Engineering Structures: Review Article

Engineering Structures 183 (2019) 1027–1048
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct
Review article
The problematic nature of steel hollow section joint fabrication, and a T

remedy using laser cutting technology: A review of research, applications,
opportunities
Alper Kanyilmaz
Politecnico di Milano, Fincon Consulting Italia Srl, Italy
ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Keywords: In steel buildings, circular hollow sections (CHS) present several advantages such as uniform behaviour in all di-
Steel hollow section joints rections, the possibility of obtaining composite behaviour by concrete infill, hence high strength, stability and good
Circular hollow sections fire resistance. Moreover, their aesthetic appeal has great potential for influencing the choice of the decision makers
Steel joint fabrication (architect, building owner). However, CHS profiles are not widely adopted in current practice due to the complexity
Hollow section joint fabrication
and high cost of their joint details. Their joints are manufactured with a vast amount of welds and local stiffeners,
Laser cutting technology
which results in high fabrication costs and energy consumption, and low structural reliability under extreme loads.
CO2 laser
Fiber laser As a possible remedy to the complex hollow section joint fabrication, this article highlights the opportunities
Heat-affected zone provided by the laser cutting technology (LCT). LCT, unleashed from the constraints of traditional cutting
Passing through joint techniques (such as large heat-affected zones, high maintenance need, slow-to-moderate speed, low precision
Stainless steel and low cut-edge quality) can enable a simplified fabrication of hollow section joints, bringing substantial
High strength steel savings to the steel fabrication costs and material waste.
Welding This paper summarizes the problems in the joint fabrication of tubular structures, and presents a compre-
hensive literature review containing design guidelines regarding hollow section joints, use of different materials
(high strength steel, stainless steel), and configurations (external diaphragm, steel-concrete composite, passing
through, truss joints). It presents the LCT process parameters in relation with different steels (carbon, high
strength, stainless steel), structural integrity of laser-cut profiles (issues related to heat-affected zone, static and
fatigue properties, effect of surface conditions, cut geometry and welding), available structural cutting possi-
bilities (for bolt holes, beam perforations, open and hollow section profiles), cut tolerances as well as their effect
on welding, and LCT’s cost and environmental impact. Finally, the current outcomes of an ongoing European
research project have been presented which study the hollow section joint fabrication making use of LCT.
1. Introduction of joints takes the largest portion [3]. In fact, when the complexity of
joints increases, this rate is likely to be higher. Existing hollow section
Circular hollow section (CHS) steel profiles have outstanding struc- joint solutions typically adopt local stiffeners and gusset plates in order to
tural properties. Thanks to their axial symmetric geometry and strength allow the load transfer between beam and column, which cause both
characteristics, they can be excellent choices for columns, while open I- economic and practical difficulties during fabrication and spoil the aes-
sections are the most efficient horizontal members to support flooring thetics of the design. They are also vulnerable to extreme loads such as
systems. Moreover, they are architecturally very appealing and it is fatigue or seismic, due to large stress concentrations at connection zones
straight-forward to obtain composite behaviour by filling CHS columns and residual stresses at the welds. Several collapses have been reported
with concrete, which contributes significantly to the fire resistance [2]. related to these issues [4,5]. More efficient hollow section joints are
However, at present, the use of CHS in building construction is not needed with lower detailing, fabrication and erection labour content,
promoted enough, mainly because of the complex detailing requirements meeting the criteria of EU 2020’s strategy of focusing on smart, green and
of their joints (which can comprise around 25% of the total structural sustainable construction.
weight), which considerably increase costs, and slow down the design Laser cutting technology (LCT) has so far generated significant
and fabrication process. In steel construction, fabrication costs usually benefits in both processing and cost terms for a wide range of appli-
account for 30–40% of the overall project budget, in which the assembly cations. Modern laser cutting machines (Fig. 1) can make any type of
E-mail address: [email protected].
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2018.12.080
Received 13 February 2018; Received in revised form 24 October 2018; Accepted 27 December 2018
Available online 25 January 2019
0141-0296/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Kanyilmaz Engineering Structures 183 (2019) 1027–1048
aesthetics of the design.

The full report on the previously researched semi-rigid connections
between I-beams and tubular columns by Wardenier [9] provided a
deep conceptual understanding of the behaviour of the existing hollow
section joints. To calculate the static design resistances of uniplanar and
multi-planar hollow section joints and joints composed of hollow sec-
tions and open sections, a set of semi-analytical formulae has been
provided in EN1993-1-8 [10] derived from the analytical models and
experimental results [11–13]. Such formulae are based on the following
failure modes:
• Chord face failure

• Chord side wall failure (or chord web failure) by yielding, crushing
or instability under the compression brace member;
• Chord shear failure;
• Punching shear failure of a hollow section chord wall
Fig. 1. An example of the automated laser cutting process [6]. • Brace failure with reduced effective width
• Local buckling failure
cut on steel tubes in entirely automatic, programmed cycles. Worldwide
laser machine producer BLM Group reports that their customers ob- Two examples are shown in Fig. 3 with regards to the chord face
tained production improvements in the range of 70 to 80% through failure.
LCT, with respect to conventional processes [6]. This was mainly thanks Some of the formula is provided below to show the critical para-
to more stringent machining tolerances resulting in improved quality of meters affecting the safety of such joints.
joints, fittings, easier fastenings, process efficiency and vast flexibility.
This technology can be a remedy to the complex fabrication of hollow (i) Chord face failure check configuration for K and N gap or overlap
section joints. This article presents a comprehensive state of the art joints (Fig. 4a)
review, summarizing the problems of existing joint details of tubular kg ·kp·f y0 ·t02 d1
structures, and highlights the opportunities provided by LCT to over- N1, Rd = (1.8 + 10.2 )/ M5
sin d0
come those problems. 1
sin 1
N2, Rd = N1, Rd
sin 2
2. Problems of tubular joint fabrication and the research efforts
for their solution
(ii) Design resistance check configuration for welded joints connecting
I sections to CHS members (Fig. 4b)
CHS profiles have excellent properties with high compression, ten-
sion and bending resistance in all directions, thanks to their inherent 5kp· fy 0 · t02
shape and geometrical properties [7]. Structures produced using hollow N1, Rd = (1 + 0.25 )/ M5
1 0.81
sections can have lighter overall weights in the order of 40% [6], and
they require a smaller volume of fire protection material than their Mip,1, Rd = h1 N1, Rd/(1 + 0.25 )
equivalent H section [8]. Indeed, CHS columns can be designed to have
a fire resistance of up to 120 min without using fire protection [11]. Mop,1, Rd = 0.5b1 N1, Rd
Moreover, hollow section profiles have reduced transport costs. They
are also architecturally appealing, offering more space and freedom to (iii) Stiffness formula connecting I sections to CHS members [11]
the designers [11] (Fig. 2). Nevertheless, their joint fabrication is quite (Fig. 4b):
problematic, often with complex detailing and erection requirements.
C = 0.5K (hb tb, f ) 2
From an extensive literature study including the largest steel users
in the world construction market including Europe, United States and 1.3
K = 6.8Etc (2 )
Japan, it is seen that most common types of I-beam-to-CHS column
connections are directly welded or diaphragm connections. Both solu- Where:
tions include a vast amount of welded local stiffeners or gusset plates,
kg: a factor used to cover both gap type and overlap
which make the design and construction of these joints complicated and
expensive, decelerate the design and construction process and spoil the type of joints given in figure7.6 of EN 1993 1 8
Fig. 2. Examples of CHS joints with stiffeners and welding – EXPO 2015 Construction site (left), a construction site from OCAM Srl (right).
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a. Under axial loading b. Under bending moment

Fig. 3. Chord face failure example from EN1993-1-8 [10].
Fig. 5. Example of chord plasticization failure due to bending (photo of a

kp : given in table 7.2 of EN1993-1-8 fy0 :yield strength of the chord member conventional directly welded I-beam-CHS column connection, taken during the
experiments performed by Institut national des sciences appliquées de Rennes
ti : tube thickness
within LASTEICON project [1]).
i: angle between brace member and the chord
stiffness of a typical I-beam-to-CHS-column joint strongly depends on
di : tube diameter
the tube thickness (ti) besides other semi-analytical parameters in-
M5 : Partial safety factor for the resistance of joints in hollow section dicating the vulnerability of such connections to the phenomenon listed
lattice girder above. Chord-plasticization is a common critical failure mode (Fig. 5).
hb: beam height Truss-type joints are sensitive to gap and overlap parameters (kg). After
the publication of the most recent EN1993-1-1, some modifications
N = axial loading have been proposed in some parameters for its further development [7],
however, the essence remained the same. To improve the behavior of
Mb, ip = in plane bending
such joints, EN1993-1-8 recommends some reinforcement options (EN
Mb, op = out of plane bending section 7.5.2.2 [10]) limited to mainly welding of flange reinforcing,
side plates and vertical stiffeners.
5 The construction sector is of strategic importance to the EU, and
f( )=
1 0.81· represents more than 10% of its GDP, being the largest economic ac-
tivity and industrial employer in Europe [14]. The Europe 2020
=I beam flange to column diameter ratio (b / hc ) strategy for the construction sector focuses mainly on smart and sus-
f ( ) = 1 + 0.25· tainable growth, which aims to generate a green and a competitive
economy. This will require more efficient solutions, reduced costs and
=I beam height to column diameter ratio (hb/ hc ) man-hours, as well as less energy consumption. Simplifying the fabri-
cation process would have important economic and sustainability
f (n ) = 1 + 0.3·n 0.3·n 2 for n 1 benefits for the steel construction sector. Indeed, a significant research
f (n ) = 1 for n >1 effort has been invested worldwide in this topic.
n = column prestress ratio i. e .

column prestress divided by the column yield stress (fc, p / fc, y ) 2.1. Design guidelines regarding hollow section joints
C: Rotational Stiffness Comité International pour le Développement et ĺ’Etude de la

K: Initial stiffness of the flange plate connections Construction Tubulaire (CIDECT) has so far invested significant re-
tb, f : flange plate thickness sources to expand knowledge, by means of research and studies, of steel
hollow sections and their application in steel construction and en-
2 : D / tc gineering [15]. Several design guides have been developed for efficient
application of structural hollow sections and their connections
D: column diameter [11,13,16–21]. This initiative of CIDECT highlight the importance of
These formulae indicate that both the bending resistance and hollow sections in steel construction sector. Eurocode’s content
a. Chord face failure check configuration for K and b. Design resistance check configuration for
N gap or overlap joints welded joints connecting I sections to CHS
members
Fig. 4. Scheme for I-beam-to-CHS column connection calculation [10,11].
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regarding the design and implementation of structural hollow sections Analytical studies were performed by Alostaz and Schneider [30] on
is largely based on these resources. Weynand and Jaspart have put ef- the moment-rotation behaviour of six I-beam-to-CHS column connec-
fort into the extension of the components method to hollow section tion types: simple connection (a), diaphragm plates (b), embedded
joints and joints between hollow and open sections [19,20]. Within weldable deformed bars (c), interior headed studs (d), headed studs on
European Commission’s Research fund for coal and steel [22], sig- web plate (e), cross section continuous through steel tube solutions (f).
nificant resources have been invested to the research projects about the Authors highlighted the following conclusions:
behaviour hollow section joints. AISC has recently produced a new
chapter for structural hollow section connections [23], as well as design • Removing stress concentrations and local distortions from the
examples [24], and a design guide [18] to promote structural hollow column wall transferring the girder flange forces to the concrete
sections in building construction. In Japan, regarding hollow section core improved the connection behaviour.
joint details, extensive research and implementation have been made in • In moderate-to-high seismicity context, girders welded directly to
the last three decades, including the “New Urban Housing Project”, the CHS column should be avoided.
“US-Japan Cooperative Earthquake Research Program,” and the work • Diaphragm plate connections behaviour improves with shifting the
done by universities and industries that are presented by the Archi- girder end from the column face
tectural Institute of Japan (AIJ) [25,26]. Their aim was to prove the • Embedded weldable corrugated re-bars were effective in transfer-
benefits of structural systems consisting in concrete filled tube columns ring girder flange forces to the concrete core
and I-shaped beams with respect to ordinary reinforced concrete and • Interior headed studs helped relieving the distortions on the CHS
steel systems, and facilitate their design. Fukumoto and Morita [27], by wall, but the efficiency of this connection type is limited due to
means of component tests on the panel zones, studied the nonlinear number of studs.
shear force-deformation behaviour of the conventional square and cir- • Extended web plate connection with attached headed studs are more
cular column-to-beam connections with internal and external dia- suitable for the braced frames with little moment-rotation demand
phragms [27]. • Continuing the girder through the CHS column provided the most
favourable inelastic connection behaviour
2.2. External diaphragm and welded hollow section joints
2.3. Fire performance of hollow section joints
When steel hollow sections are involved, the complexity of joints is
always a problem, worldwide. Japanese construction market study Mechanical performance of the steel hollow section joints is also
showed that commonly used through-diaphragm connections require a sensitive to the fire loading. This aspect gains particular importance in
large amount of welding, since they are fabricated by cutting the steel the context of industrial facilities such as off-shore energy platforms.
tube into pieces, and then welding them together with diaphragms [15]. Zeinoddini et al. [31] studied the fire response of externally stiffened
Researchers indicated the necessity of new connection type develop- steel I-beam-to-CHS welded connections. Their study showed that rota-
ments without cutting the column body and without using excessive tional stiffness of such joints start decreasing above 100 °C. Beyond
welding. Alostaz and Schneider [30] experimentally investigated various 450 °C, the effect of axial load in the stiffness was significant. They also
details of I-beam-to-CHS column connections in which they showed that investigated the effects of several strengthening methods on the fire re-
a direct connection to the tubular column wall causes premature flange sponse, in which horizontal diaphragms with larger thickness and using a
fracture and severe local distortion on the tube wall. joint can significantly improve the behaviour at elevated temperatures.
Wang et al. [28] studied the seismic behaviour of I-beam to circular EU-RFCS PRECIOUS project “Prefabricated composite beam-to-
tubular column connections stiffened by outer ring diaphragms. In this concrete filled tube or partially reinforced-concrete-encased column
study, an experimental investigation on the seismic behaviour of this connections for severe seismic and fire loadings” [8] developed design
type of connections was carried out and the specimens were tested to rules for two typologies of ductile and fire-resistant composite beam-to-
failure under unidirectional or bidirectional cyclic loads. Various spe- column joints with welded and diaphragm connections, prequalified
cimen parameters were used to evaluate their effects on connection and promoted them. EU-RFCS COMPFIRE “Design of composite joints
behaviour. Test results indicated different failure modes for 2D and 3D for improved fire robustness” project [32] project aimed to develop a
weak panel connections, with panel shear buckling and local distortion comprehensive component-based design methodology for composite
of the outer diaphragm occurring only for 3D connections. The weak joints against fire, particularly joints between composite beams and the
beam connections unexceptionally exhibited final fracture at the link concrete-filled hollow sections and partially encased open sections. EU-
between diaphragm and beam flange while weak panel connections RFCS COSSFIRE project “Connections of steel and composite structures
demonstrated better seismic performance and ductility. under fire conditions” [33,34] gives important technical contributions
Sabbagh et al. [29] studied an I-beam to CHS column full strength for fire simulation of connections. It proposes design rules allowing the
moment connection for earthquake applications, similar to the one in- check of fire resistance of steel joints, and recommends construction
vestigated by Wang et al. [28], using FE analysis. Authors considered details for connections of both steel and composite structures.
joints with the external diaphragm plates bolted to the beam and Chen et al. [35] have experimentally shown that internal ring-stif-
welded to the whole circumference of the column. Various ring widths feners increase both the failure temperature and increase the fire re-
for the diaphragm plates were used to limit the web panel yielding and sistance time of CHS T-joints. Fung et al. [36] showed that the strength of
distortion and different types of vertical stiffeners were used in the CHS T-Joints subjected to static in-plane bending is reduced significantly
connection region to eliminate the stress concentration in the dia- at elevated temperatures (22.1% at 700 °C). Bączkiewicz et al. [37]
phragms. The following results of the analysis were highlighted: performed an experimental study on the temperature distribution of T, K
and KT type square hollow section joints without fire protection, under
• The web panel zone and other connection components partially standard fire loading. Based on the results and further numerical ana-
contribute in the overall inelastic deformation of the connection. lysis, they recommend considering the different temperature response of
• Excessive yielding and distortion in the web panel and large stress each component of the joint to calculate its fire resistance.
concentration in the diaphragms connected to the column walls
should be avoided because they can lead to weld fracture between 2.4. High strength steel hollow section joints
the diaphragm plates and the column.
• Cyclic FE analysis shown that some cyclic deterioration occurs in the EU-RFCS ATTEL project “Performance-based approaches for high
moment-rotation behaviour. strength tubular columns and connections under earthquake and fire
1030
loadings” [38–42] developed both analytical and experimental know- through beam connection identified as an ideal rigid connection for
how in order to support new design criteria for the exploitation of attaching steel beams to concrete filled tube (CFT) columns, verifying
hollow steel sections and concrete filled circular hollow sections for experimentally the force transfer mechanism within the joint. Although
columns and connections, to fill the gaps of Eurocodes concerning the limited to one type of connection and with limited number of experi-
design solutions for joints when hollow sections are used. EU-RFCS mental work, this study still shows the structural potential of passing
HITUBES project “Design and integrity assessment of high strength through joints. Hoang et al. [40] proposed a beam-to-CHS-column joint
tubular structures for extreme loading conditions” [43,44], to promote with passing-through plate joints, and provided its calculation proce-
the use of high strength steel (HSS) tubular structures, developed per- dure based on experimental analysis. Sheet et al. [60] investigated two
formance-based design and assessment procedures which make full use types of through connections between steel beam square or circular
of HSS tubes, reported relevant weight reductions and performed re- interior columns. In the first type, steel rods pass through the column, in
liability analysis regarding the behaviour of HSS members, especially in the second type, the beam profile passes through the column, and is
case of hollow section elements with welded and bolted connections connected by a bolted bracket on the column surface. Both solutions
under monotonic, low-cycle fatigue and high cycle fatigue loading. EU- provided ductile and stable behaviour at large drifts, with plastic hinges
RFCS RUOSTE “Rules on high strength steel” is a project [45–47] stu- concentrated in beam ends.
died to enhance the use of high strength steel for the construction of
multi-story buildings using hollow sections, with the aim of proposing 2.7. Hollow section truss joints
sustainable and economic solutions. Havula et al. [48] performed an
experimental study on the moment-rotation behavior of welded tubular Lee et al. [61] and Ahmadi et al. [62] showed the improvements in
high strength steel T joints, which showed that all the specimens terms of stiffness, strength and ductility of CHS T joints, when ring-
achieved the required ductility. Moreover, they proposed to consider stiffeners are used. Gandhi et al. [63] showed that ring-stiffeners can
reduction factors for butt-welded joint types, small fillet welds and for reduce stress concentrations and hence increase the fatigue life tubular
the joints with steel grades higher than S500. T joints. For the construction of complex truss structures made of
hollow section profiles, “mero-joints” are common [64]. It consists of a
2.5. Stainless steel hollow section joints multi-directional bolted system of various angles made of a forged steel
ball, steel conical pieces, bolts, sleeves and pins. In this system, the
Stainless steel has additional advantages with respect to the carbon discontinuities between the connecting parts due to the presence of
steel, in terms of corrosion resistance, durability, maintenance and bolts, gaps and prestressing complicates the load transfer mechanism
hygiene properties [49]. These advantages can be exploited in the [65]. Steel casting allows to create joints with a free-form geometry
tubular steel construction. Rasmussen et al. [50,51] performed tests on [66]. Welding location between the joint and the steel profile can be
stainless steel circular and square hollow section X- and K-joints, which designed far from the node core area to decrease the stress concentra-
confirmed that such joints can be designed using the CIDECT for carbon tions and perpendicular to the tube axis to eliminate eccentric stresses
steel joints by exchanging the yield stress by a percentage of proof [67]. Consequently stress concentrations and notch effects are reduced
stress. Feng et al. [52] proposed design formulae for cold-formed in order to improving the fatigue resistance [68]. However the high
stainless steel tubular T- and X-joints ((duplex and high strength aus- costs of the casting process hinders an extensive use of cast hollow
tenitic and normal strength stainless steel) at elevated temperatures by section joints.
imposing a temperature factor for different failure modes.
3. A new remedy for hollow section joint fabrication: Laser-
2.6. Passing through hollow section joints cutting technology
A few types of passing through concept have been introduced by Laser cutting machines are typically used for industrial manu-
some researchers [53,54] with very promising conclusions, although facturing applications. Cutting with laser has many advantages over
practical fabrication difficulties were not paid significant attention. conventional techniques; the operations are programmed and fully
Mirghaderi et al. [55] and Torabian et al. [56] described the force achieved by the machine, without any intervention of an operator. This
transfer mechanism of connections realized by a vertical plate passing eliminates human error on several processes of fabrication, which is an
through a box-column and welded to the column flanges and beams important financial saving and an increase in the quality. The tradi-
connected to the same plate. Authors proposed a design method to tional fixed costs determined by punches, clamps, tools, templates and
determine the dimensions of the through plate and other pertinent dies are entirely eliminated by CAD programming, and the laser beam is
parts. Connections were experimentally and numerically studied to used as a universal tool. Moreover, the ease of interfacing a laser with
evaluate the seismic performance. The main results can be listed as CAD/CAM tools allows cost-effective manufacturing of parts and quick
follows: changes in design [69]. This means generally a shorter overall con-
struction schedule. Less manual work and more automation also means
• The proposed connection can effectively provide a rigid moment a safer work environment. Thanks to the adoption of LCT in joint fab-
connection between I-beams and box-columns by a new load rication (Fig. 6), there would be less need for welding, less steel plates
transfer mechanism; to be placed manually by workers, and more automation. This would
• The through plate transfers the loads between beam and column by also improve the safety of the working environment. Their initial in-
in-plane actions and most welds are loaded parallel-to-axis. vestment may still be higher with respect to other traditional type
Therefore, no type of weld fracture was observed during the ex- cutting machines; however, they carry the potential to cut overall life
perimental program. cycle costs for the abovementioned reasons.
When compared to traditional technologies, the use of laser cutting
Voth and Packer [57] conducted research on Branch plate-to-Cir- allows the designer more freedom, both from an architectural and
cular Hollow Structural Section Connections in 2010 (Project 5BS-3/ structural point of view. The critical failure phenomena of hollow
10). They performed experimental as well as numerical investigations section joints, listed in Section 2, can be minimized thanks to new
on various types of such type of connections. Especially, the work re- shapes and joint configurations that can be obtained with the geometric
lated to through plate connections using empty and grout filled CHS freedom offered by LCT machines. Besides, laser cutting can be up to
cords were very promising. The results of this study are discussed in thirty times faster than standard cutting methods [70]. Steel profiles cut
detail in Voths doctoral thesis [58]. Elremaily et al. [59] studied a by LCT are also clean enough to go straight into fabrication without
1031
Fig. 6. Examples of the laser cutting process (pictures are kindly provided by ADIGESYS).
additional processes. Moreover, the heat-affected zone of laser cutting brass, copper), whereas in the case of plasma-cutting, only con-
is much smaller when compared to other cutting methods [71]. This ductive metals can be processed.
avoids material distortion and micro cracks that are unavoidable using • Very limited heat-affected zone.
plasma and oxygen cutting methods. They cause a very minimal heat- • Higher precision and faster cut with high quality
affected zone, which can also improve the connection behaviour under • Enhanced aesthetics
seismic loading, reducing the risk of brittle fractures. This section
presents the characteristics of this powerful technology, current re- The two operation modes of the laser head are the continuous and
search activities and future needs. pulsed mode (Fig. 8). In the continuous mode, the laser head constantly
operates while the pulsed mode operates in an intermittent manner to
3.1. Laser cutting process decrease the accumulated heat on the workpiece, by reducing the
overall cutting speed.
Laser cutting is a thermal cutting process where the focused laser-
beam energy is absorbed by the surface of the workpiece and converted
3.1.1. CO2 vs fiber laser cutting
into heat, causing the melting of the metal [72,73] with the support of a
In the steel construction industry, two types of laser cutting tech-
pressurized assist gas (e.g oxygen) [74]. Cutting takes place when the
nology can be adopted: C02 and fiber. C02 laser cutting is currently
laser beam hits the workpiece. During this operation, a part of the laser
more efficient with thicker plates while fiber laser cutting may offer
beam is absorbed by the workpiece, another part is reflected and a third
advantages with thin metals in terms of energy efficiency, higher cut-
part of it transmits through the workpiece. This is schematically shown
ting speed, smaller kerf widths, cost of operation and maintenance [77].
in Fig. 7. The degree of the absorption, reflection and transmission is
Fiber cutting technology is in rapid development, and the threshold of
defined by several factors such as the wavelength, polarization, and
convenience can vary greatly depending on the size of the laser and the
incidence angle of the laser beam, and the material characteristics,
line of technological development that each individual machine man-
temperature, geometry, and surface conditions of the workpiece. Me-
ufacturer chooses to follow and adopt. With 2D and 3D cutting of
chanical characteristics of metals (e.g. yield strength, hardness, ducti-
stainless steel and aluminum, fiber laser cutting offers major ad-
lity) do not significantly influence the laser-cutting process [75].
vantages in terms of quality and velocity with respect to CO2 laser
The main difference of laser cutting from the other cutting techni-
cutting. Studied in the EU-RFCS LASTEICON project [1], Table 1 shows
ques (water-jet, plasma, oxy-fuel) are the following:
a comparison between CO2 (LT14, laser DC045) and fiber (laser
• 3D processing is feasible (in waterjet and plasma-cutting methods, YLS4000) 3D laser cutting, performed on a CHS323x10 (323 mm dia-
meter and 10 mm thickness) S355 steel profile of 2 m length and 154 kg
this is difficult and not recommended)
• All metals can be processed (e.g. mild, stainless steel, aluminium, weight, to cut the slots with I-beam cross section and rectangular plate
shapes (Fig. 9). There is a small difference in processing times but an
a. Interaction between laser beam and material b. Laser cutting process

Fig. 7. Laser cutting process [1,75,76].
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a. Continuous mode b. Pulsed mode

Fig. 8. Operation modes of laser head [1,76].
Table 1 3.1.4. LCT for stainless steel profiles

Cutting process parameters. Stainless steel profiles can be processed by both 2D and 3D laser-
CO2 laser cutting Fiber laser cutting
cutting. Fiber laser cutting provides better results in terms of speed and
cut-quality. Wandera et al. [79], using 4 kW fiber laser power, de-
Cut-time 11′32′′ 13′52′′ monstrated for a 10 mm thick stainless steel plate, a high cut edge
Power consumption (kWh) 59.01 24.83 quality can be achieved with dross-free cut edges and lower cut edge
Gas consumption (m3) 0.91 2.02
squareness deviation, with a low-to-moderate cutting speed. Sheng
et al. [80] analysed the heat-affected zone formation of laser cutting in
important difference in power consumption. Power consumption is less 304 stainless steel workpieces and provided a validated computational
than half in the case of fiber laser cutting. method to determine the extent of HAZ.
3.2. Structural integrity of laser-cut steel profiles

3.1.2. LCT for carbon and low-alloy steel
For the mild steels and low-alloy steels used in the hollow and I 3.2.1. Heat-affected zone with LCT
beam section profiles, the most common method currently is the CO2 Structural integrity of cut-parts are largely effected by Heat-affected
laser cutting. Today, plates with a thickness of up to 20 mm can be cut zone (HAZ). HAZ is the non-melted area of a workpiece metal that
with laser powers of up to 3,5 kW (25 mm – with 4,5 kW). Cutting speed undergoes micro-structural and mechanical changes due to the heat
is directly influenced by the thickness of the workpiece. When the exposures during cutting and welding operations [71]. Laser cutting is a
workpiece is thicker, the cutting speed is lower. Surface condition is thermal process with fast heating and cooling rates, which result in
also decisive for cutting speed; rusted and painted surfaces require different mechanical properties in the HAZwith respect to the base
more cutting time and energy. Deviations may occur, depending on metal. In HAZ, ductility and fatigue resistance becomes lower. The rate
type of laser, beam delivery system, nozzle arrangements and focus of change in the mechanical characteristics and extent of HAZ depend
conditions. Furthermore, when comparing to cutting speeds achievable on key process parameters such as material characteristics, laser power,
in plate cutting, tube cutting has to keep into account the influence of wave-length, pulse types and assist-gas type [75]. Among common
the opposite wall of the material. Spraying the tube’s inner walls with metal cutting techniques, the width of HAZ is the smallest during laser-
slag and melting or the overheating the opposite wall, often require cutting process, thanks to the application of heat in a very small area. It
reduced power piercing and cutting and as a consequence longer ma- commonly extends to less than half of the workpiece thickness [75],
chining time or reduced cutting quality [1,75,76]. depending on the process parameters.
Harničárová et al. [71] found that smallest HAZ was achieved by the
laser cutting among different cutting methods, and after plasma cutting,
3.1.3. LCT for high strength steel profiles some micro cracks were observed due to the stress caused by the vo-
Thomas [78] studied the effect laser cutting power and transverse lume changes. D. Andrés et al. [81] characterized the HAZ produced by
cutting speed parameters on the cut-edge durability for steel structures thermal cutting processes (oxy-fuel, plasma and laser cutting), per-
in high stress applications, using two high strength steel grades formed on the S640M structural steel of 15 mm thickness. The study
(S355MC and DP600). The author highlighted an improved fatigue showed that the narrowest HAZ is achieved by laser-cutting. Plasma
performance during laser cutting process, when the laser cut-edge and laser cutting resulted in significantly higher yield and tensile
surface damage is minimized, the shallow striation formation is sus- strength with respect to oxy-fuel cutting. When micro-hardness values
tained and the near edge microstructural deformations were controlled. are considered, laser cutting had the highest yield stress and tensile
Fig. 9. Laser-cut piece 3D (on the left), and side (on the right) views.
1033
strength values. Compared to very limited HAZ of during laser cutting, RFCS LASTEICON project [1], where the surface of CHS406x18
a structural joint would be much more affected by the HAZ during tubes were full of rust. In this case, a sort of fast pre-cutting was
welding. During fabrication, extra cautions should be taken into ac- done in order to clean the tube surface and prevent cutting pro-
count to decrease HAZ arising from welding (e.g. by means of pre- blems.
heating).
3.2.2. Static and fatigue properties of laser-cut structural steel 3.2.4. Cut geometry and welding
Bursi et al. [82] and Zanon et al. [83] compared the mechanical Laser cutting machines can be used for cutting round tubes from 10
cutting effects on the cut-edge properties of a typical constructional up to 508 mm in diameter, with wall thickness up to 20 mm and lengths
steel grade (S355N) plates machined by traditional and laser cutting up to 14 m [70]. Adopting LCT, special connections can be easily de-
technologies. Structural properties of the coupon and bolted connection signed to join different types of structural elements, with pleasant
specimens obtained through mechanical and laser cutting have been aesthetic results as well as improving global structural integrity,
compared. This study showed that, although mill and drill cutting without the need of costly prototypes being used for evaluation pur-
techniques result in superior mechanical properties, material and high- poses. It ensures better uniformity of parts, less machine tooling time
cycle fatigue properties of the edges obtained by laser cutting technique and most cost-effective management as well as excellent performance in
satisfied the code requirements [84]. In any case, the material prop- terms of cutting quality [70].
erties and microstructures of the specimens obtained with laser cutting Different from other conventional cutting techniques, with laser-
technique resulted more favourable, and EN 1993 proposal [85] for the cutting, both 2D and 3D geometries can be cut (Fig. 10). In case of 2D
fatigue category of drilled holes resulted to be sufficient for realistic cutting, the laser beam is guided in a horizontal plane, while the tube is
bolted connections obtained with laser cutting. Authors suggested a rotating around its longitudinal axis (Fig. 11a, c, e). The head and the
deeper investigation both for normal and high strength steel grades. beam is always perpendicular to the surface of the processed tube. In
Meurling et al. [86] investigated the fatigue properties of steel sheet case of 3D cutting, the laser beam is guided in a variable plane, while
made of carbon and stainless sheet steels cut by laser cutting an con- the tube is rotating around its longitudinal axis (Fig. 11b, d, f). The head
ventional mechanical cutting methods, both under constant and vari- and the beam is oriented according to the required shape of the cut, in
able amplitude loading conditions. Mechanical cut specimens showed general not perpendicular to the surface of the processed tube. A 3D
lower fatigue strength mainly because of the presence of larger surface laser-cutting machine can tilt its head to cut the corner features and
defects on the cut edges with respect to laser cutting. The relative dif- create tight fit-ups between merging tubes. This operation leaves no gap
ference was larger for the higher strength steels than for the lower between the tubes, decreasing significantly the welding quantity and
strength steels. Moazed et al. [87] studied the feasibility of using laser process time, increasing the quality of welding and its strength
cutting technique to produce welded square hollow-section T joints, (Fig. 11b, d, f). Cutting speed in 3D cutting has to be reduced due to
and compared the fatigue strength between T joints obtained by me- increment of the angle between the laser beam and the normal to the
chanical and laser cutting. 21 full scale experiments with cyclic loading surface of the tube, because of the following limitations:
showed that the fatigue strength of the laser-cut specimens was higher
with respect to those obtained with mechanical cutting. The authors • The material thickness changes: The cutting parameters must be
also concluded that the hollow section profiles can be feasibly cut using constantly adjusted according to changing material thickness in
LCT for an efficient joint assembly. Szlendak & Oponowicz tested non- order to attain good cutting results.
welded plug & play type RHS joints in real scale with financial support • Cutting gas is diverted: The emitted cutting gas is partially diverted
Bialystok University of Technology [88]. Researchers tested truss girder from the tube surface and does not flow exclusively into the kerf that
specimens assembled with laser-cut profiles, eliminating welding to- can result in increased erosion of the cutting edges and burr for-
tally. Although the scope of project was limited to a single joint type, mation.
and the number of analysis were limited, it showed the potential of LCT
in assembling joints. Herion et al. [89] tested new K-type joints fabri- On the other hand, a significant time can be saved during joint shop-
cated using LCT, and obtained substantial stress concentration reduc- assembly (welding operations), thanks to the 3D cutting geometry.
tions with respect to traditional K-joint configurations.
3.2.3. Surface properties during laser cutting process: 3.3. Cost and environmental impact
There are three common surface issues related to the structural steel
profiles: Lubrication, coating and environmental effects [75]: Initial investment cost of laser cutting machines is currently higher
than other traditional cutting methods; however, they have a big po-
• Lubrication does not affect the laser cutting process since a thin film tential to reduce the overall costs and time spent for welding in the
of lubrication oil evaporates rapidly around the kerf zone before the whole life-cycle of manufacturing. Aloke et al. [69] underlined the
melting of the metal. benefits of LCT in terms of eliminating human error on the cutting
• Zinc-based coatings that are used for corrosion resistance also have process, cost efficiency and quickness, manufacturing efficiency thanks
a boiling temperature much lower than that of steel (900 K vs to interface of laser machines with CAD/CAM tools, and quantified
1800 K), however, they may reduce the efficiency of laser cutting economic benefits of laser cutting for a wide range of industrial appli-
because of the shielding effect caused by the zinc vapors. This re- cations.
sults in a lower cutting speed. Such a problem has been faced in EU- Environmental performance of the LCT also suppresses the other
RFCS LASTEICON project [1], where there was a protection layer on cutting methods. Laser cutting operations release much less noise and
the external surface of a CHS503x13 tube to prevent material oxi- pollution. Besides, thanks to its high precision cutting, welding becomes
dation (some kind of plastic painting). In this case, before cutting simpler in the joint fabrication phase, releasing much less amount of
the part geometries, a sort of fast pre-cutting was done in order to slag. This improves considerably the workplace safety thanks to re-
clean the tube surface and prevent cutting problems. duced use of welding. This technology has been in use for many years in
• Oil mist, gasoline, dusts, rust and humidity adversely affect the laser automotive, aerospace and industrial sectors [86,90–92], and enables
cutting performance, therefore it is suggested to store the steel many possibilities for the complex problems of steel hollow section
elements with proper oil lubrication and pay attention to their in- joint fabrication, with increased structural efficiency and decreased
tegrity during transportation. Such a problem has been faced in EU- costs.
1034
a. Computational model of 4-way hollow section joint example
b. 2D cutting (adaptable for fillet welding) c. 3D cutting (adaptable for full penetration welding)
Fig. 10. Cut geometry possibilities provided by LCT machines.
3.4. Overall comparison of LCT with other cutting methods quality, tolerances, speed and cost. The aim was to optimize the modern
cutting technologies for demanding applications including the ones in
Water-jet and oxy-fuel cutting are mostly used to cut plates, rather construction sector.
than profile sections. For hollow section profile cutting, laser cutting is Laser cutting machines can be used to cut open profiles such as I
the most effective option thanks to the possibility of automatic loading/ beams with any geometry. Fig. 12 shows an example performed in the
unloading/handling systems. Most of the plasma cutting machines are LASTEICON project [1]. Table 3 shows a summary of cut part machined
dedicated to rather simple processing, without loading/unloading au- by an LT24 machine equipped with a CO2 laser source Rofin DC045,
tomation, and usually they work with a single piece at a time with with the amount of energy and gas required by a single part machining.
limited geometries. The quantified benefits of LCT compared with other Electrical energy required is related to cutting time and to average laser
cutting technologies are summarized in Table 2 [69,71,72,75,93]. power required.
3.5. Laser cutting of constructional steel profiles 3.5.2. Laser cutting for a simpler joint fabrication
The EU-RFCS research project LASTEICON (RFCS-GA-709807)
3.5.1. Laser cutting of bolt holes and beam perforations proposes using LCT in the fabrication of I-beam-to-CHS-column joints.
Saad–Eldeen [94] and Singh et al. [95] tested laser cutting tech- It aims to drastically reduce fabrication costs as well as meeting the
nique in making perforations on steel profiles to minimize the HAZ, structural requirements, expanding also the freedom of architects and
hence the deformation and residual stresses caused by the cutting engineers when developing new projects. Fig. 13 shows some proto-
process. Zaher et al. [96] have performed tests on the structural be- types of laser-cut joints (b and c) compared with a typical diaphragm
haviour of arched steel beams with cellular openings, where all parts joint (a). Fig. 14 schematizes the integrated cutting and fabrication idea
(webs, flanges, holes, and stiffeners) were cut by a laser-cutting ma- using LCT. The project’s operational scope is to investigate all the
chine, numerically controlled to guarantee high accuracy in the di- various aspects of the problem, from the fabrication procedures and
mensions and reduce residual stresses. Cicero et al. [97,98] analysed detailing to the experimental performance of the proposed joints. Al-
the effect of the three thermal cutting methods (Oxy-fuel, plasma and though the major intention of the project is to promote hollow sections
laser cut) on the fatigue behaviour of cut holes on the structural steels as an industry standard approach, outcomes can be applied to any type
S355M, S460M, S690Q and S890Q, and proposed their fatigue design of steel joint.
curves compatible with BS7608 [99] and Eurocode 3 [85]. For laser-cut During the proposal stage of the EU-RFCS project LASTEICON, nu-
holes within the plates thinner than 25 mm, Class F has been proposed. merical feasibility studies were performed. Currently, within the run-
EU-RFCS HIPERCUT “High performance cut edges in structural steel ning project, several beneficiaries (Hasselt University, RWTH Aachen,
plates for demanding applications” [100] investigated the modern University of Pisa and INSA Rennes) are performing an extensive nu-
cutting techniques including laser cutting in terms of the cut edge merical and experimental study to characterize the mechanical
1035
a. Laser head inclination for 2D-cutting b. Laser head inclination for 3D-cutting
c. 2D cutting scheme d. 3D laser cutting scheme
e. Orthogonal cutting (suitable for fillet f. 45° inclined cutting suitable for partial/full
welding) welding
Fig. 11. Demonstration of the benefit of laser cutting on the cutting-edge precision.
characteristics. While these advanced results will be published soon, 3.5.2.1. Laser cutting process of circular hollow section profiles. Different
this sub-section presents the results of the feasibility studies performed to standard cutting machines, a laser tube cutting machine operation
before the project. consists of the movement of both the cutting head and the workpiece
Table 2
Comparison between cutting methods [69,71,72,75,93].
Water-jet cutting Plasma cutting Oxy-fuel cutting Laser cutting
Maximum thickness carbon steel plate 250 mm 50 mm 250 mm 30 mm

Maximum thickness stainless steel plate 200 mm 30 mm Not effective 20 mm
HAZ No Large Very large Very small
Cutting speed Moderate-fast Very fast Low Very fast
3D processing Difficult/not feasible Difficult Difficult Easy/feasible
Metals processed All Only conductive Only non-alloyed All
Cut-edge quality High Moderate Moderate Very high
Dross No Moderate High Very small
Kerf width relative to laser-cut kerf width 3:1 4:1 3.5:1 1
Noise level Very high Medium Low Very low
Precision Low-to-moderate (0.2 mm) Very low (0.5 mm) Very low 0.75 mm Very high (0.05 mm)
Maintenance High Low Medium Low
Waste Very high Medium Low Very low
Hollow section profile cutting Not common Possible but not efficient Not common Highly efficient
1036
a. IPE500 processing on LT24 machine b. HEB120 processing on LT14 Fiber machine

Fig. 12. Laser cutting of IPE500 (CO2 cutting for the slots) and HEB120 (Fiber cutting of parts).
Table 3
Cutting parameters of open section profile samples.
TYPE A TYPE B
Part Drawing
Profile IPE 500 IPE 500

Slot sections HEA240, HEB120, PLATE10 IPE400, IPE200, PLATE 15
Part Length 2500 mm 2500 mm
Part Weight 91 kg 54 kg
Cutting speed 800 mm/min 800 mm/min
Laser Power 3500 W 3500 W
Cutting time 23 min 17 min
Electricity [kWh] 26.44 23.41
O2 Gas [m3] 2.37 1.82
a. Typical diaphragm joint b. Laser-cut joint prototype c. Laser-cut joint model

Fig. 13. Traditional joint and LASTEICON solution with I beams passing through the CHS column.
(tubular or other structural profiles) (Fig. 15a). Thanks to this, the CHS 3.5.2.2. Mechanical performance during the feasibility studies. The
column and a portion of the I beam are cut by laser machine with high numerical feasibility study performed in a master thesis [101] with
precision, properly accounting for tolerances on the nominal sizes of the collaboration of FINCON Consulting Italia and BLM Group, gave positive
steel profiles. As the process is numerically controlled, this is easily indications on structural performance of the laser-cut passing through
achieved by automatic profile scanning of the members to be connection solutions, which formed the basis of the EU-RFCS LASTEICON
connected, hence optimizing cutting length, tolerances, assembly project [1]. Finite element models of two-way and four-way joints were
procedures and weld sizes (Fig. 15). Laser cutting of the LASTEICON developed to investigate their strength and stiffness characteristics, and
test specimens has been performed by ADIGESYS (partner of the the stress distribution in the joints. Five joint types have been investigated
research project), using two different laser systems. The choice of the representing pinned, partial strength, and full-strength joints. Finite
laser system was driven by the dimension of the tubes and beams. The element simulations include both material and geometrical non-linearity
CHS profiles were machined by an LT24 machine equipped with a CO2 (Main beams: IPE300, secondary beams: IPE180, columns: CHS355x8,
laser source Rofin DC045. HEB120 beams were machined by LT14 fibre steel grade: S275). The two-way partial strength connection consists in the
laser machine, equipped with solid-state laser source IPG YLS 3000. IPE300 beam passing through the column, as shown schematically in the
Cutting power ranged between 2500 W and 3500 W depending on the cut view of Fig. 16a. The results in terms of normal stresses are shown in
profile diameter and thickness. Thicknesses and diameters are ranged the contour plot shown in Fig. 16b. Development of the stress fields on the
respectively between 8.8 mm and 17.5 mm, 355.6 mm–508 mm. beam portion inside the column highlights that there is an effective
Detailed information can be found in [76]. transmission of bending moments from one side to the other.
1037
I) LOAD II) MEASURE III) CUT IV) MARK
Real profile
dimensions +
tolerance
FINAL ASSEMBLY
Fig. 14. Integrated joint fabrication with Laser Cutting Technology (LCT).
During cutting After cutting
Shop tolerance study
Fig. 15. Laser cutting of steel.
In Fig. 17, stress distributions in a four-way joint is shown under a joint improved significantly by this solution, minimizing the most common
rotation of 60 mrad. Buckling of the beam's lower flange was observed, failure modes related to chord faces and local buckling.
due to the development of high compressive stresses. Yet, the column face Fig. 18.a shows the strength classification of the proposed joints according
does not suffer high stress concentrations. There is no failure due to local to EN1993-1-8, where the limits for full-strength and pinned joints depend on
buckling of the column walls. One may notice that the stresses and de- the plastic moments of the connecting beams and columns. It can be seen that
formation of the column are relatively small despite the proximity of the the partial or full-strength joints are able to transmit bending moments effi-
connecting beams and the multi-planar nature of the joint. ciently. Fig. 18b shows the stiffness of all models calculated with a dis-
Such a behaviour demonstrates how the impact of the code para- placement imposed at the end of the beams of 1.5 m length. It is noticed that
meters for hollow section joints, described in the Section 2, can be four of the joints can be classified as semi-rigid and, one joint as pinned.
1038
a. FE model of two-way joint b. Normal stresses contour (red: positive; blue: negative)
Fig. 16. Von Mises stresses and distribution of plasticity in the 2-way joint.
a. FE model of four-way joint b.Stress distributions in the 4-way joint at 60 mrad rotation
Fig. 17. Stress distribution in the 4-way passing through joint under 60-mrad rotation.
a. Strength Classification b. Stiffness Classification

Fig. 18. Strength and Stiffness Classification of the Joints according to EN1993-1-8.
Fig. 19. Components of a prototype joint.
3.5.2.3. LCT cutting tolerance study. Laser cutting machines can detect machining precision to very elevated standards [19]. Rolling tolerances
the differences between the expected profile and the real profile, and on merchant steel bars are regulated for I beams by EN 10034:1995
this allows calculating the necessary compensations, which bring the [102], which provides the allowable size scatters for each nominal
1039
Fig. 20. Welding possibilities: a) fillet welding, b) partial penetration welding, c) full penetration welding [103].
Fig. 21. Von Mises deformations in the welds (“2C” model) whit pulling force in the vertical plate; the blue parts are undamaged, whereas the black ones reached the
critical deformations [103]. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Fig. 22. Mechanical behavior of the welds obtained by the preliminary numerical analyses for different slot widths in case of pulling (left) and pushing load (right)
[103].
dimension of the profiles (e.g. flange thickness, flange width, depth, oversized with respect to the “actual” size of the I-beam, to facilitate
web thickness, out of square, web off-centre, etc.). Given the precision assembly operation in shop. To which extent the slot should be
of LCT (with a minimum accuracy of 10 µm, depending on the laser oversized with respect to the actual size of the I beam, in order to
beam characteristics and thickness of the cut plate), in order to optimize the cut length and the welding quantity, has been investigated
minimize interferences, it would be necessary to consider possible in the LASTEICON research project and already published [76,103]. For
geometric tolerances with respect to nominal size of commercial steel the tests, the beam specimens were inserted all the way and through the
profiles, while minimizing the cut length (and hole size), and other side of the columns slots. For four-way joints, a passing through
optimizing the welding quantity used during the steel joint assembly. plate is implemented (Fig. 19).
Tolerance issue can be dealt in two ways. The “slot” can be “sized” on
the “actual geometry” of the I-beam profile by “measuring” the “actual 3.5.2.4. Welding with different LCT cut tolerances and types. The
geometry” of the I-beam to be inserted through the CHS-column fabrication of the LASTEICON joints concludes with the welding of
(manual measurement or laser scanning) or the “slot” can be passing through beams to the CHS column around the slot perimeter. In
1040
a. Welding b. Welded joint c. Ultrasonic test

Fig. 23. Tack welding and preparation.
CHS column
I beam flange
a. Fillet weld b. Full penetration weld

Fig. 24. Fillet and Full penetration welding [76].
a. Two-way shear connections b. Two-way moment resisting connections
c. Four way configurations

Fig. 25. Full scale test configurations.
1041
Table 4
Laser cutting parameters of the test specimens (′ for minute, ′′ for second) .
CHS Thickness Height Passing Passing Passing Type of Part total Laser on Cutting Laser Gas Electricity
diameter (mm) (mm) beam web flange cutting time time speed power consumption consumption
(mm) plates plates (min, sec) (min, sec) (mm/min) (W) (m3) (kWh)
323,9 8,8 2000 IPE240 180x10 – 2D 3′16′′ 1′46′′ 1000 3500 0,11 6,03
323,9 8,8 2000 IPE240 180x8 – 2D 3′15′′ 1′46′′ 1000 3500 0,12 6,72
323,9 8,8 2000 – 200x8 – 2D 5′46′′ 3′55′′ 1450 2300 0,06 3,68
323,9 10 2000 IPE400 180x10 – 2D + 3D 14′12′′ 7′45′′ 900 3500 0,19 11,45
323,9 10 2000 IPE400 180x10 – 2D + 3D 14′10′′ 7′45′′ 900 3500 0,19 11,45
323,9 10 2000 IPE400 275x10 180x20 2D + 3D 23′44′′ 12′03′′ 900 3500 0,3 18,64
323,9 10 2000 IPE400 275x10 180x20 2D + 3D 23′47′′ 12′28′′ 900 3500 0,3 18,64
323,9 10 2000 IPE400 275x10 180x20 2D + 3D 24′13′′ 12′49′′ 900 3500 0,3 18,64
323,9 10 2000 IPE400 180x10 – 2D + 3D 14′12′′ 7′45′′ 900 3500 0,19 11,45
323,9 10 2000 IPE400 275x10 180x20 2D + 3D 23′44′′ 12′03′′ 900 3500 0,3 18,64
323,9 12,5 2000 IPE240 – – 2D 7′33′′ 5′22′′ 1100 3500 0,46 6,31
355,6 8,8 2000 IPE400 180x10 – 2D + 3D 12′45′′ 5′24′′ 1000 3500 0,18 11
355,6 8,8 2000 IPE400 275x10 180x20 2D + 3D 20′20′′ 14′09′′ 1000 3500 0,29 17,9
355,6 8,8 2000 IPE400 275x6 180x15 2D + 3D 19′51′′ 12′34′′ 1000 3500 0,29 17,77
355,6 8,8 2000 IPE400 180x10 – 2D + 3D 12′37′′ 4′34′′ 1000 3500 0,18 11
355,6 8,8 2400 IPE400 – – 2D + 3D 10′52′′ 7′34′′ 1400 2500 0,11 8,13
355,6 8,8 2400 – 320x8 180x10 2D 5′01′′ 2′27′′ 1400 2500 0,04 2,62
355,6 8,8 2400 IPE400 320x8 180x10 2D + 3D 13′02′′ 4′01′′ 1400 2500 0,12 8,66
355,6 10 2400 IPE400 – – 2D 7′50′′ 6′43′′ 1300 2500 0,08 5,62
355,6 10 2400 IPE400 – – 2D + 3D 11′49′′ 6′34′′ 1300 2500 0,11 8,51
355,6 10 2400 – 320x8 180x10 2D + 3D 17′56′′ 2′05′′ 1300 2500 0,12 9,04
355,6 10 2400 – 320x8 180x10 2D 10′51′′ 2′05′′ 1300 2500 0,09 6,02
355,6 10 2400 IPE400 320x10 180x12 2D + 3D 14′1′′ 10′00′′ 1300 2500 0,12 9,09
355,6 12,5 2400 IPE400 – – 2D 9′10′′ 6′49′′ 1100 3500 0,57 8,02
355,6 12,5 2400 IPE400 320x8 180x10 2D 10′46′′ 7′13′′ 1100 3500 0,72 9,36
508 13 2400 IPE400 265x6 – 2D 9′05′′ 8′45′′ 800 3000 0,09 6,57
Fig. 26. Four main steps for the assembly and construction.
this case, fillet and full penetration welds can be applied [104]. Cutting instead the elastic stiffness of the welds is not particularly influenced by
tolerances will influence the time and amount of material necessary to the gap adopted, as shown Fig. 22.
realize the welding between the beams and columns. They can also The joints are prepared for welding with the indications of EN ISO
influence the welding resistance, as well as the mechanical behavior of 9692-1:2013 [105]. To ease the shop-fabrication, a tack weld can be
the connection under static and cyclic loads. Piscini et al. has studied applied before the structural welding (Fig. 23). Three-runs were needed
the influence of the tolerance adopted in the slot sizing by means of for the fillet welds (Fig. 24a). Full penetration welds (Fig. 24b) were
practical tests and numerical analysis [103]. The three configurations applied in a single run in the case of CHS profiles with 8 mm thickness,
shown in Fig. 20 have been investigated with different tolerance values. and in multi-runs in case of CHS profiles with higher wall thicknesses.
The results of this numerical study confirmed that the tolerances Weld quality has been verified by means of the penetrant [106] and
adopted in the laser cutting process influenced the mechanical behavior ultrasonic [107,108] tests to detect discontinuities, and to qualify the
of the fillet welds between beam flanges and column wall and may welded joint type. Details of these test results can be found in [76].
influence the mechanical behavior of the proposed innovative connec-
tion in case of horizontal loads on a MRF structure. An example of the
3.5.2.5. Full scale tests of laser-cut joints. Full scale tests are performed
damage occurred in the welds is reported in Fig. 21. All the analyses
within the LASTEICON project (summarized in Fig. 25), by changing
highlighted that under both pulling and pushing force in the vertical
the joint configuration (two-way, four-way, joint with and without
plate, the strength of the welds are influenced by the width of the slot,
composite slab and composite column), type of loading (Monotonic,
1042
Fig. 27. Web plate inserted through CHS column – option 1.
Fig. 28. Phases of assembly – option 1.
Fig. 29. Web plate inserted through CHS column – option 2.
cyclic loading), column thickness and diameter, plate thickness, parameters were recorded, and shown in Table 4. This table presents
welding type (fillet, full penetration), axial loading on the column. the time and energy spent for each cutting case, depending on several
The results are compared with the ones from a directly welded LCT parameters. As cutting geometry becomes more complex, the time
conventional joint solution. For all the test specimens, laser cutting and energy spent during the operation increase. However, even for the
1043
Fig. 30. Phases of assembly – option 2.
a. Laser-cut pieces
b. Joint assemblies
Fig. 31. Truss joint prototypes.
most complex cases (such as the CHS323.9x10, 3D- cut with I-shape alternative, as shown in Fig. 27 (details A and B) is to insert the web
plate-shape slots), they are much less, when compared with traditional plate with an eccentricity with respect to the CHS column axis, in such a
cutting methods. way that the beam longitudinal axis is aligned with the column axis.
In any case, these unavoidable eccentricities are small, typical of fin
plate connections very frequent in steel construction practice, and
3.5.2.6. Fabrication in shop and transport to the site. Fabrication of laser- generally negligible. If the designer chooses to keep the eccentricity of
cut LASTEICON joints is entirely made in shop, and then the sub- the web (fin) plates always on the same side with respect to the CHS
assemblies are shipped to the construction site for final assembly. The column axis (as shown in Fig. 7) the phases of the field assembly of the
whole process consists in four steps as shown in Fig. 26. Laser cutting beams to the column will be those shown in Fig. 28.
machines can handle elements long until 14 m. For logistics efficiency, In order to minimize the global bending effects of such small (and in
columns of 11–12 m length are prepared with assembled joints, and general disregardable) eccentricities on the global behaviour of the col-
shipped to the site. umns, one might consider the opportunity to alternate the position of the
This procedure leaves the designer a few alternatives when de- web plates from one floor to another and/or, eventually, from one
signing the geometry of the joint. If the web plate is inserted through column to another as shown in Fig. 29. In this latter case, assembly of the
the CHS column aligned with the column axis, the beam would be beams to the columns, on site, should be carried out as shown in Fig. 30.
“eccentric” with respect to the column axis itself. Otherwise, the
1044
a. Truss assemblies
b. Truss joint details

Fig. 32. Truss joint prototypes.
a. Laser-cut pieces b. Cut details

Fig. 33. Truss test specimens.
In the case of C4, the flange plates will always be aligned with the combinations of plate thickness, weld size, fabrication tolerance,
beam flanges, and the eccentricity of their longitudinal axis with re- connection geometry). Some prototypes are shown in Figs. 31–33. In
spect to the vertical axis of the columns will depend on the choice of the the case of hollow sections, thanks to the high precision cut obtained by
designer with respect to the beam eccentricity. LCT, it is possible to reduce welding and avoid gusset plates in the
joints.
3.5.2.7. Laser-cut truss solutions. Within the LASTEICON research

project, extendibility of the LCT to other applications are also studied 3.5.2.8. Fire performance of laser-cut passing through joint solutions. Such
making reference to the truss girder joints, where there is a coarse joint configurations, having a reduced steel surface exposed to the fire
control of eccentricities and use of excessive welding and/or stiffeners. (due to the lack of stiffeners and/or additional gusset plates), will have
Indeed, LCT offers an extra advantage for truss girder applications, by a different behaviour than traditional joint configurations, in terms of
eliminating all gusset plates, and by reducing the joint eccentricities. fire resistance. For this reason, within LASTEICON project, the fire
Alternative detailing was considered for each type in the project (e.g. performance of the proposed joint solutions is being investigated under
1045
standard fire exposition, and compared with the one of a traditional Acknowledgements
solution. Especially the concrete filled joints are expected to have a high
fire resistance, which, in case of fire, may help the connected beams in This study has been realized thanks to the research fund received
terms of redistribution of load from the beams (with lower fire from European commission with the contract LASTEICON EU-RFCS
resistance) to the column (with high fire resistance). This effect may 709807 (www.lasteicon.eu). The project consortium is covering Fincon
bring big advantages to the fire design of the beams. Consulting Italia srl, RWTH Aachen, University of Pisa, Hasselt
University, Instituto Superior Tecnico of Lisbon and INSA Rennes,
ADIGESYS, OCAM Srl and VALLOUREC. In particular for this paper,
4. Concluding remarks collaboration of Sergio Raso, Alberto Valli and Marco Brugnolli from
ADIGESYS and Andrea Galazzi and Andrea Mazzanti from OCAM srl in
Circular hollow sections (CHS) have outstanding structural proper- sharing the information and relevant pictures is deeply appreciated.
ties with high compression, tension and bending resistance in all di-
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Engineering Structures 183 (2019) 1027–1048

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

The problematic nature of steel hollow section joint fabrication, and a T

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

E-mail address: [email protected].

aesthetics of the design.

• Chord face failure

a. Under axial loading b. Under bending moment

Fig. 5. Example of chord plasticization failure due to bending (photo of a

n = column prestress ratio i. e .

C: Rotational Stiffness Comité International pour le Développement et ĺ’Etude de la

Fig. 4. Scheme for I-beam-to-CHS column connection calculation [10,11].

a. Interaction between laser beam and material b. Laser cutting process

a. Continuous mode b. Pulsed mode

Table 1 3.1.4. LCT for stainless steel profiles

3.2. Structural integrity of laser-cut steel profiles

a. Computational model of 4-way hollow section joint example

c. 2D cutting scheme d. 3D laser cutting scheme

Maximum thickness carbon steel plate 250 mm 50 mm 250 mm 30 mm

a. IPE500 processing on LT24 machine b. HEB120 processing on LT14 Fiber machine

Profile IPE 500 IPE 500

a. Typical diaphragm joint b. Laser-cut joint prototype c. Laser-cut joint model

I) LOAD II) MEASURE III) CUT IV) MARK

During cutting After cutting

Shop tolerance study

Fig. 15. Laser cutting of steel.

a. Strength Classification b. Stiffness Classification

Fig. 19. Components of a prototype joint.

a. Welding b. Welded joint c. Ultrasonic test

a. Fillet weld b. Full penetration weld

a. Two-way shear connections b. Two-way moment resisting connections

c. Four way configurations

Fig. 27. Web plate inserted through CHS column – option 1.

Fig. 28. Phases of assembly – option 1.

Fig. 29. Web plate inserted through CHS column – option 2.

Fig. 30. Phases of assembly – option 2.

b. Truss joint details

a. Laser-cut pieces b. Cut details

3.5.2.7. Laser-cut truss solutions. Within the LASTEICON research

• Decreased heat-affected zones. [22] EU-RFCS. https://ec.europa.eu/info/research-and-innovation/funding/funding-

• High cut precision and quality.

doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2013.05.024. formulation of outer-brace geometric stress concentration factors in internally

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