is to
support precise industrial or scientific equipment where c. Load/stress measurements. Instrumentation is
little departure from the design criteria can be tolerated. frequently required to check design assumptions relating
Heave points are the most common technique used to to stress distributions caused by rock/structure interactions
measure rebound during excavation. Heave points usually as well as to monitor zones of potential distress.

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Measurements of stress change in a foundation are made construction of these piezometers are covered in detail in
with earth pressure cells which may be installed at the EM 1110-2-1908. The basic criteria for selecting piezom-
interface of the structure and the rock or in a machined eter types are reliability, simplicity, ruggedness, and life
slot within the rock mass. Three commonly used pressure expectancy. Other considerations are sensitivity, ease of
cells, to include vibrating wire, hydraulic (Gloetzl) and installation, cost, and the capability of being monitored
WES (similar to Carlson stress meter) type cells, are from a remote observation point. Sometimes two or more
discussed in EM 1110-2-4300. It is necessary to install a types of piezometers may be required to obtain the most
piezometer near a pressure cell to isolate earth pressure meaningful information at a particular site. One of the
changes from pore-water pressure changes. Pressure cells most important factors to be considered is the impact of
must be installed carefully to eliminate error caused by hydrostatic time lag on the intended use of the piezometer
small localized stress concentrations. data. Table 10-2 compares the different types of
piezometers.
d. Combined measurements. As discussed in
Chapter 5, settlement or heave frequently is not uniformly a. Open-system piezometers. Open-system piezom-
distributed across the foundation. In such cases it may be eters are the simplest types of piezometers but they are
necessary to monitor the effects of both settlement/heave also subject to the greatest hydrostatic time lag. They are
and structural rotation. Instruments capable of monitoring best used in areas where slow changes in pore-water
these combined effects include plumb lines, inverted pressure are expected and the permeability is greater than
plumb lines and optical plummets. These devices are 10-5 cm/sec. If rapid pore water pressure changes are
thoroughly discussed in EM 1110-2-4300. expected, then open-system piezometers should only be
used if the permeability is greater than 10-3 cm/sec
Section III (EM 1110-2-1908, Part 1 of 2).
Types of Instruments and Limitations
b. Closed-system piezometers. The rate of pore-
10-9. General water pressure changes has little effect on the measure-
ments obtained with this type of piezometer. This type is
Section II discussed the general application of a number commonly used to measure pore pressures during con-
of different types of instruments commonly used to moni- struction of embankments. The readout can be directed to
tor the performance of cut slopes and foundation rock/ a central location so that there is little interference with
structure interactions. References were given that pro- construction. However, the device must be checked often
vided detailed descriptions, installation procedures, and for leakage and the presence of air. Open-system piezom-
limitations as well as advantages and disadvantages of eters should be installed near key closed-system piezom-
various devices. This section will address two specific eters to provide a check on the operation of the
types of instruments, piezometers and ground motion/ closed-system piezometer.
vibration monitoring devices. Piezometers have been
mentioned previously but will be covered in greater detail c. Diaphragm piezometers. Diaphragm piezometers
here. Ground motion devices, considered to be location/ can be used in the same situations as open and closed
site specific devices, will be briefly discussed in this system piezometers. They are very sensitive to pore-
section. water pressure changes and the elevation difference
between the piezometer tip and the readout point is not a
10-10. Piezometers limiting factor. The electrical diaphragm piezometer is
complex and may be subject to instrument “zero” drift
Piezometers are used to measure pore-water pressures and after calibration and installation, short circuits in the lead
water levels in the natural ground, foundations, embank- cable, stretch and temperature effects in long lead cables,
ments, and slopes. Piezometers are also used to monitor and stray electrical currents.
the performance of seepage control measures and drainage
systems and to monitor the affect of construction and 10-11. Ground Motions/Vibrations
operation of the project on the ground-water system in the
vicinity of the project. There are three basic types of Ground motions/vibrations which can affect a rock foun-
piezometers: open-system (open standpipe), closed- dation may be caused by earthquakes or blasting. Con-
system (hydraulic), and diaphragm (pneumatic and electri- trolled blasting techniques, as discussed in Chapter 11, are
cal, e.g., vibrating wire). The operation, installation, and used to minimize damage to foundations and adjacent

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Table 10-2
Comparison of Piezometer Types
Relative Volume Readout
Basic Type Demand Equipment Advantages Disadvantages

Open-System High Water Simple; comparatively Long time lag in most rock types; cannot measure
(standpipe) Level inexpensive; generally negative pore pressure; cannot be used in areas
Finder not subject to freezing; subject to inundation unless offset standpipe used;
relatively long life; must be guarded during construction; no central
fairly easy to install; observation station is possible; requires sounding
long history of effec- probe. Must be straight; difficulties possible in small
tive operation. diameter tubes if water levels significantly below
100 feet, or dip less than 45 degrees.

Closed-System Medium to low Usually Small time lag; can mea- Observation station must be protected against
(hydraulic) Bourdon sure negative pore pres- freezing; fairly difficult to install; fairly expensive
gauge or sures; can be used in compared to open systems; sometimes difficult to
manometer areas subject to inunda- maintain an air-free system; most types are fragile;
tion; comparatively some types have limited service behavior records;
little interference with requires readout location not significantly above
construction; can be lowest water level.
read at central observa-
tion stations.

Diaphragm Low to negli- Specialized Simple to operate; ele- Limited performance data, some unsatisfactory
gible pressure vation of observation experience; some makes are expensive and require
transmitter station is independent expensive readout devices; fragile and requires
or elec- of elevation of piezom- careful handling during installation.
tronic eter tip no protection
readout against freezing re-
quired; no de-airing
required; very small
time lag.

Pneumatic. Electrical Often difficult to detect when escape of gas starts;

source not required; tip negative pressures cannot be measured; condensa-
and readout devices are tion of moisture occurs in cell unless dry gas is
less expensive than for used; requires careful application of gas pressure
electrical diaphragm during observation to avoid damage to cell.
types.

Electrical. Negative Devices subject to full and partial shortcircuits and

pressures can be mea- repairs to conductors introduce errors; some makes
sured; ideal for remote require temperature compensation and have prob-
monitoring. lems with zero drift to strain gages; resistance and
stray currents in long conductors are a problem in
some makes; zero drift possible.

Note:
1. Modified from Pit Slope Manual, Chapter 4, 1977 and EM 1110-2-1908 (Part 1).

structures caused by blasting. Seismographs should be and acceleration. The instruments used in different appli-
used to monitor the levels of vibration actually being pro- cations are discussed below.
duced. Seismograph records (seismograms) are also used
to provide a record of vibrations to assure maximum a. Earthquakes. Measurement of earthquake motion
levels are not exceeded which could cause damage to assists in damage assessment after a significant earthquake
adjacent structures. Seismograph is a general term which and is necessary for improving the design of structures,
covers all types of seismic instruments that produce a especially dams, to better resist earthquakes. Guidance is
permanent record of earth motion. The three main types given in EM 1110-2-1908 for determining which struc-
of seismographs measure particle displacement, velocity, tures require instrumentation. The strong motion

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accelerograph and peak recording accelerograph are the anisotropy of a parameter must be predictable if the accu-
principal instruments used to record earthquake motions racy is to be determined. Calibration, consistency, and
on engineering projects such as dams. The accelerograph repeatability are also used in determining accuracy. The
measures particle acceleration in any direction or direc- instrument chosen for a particular application must also be
tions desired. The strong motion instruments generally able to survive the often severe conditions under which it
record seismic motion between 0.01 g and 1.0 g. They will be used. Cost should also be considered and the least
are triggered by the minimum level of motion and record expensive way of obtaining good quality information
continuously during any motion above a preset minimum should be used. Table 10-3 provides a summary of some
level and for a short time after motion ceases. The peak of the major limitations of the various types of instrumen-
accelerograph records only the high amplitudes of the tation that have been discussed. Ranges and sensitivities
acceleration and does not make a continuous recording. for different instrument types may vary between manufac-
This low cost instrument is used only to supplement data turers and may change rapidly due to research and devel-
from other accelerographs. One or two strong motion opment and so are not listed in this table. Many of the
accelerographs may be located on a project and several instruments are also easily modified by a qualified labora-
peak accelerographs may be located in other areas to tory to meet the requirements of a particular job.
obtain an idea of how the acceleration differs across the
site. EM 1110-2-1908 provides additional discussions. Section IV
Data Interpretation and Evaluation
b. Blasting. As discussed in Chapter 11, construction
blasting should be controlled in order to reduce damage 10-13. Reading Frequency
by ground vibrations to the foundation being excavated
and to nearby structures. Seismographs are used to moni- The frequency at which instrument readings are taken
tor the ground vibrations caused by blasting. The peak should be based on many factors and will vary by project,
particle velocity is normally used as an indication of instrument type, availability of government personnel to
potential damage, therefore, a velocity seismograph is take readings, and location and may even vary through
normally used in engineering applications. The particle time. The availability of government personnel to take
velocity can be inferred from the information obtained by the readings should be determined during the preparation
other types of seismographs but it is preferred to measure of plans and specifications. If government personnel will
it directly so that an immediate record is available without not be available, provisions should be made to have this
extensive processing. EM 1110-2-3800, the Blaster’s task performed by the construction contractor or by an
Handbook (Dupont de Nemours and Company 1977), and A-E contractor. Some of the factors which should be
Dowding (1985) provide additional instrument evaluated include outside influences such as construction
descriptions. activities, environmental factors (rainfall events, etc.), the
complexity of the geology, rate of ground movements,
10-12. Limitations etc. Several sets of readings should be taken initially to
establish a baseline against which other readings are to be
There are certain requirements by which all types of field evaluated. Daily or even more frequent readings may be
instrumentation should be evaluated. These include the necessary during certain construction activities, such as
range, sensitivity, repeatability, accuracy, and survivability fill placement or blasting. The rate of change of the
of the instrument. The range must be adequate to mea- condition which is being monitored may vary over time,
sure the expected changes but not so great that sensitivity dictating a change in the established frequency at which
is lost. It is not always possible to accurately predict the readings are taken. For example, an unstable slope may
magnitude of loads and deformations to be expected move slowly at first, requiring infrequent readings on a
before construction. The most important of these factors regular basis until a near failure condition is reached, at
may be repeatability because this factor determines the which time readings would have to be taken much more
quality of the data. The sensitivity required will vary frequently. Readings of different types of instruments
with the application. Good sensitivity is required for should be made at the same time. Concurrent readings
early detection of hazards but may mean a reduction in enables the interpreter to take into account all the factors
the range and stability of the instrument. If an instrument which might impact individual readings of specific param-
with too narrow a range is chosen, all the necessary data eters. For example, an increase in pore water pressure
may not be obtained. If an instrument with too large a might coincide with increased slope movement. Standard
range is chosen, then it may not be sensitive enough. forms should be used to record data when available, or if
Accuracy is difficult to define and to demonstrate. The

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Table 10-3
Limitations of Rock Instrumentation
Measured
Instrument Parameter Limitations

Inclinometer Deformation Life may be limited in hard rock due to sharp edges. Significant drilling costs.

Tiltmeter Deformation Measures one, near-surface discrete point. Subject to damage during construction.
Difficult to detect spurious data. Must be protected from the environment. Subject to
errors caused by bonding material.

Extensometers Deformation

Bar Does not distinguish between deep-seated and surficial movement. Limited accuracy
due to sag. Measures only one point. Significant drilling costs, a new drill hole
Single Point required for each detection point.

Multipoint Rod Limited to approximately 50-foot depth if each rod is not individually cased within the
instrument hole. Experienced personnel should install them. May be damaged by
Multipoint Wire borehole debris unless protected. Spring anchors may experience variable spring
tension due to rock movement.

Settlement Indicators Deformation Hydraulic types require de-aired water. Corrections for temperature and barometric
pressure differences are required. Access to drill collar is required for some types.

Heave Point Deformation Accuracy is limited by surveying techniques used.

Load Cells Stress, Load

Hydraulic Large size, poor load resolution, temperature sensitivity.

Mechanical Nonlinear calibration curves.

Strain Gage Requires waterproofing, long term stable bonding method and periodic recalibration.

Vibrating Wire Large size, expensive, poor temperature compensation, complicated readout, vulner-
able to shock.

Photoelastic Coarse calibration. Requires access to borehole collar.

Piezometers Load, Stress See Table 10-2.

Uplift Cells Deformation

Standpipe Readings may require either of two methods, sounder or pressure gage.

Diaphragm Susceptible to damage during installation.

not, then forms should be developed for specific instru- processing by computer should be considered. Too many
ments. Some forms are shown in EM 1110-2-1908. If readings are not necessarily better than too few. An
possible, data should be reduced in the field and com- excess of data tends to bog down the interpretation
pared with previous readings so that questionable readings process. A thorough evaluation of the purpose of the
can be checked immediately. When large amounts of instrument program must be used to determine the opti-
data must be managed, automatic recording devices that mum rate at which readings should be taken, thus
record data as printed output or on magnetic tape for assuring that data are obtained when it is needed.

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10-14. Automatic Data Acquisition Systems environmental factors such as temperature and barometric
pressure. Instrument drift is the change in instrument
Automatic data acquisition systems and computer data readings over time when other factors remain constant.
processing are very popular for obtaining and processing Drift can be caused by temperature fluctuations, power
instrumentation data. Computer programs are available supply instability (weak battery), etc. If drift is not
for reducing and plotting most types of data. Some of the detected, it can lead to erroneous data interpretation.
advantages and disadvantages of these systems are given Periodic calibration of instruments when possible, can
by Dunnicliff (1988). Use of computer processing can reduce drift problems. Making repetitious readings also
speed much tedious processing but should not replace helps to detect and account for drift errors. Field calibra-
examination of all of the data by an experienced person. tion units may be available for some instrument types
such as inclinometers. Most instrumentation can be iso-
10-15. Data Presentation lated from effects caused by changing environmental
conditions through the use of protective housings or rela-
Most types of data are best presented in graphical form. tively inert material. Invar steel is one material that is not
Graphical presentation facilitates the interpretation of greatly affected by temperature change. Where protective
relationships and trends in the data. Readings are com- measures have not been used, environmental effects must
pared over time and with other instrument readings as be taken into account or the data may not be useful.
well as compared with construction activities and chang- Additional information on data processing and presenta-
ing environmental conditions. Observed trends should be tion may be found in EM 1110-2-1908, Rock Testing
compared with predicted trends to make an assessment of Handbook, Hanna (1973) and Dunnicliff (1988).
overall performance. The data should be displayed prop-
erly or significant trends may be obscured or may become 10-17. Data Use
misleading. A thorough knowledge and understanding of
the instrumentation as well as some trial and error is An instrumentation program can easily fail if the obtained
required to successfully accomplish good data presenta- data is never understood and used. A clear understanding
tion. Cookbook interpretation methods are available for of the purpose of the program is necessary for understand-
some types of data such as that from inclinometers. ing of the data obtained. Some idea of the behavior that
Cookbook interpretation is discouraged. Every instrument is expected of the structure, usually developed during
should be carefully and impartially analyzed by experi- design and adjusted during construction, is necessary in
enced personnel, taking all the available information into order to evaluate the actual behavior. This predicted
consideration. behavior is the starting point from which all interpreta-
tions are made. With these ideas in mind, instrumentation
10-16. Data Evaluation data should prove to be a helpful tool in clearly under-
standing and evaluating the behavior of any rock founda-
Factors to consider when evaluating instrumentation data tion or slope.
include instrument drift, cross sensitivity, calibration, and

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