Geopolitics and Strategic Management in The Global Economy - (2018)

Geopolitics and Strategic
Management in the Global

Economy
Angelo Presenza
University of Molise, Italy
Lorn R. Sheehan
Dalhousie University, Canada
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and Competitive Advantage (ABSCA) Book Series
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Presenza, Angelo, 1975- editor. | Sheehan, Lorn R., 1964- editor.
Title: Geopolitics and strategic management in the global economy / Angelo
Presenza and Lorn R. Sheehan, editors.
Description: Hershey, PA : Business Science Reference, [2018] | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017008229| ISBN 9781522526735 (hardcover) | ISBN
9781522526742 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Strategic planning. | International business
enterprises--Management.
Classification: LCC HD30.28 .G45 2018 | DDC 658.4/012--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017008229
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Editorial Advisory Board
Tindara Abbate, University of Messina, Italy
Jim Dewald, University of Calgary, Canada
Bill Foster, Dalhousie University, Canada
Tina Harrison, University of Edinburgh, UK
Simon Hudson, University of South Carolina, USA
Shannon Lin, Dalhousie University, Canada
Antonio Minguzzi, University of Molise, Italy
Sergio Moreno, Universitad de Las Palmas de Gran Canarie, Spain
Riccardo Palumbo, University “G. D’Annunzio” of Chieti-Pescara, Italy
Sujit Sur, Carlton University, Canada
Alfonso Vargas-Sánchez, Huelva University, Spain

Table of Contents
Foreword.............................................................................................................................................. xvi
Preface................................................................................................................................................xviii
Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................ xxv
Chapter 1
Regionalism and the Multilateral Trading System: The Role of Regional Trade Agreements............... 1
James P. Murphy, Dalhousie University, Canada
Carolan McLarney, Dalhousie University, Canada
Chapter 2
What Makes a Global Business Model?................................................................................................ 19
Oleksiy Osiyevskyy, University of Calgary, Canada & Northeastern University, USA
Milena Troshkova, Northeastern University, USA
Yongjian Bao, University of Lethbridge, Canada
Chapter 3
Critical Success Factors for Executives in Global Economy................................................................. 40
Neeta Baporikar, Namibia University of Science and Technology, Namibia & University of
Pune, India
Chapter 4
Strategic Planning, Cultural Context, and Business Continuity Management: Business Cases in
the City of Shkoder................................................................................................................................ 57
Mirko Perano, Reald University of Vlore (ASAR), Albania
Xhimi Hysa, Epoka University, Albania
Mario Calabrese, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
Chapter 5
A Proposition of Strategy Making in Global Firms: Reflections from Strategy as
Practice (S-As-P).................................................................................................................................... 78
Fatma Gülruh Gürbüz, Marmara University, Turkey
Hande Sinem Ergun, Marmara University, Turkey
Seray Begum Samur-Teraman, Marmara University, Turkey

Chapter 6
Efficacy of Organizational Learning and Social Capital in Online Communities of Practice:
Dualities and Intersections..................................................................................................................... 96
Serkan Gürsoy, Beykoz University, Turkey
Murat Yücelen, Yeditepe University, Turkey
Chapter 7
Social Innovation in the For-Profit Organization: The Case of Banca Prossima................................. 123
Angelo Presenza, University of Molise, Italy
Lorn Sheehan, Dalhousie University, Canada
Chapter 8
Managing Business Ethics in a Global Environment: The Impact of Cultural Diversities................. 137
Rossella Canestrino, Parthenope University of Naples, Italy
Pierpaolo Magliocca, University of Foggia, Italy
Chapter 9
Project and Risk Management in a Global Context: The Importance of Cultural Risk...................... 170
Bice Della Piana, University of Salerno, Italy
Gian Luca Casali, Queensland University of Technology, Australia
Chapter 10
Water-Related Price Risks: Implications for Company Competitiveness............................................ 194
Ninel Ivanova Nesheva-Kiosseva, New Bulgarian University, Bulgaria
Chapter 11
National Income Inequality, Society, and Multinational Enterprises.................................................. 219
Nathaniel C. Lupton, University of Lethbridge, Canada
Guoliang Frank Jiang, Carleton University, Canada
Luis F. Escobar, University of Lethbridge, Canada
Chapter 12
Low vs. High Income Entrepreneurial Households: Heterogeneous Response to Common
Institution Environment in Developing Countries............................................................................... 242
Stelvia Matos, University of Nottingham, UK
Jeremy Hall, University of Nottingham, UK
Vernon Bachor, Winona State University, USA
Bruno S. Silvestre, University of Manitoba, Canada

Chapter 13
Determining Influencing Factors of Currency Exchange Rate for Decision Making in Global
Economy Using MARS Method.......................................................................................................... 261
Hasan Dinçer, Istanbul Medipol University, Turkey
Ümit Hacıoğlu, Istanbul Medipol University, Turkey
Serhat Yüksel, Istanbul Medipol University, Turkey
Chapter 14
Economic Partnership Agreement Mexico-Japan and Its Impact on Foreign Direct Investment: A
Strategic Analysis................................................................................................................................ 274
José G. Vargas-Hernández, University of Guadalajara, Mexico
Chapter 15
A Profile of Foreign Nationals in a Globalising Second-Tier City, Suzhou, China............................. 295
Hyung Min Kim, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Chapter 16
Cooperation and Competition Among Regions: The Umbrella Brand as a Tool for Tourism
Competitiveness................................................................................................................................... 315
Arminda Almeida Santana, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
Sergio Moreno Gil, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 337
About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 390
Index.................................................................................................................................................... 398
Detailed Table of Contents
Foreword.............................................................................................................................................. xvi
Preface................................................................................................................................................xviii
Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................ xxv
Chapter 1
Regionalism and the Multilateral Trading System: The Role of Regional Trade Agreements............... 1
James P. Murphy, Dalhousie University, Canada
Carolan McLarney, Dalhousie University, Canada
Regionalism and the Multilateral Trading System: The Role of Regional Trade Agreements is a discussion
about the new reality and the evolution of the reduction of international barriers to freer trade under the
World Trade Organization (WTO) formerly the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT). The
chapter devotes time to the two largest regional trade agreements (RTAs), the European Union (EU)
with 28 countries and North American Trading Agreement (NAFTA) with three countries account for
half of all world trade. The US set a course post World War II as the proponent of globalization and
freer trade. RTAs at that time were failing or inconsequential. In response to the EU trading block, the
US committed to a (Free Trade Area) FTA with Canada and subsequently the NAFTA with Canada and
Mexico the rest of the world began to become concerned about being shut out of a preferential trade
deal. The main theme of the chapter is that trade liberalization is moving forward because of Regional
Trading agreements, not the WTO which is stalled and may never restart in its current form.
Chapter 2
What Makes a Global Business Model?................................................................................................ 19
Oleksiy Osiyevskyy, University of Calgary, Canada & Northeastern University, USA
Milena Troshkova, Northeastern University, USA
Yongjian Bao, University of Lethbridge, Canada
A firm’s business model is an essential mechanism determining how an organization creates value for
its stakeholders and captures part of the created value as profit for its owners. Global enterprises secure
their market positions through properly functioning business models that are globally scalable. Once a
globally scalable business model is successfully designed and validated in one location, it becomes a
non-location-bound firm-specific advantage, promoting the firm’s international expansion. This chapter
addresses the following research questions: (1) What is the role of a business model in the success of
global enterprises? (2) Which common attributes do business models of successful global companies

possess? and (3) How to make a business model more suitable for global expansion? The theoretical
analysis of these questions yields a conceptual framework for examining the global companies through
the business model lens. The developed conceptual framework is illustrated and corroborated with the
mini-cases of global companies.
Chapter 3
Critical Success Factors for Executives in Global Economy................................................................. 40
Neeta Baporikar, Namibia University of Science and Technology, Namibia & University of
Pune, India
With the convergence of information, communication and technology and global collaboration drives
in modern management, it becomes imperative and crucial to understand the critical success factors
(CSFs) for executives. In this globalized scenario, the internet has a dramatic impact on every kind of
organization. It forms completely new challenges on the one hand but on the other hand it offers entirely
new facilities. Additionally, spatiotemporal borders disappear. Totally new business models are being
developed and companies have discovered completely new strategies to gain competitive advantage in
this information age. Further, the advancements in society and technology, coupled with accelerations
in globalization, competitive environments and changing customer’s preferences have created new
challenges as well as opportunities for executives. There is need to leverage on this vicissitude. To do so,
it is essential to identify and understand the critical success factors (CSFs) fundamental to the success
of executives and that is the core objective of this chapter.
Chapter 4
Strategic Planning, Cultural Context, and Business Continuity Management: Business Cases in
the City of Shkoder................................................................................................................................ 57
Xhimi Hysa, Epoka University, Albania
Mario Calabrese, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
This study is focused on the role, importance and practice of Business Continuity Management (BCM)
in relation with Strategic Planning (SP) and Cultural Context (CC) by offering a holistic framework for
short-term and long-term strategic business analysis. The purpose is to create a unique structured plan
for understanding the organizational failure willingness and to create a culture of readiness, feedback
and risk management. The methodology used is quantitative with questionnaire for collection data. The
study sample includes 50 organizations from four different sectors: banking, services, industrial and
insurance in Shkoder (Albania). The research findings show a positive correlation between SP and BCM
(0.54%), with a significant positive impact of SP on BCM. A positive correlation is founded between SP
and CC (0.588%). The study suggests that placing the BCM in the Corporate Culture may be entitled
as another manner of integrating BCM and SP in one structure. Between culture and strategy there is a
huge number of characteristics and similarities they have in common with each other.

Chapter 5
A Proposition of Strategy Making in Global Firms: Reflections from Strategy as
Practice (S-As-P).................................................................................................................................... 78
Fatma Gülruh Gürbüz, Marmara University, Turkey
Hande Sinem Ergun, Marmara University, Turkey
Seray Begum Samur-Teraman, Marmara University, Turkey
Strategy as Practice (hereafter S-As-P) is referred as a research topic concerning with the doing of
strategy; who does it, what they do, how they do it, what they use and what implications this has for
shaping strategy. The developing field has taken the concern of “humanize management” seriously by
bringing human actors to the center of the strategy. This study aims to furnish insights into the S-as-P
approach. In this sense, it considers extended mainstream strategy research and focuses on light practices
that have largely passed and unnoticed. Furthermore, its reflections on businesses operating in global
economy are discussed.
Chapter 6
Efficacy of Organizational Learning and Social Capital in Online Communities of Practice:
Dualities and Intersections..................................................................................................................... 96
Serkan Gürsoy, Beykoz University, Turkey
Murat Yücelen, Yeditepe University, Turkey
This chapter deals with the evolution of communities of practice by considering two key components
which facilitate knowledge sharing: Organizational Learning and Social Capital. Dualities and intersections
between the building blocks of these two components are investigated by discussing organizational
learning in its explorative and exploitative forms, while considering social capital in its bridging and
bonding forms. As a critical contemporary step of evolution, information and communication technologies
are also elaborated in order to examine the impact of constant and instant tools on these facilitators
of knowledge sharing. The study aims to derive proxies among these components of organizational
learning and social capital in order to design an integrated framework that reflects the nature of online
communities of practice.
Chapter 7
Social Innovation in the For-Profit Organization: The Case of Banca Prossima................................. 123
Angelo Presenza, University of Molise, Italy
Lorn Sheehan, Dalhousie University, Canada
Social entrepreneurship and social innovation are attracting increasing attention from policy makers,
practitioners, as well as academics. They represent different ways of thinking and addressing social
issues often overlooked by public/private organizations and also provide a viable means of responding
to multiple social, economic and environmental crises. With this in mind, this chapter leads to a better
understanding of social entrepreneurship and social innovation in the non-profit sector, using one specific
case followed by a more generalized discussion. The case of “Banca Prossima” illustrates engagement in
social problems and trying to find and apply new solutions that simultaneously meet a social need while
also leading to new or improved capabilities and relationships and a better use of assets and resources.

Chapter 8
Managing Business Ethics in a Global Environment: The Impact of Cultural Diversities................. 137
Rossella Canestrino, Parthenope University of Naples, Italy
Pierpaolo Magliocca, University of Foggia, Italy
The aim of this chapter is to explore the how international players, acting at global level, may overcome a
“moral gap” when it arises. In doing this, the linkage between culture and Business Ethics was examined
in order to highlight the way values and believes differently affect a) the assumption about what is right
or wrong, b) the individual/organizational moral reasoning, and c) the consistency between individual/
organizational behaviour and the moral standards that prevail in a given context. Relevant issues were
investigated referring to all the levels – individual, corporate and systemic – within which a “moral gap”
may arise. Accordingly, “Bridging” diversities was identified as a good solution to solve a “moral gap”
at all the mentioned levels. Cross-cultural sensitivity and cross-cultural negotiation were finally claimed
as necessary to look for a trade-off between universal norms and local particularism, as well as to finally
identify new common standards respectful of the opposite positions.
Chapter 9
Project and Risk Management in a Global Context: The Importance of Cultural Risk...................... 170
Bice Della Piana, University of Salerno, Italy
Gian Luca Casali, Queensland University of Technology, Australia
Project management is one of the possible ways to improve the organizational reputation and create value.
The control achievable on each project’ constrains (time, cost and quality) and the actions consequent
by assessment process can represent in theory a guarantee for the success of a project. In practical, there
are many risks capable of upsetting the project dynamics leading to failures. Risk management, or the
specific area of knowledge of Project Risk Management, are useful to prevent this possible occurrence.
The global dimension of organizations’ networks that use PM, moves this quality to the project that this
organizations do. A definition of global project is provided as well as also the consequent considerations
about the cross-cultural aspect within the peoples involved in this type of project. It is framed and proposed
a new category of risk related to management of global project: cultural risk analysis.
Chapter 10
Water-Related Price Risks: Implications for Company Competitiveness............................................ 194
Ninel Ivanova Nesheva-Kiosseva, New Bulgarian University, Bulgaria
This chapter presents the issue of the risks associated with the increase of the price (tariffs) of water,
which are, and promise to be, a growing challenge for the sustainable management of the companies.
At the beginning of the chapter the term risk is operationalized and water-related risks are classified.
The reasons and their specific characteristics for the raising of water prices and the objective risks they
create for the companies have been identified in the main part of the chapter. This part informs the
company management about the possible causes of unjustified increase in the price of the water used in
their activities. Several informational and analytical solutions and guidelines for the management have
been marked in the end. These can prove useful in preventing and reducing the abovementioned risks
and in aiding the sustainable management of the companies.

Chapter 11
National Income Inequality, Society, and Multinational Enterprises.................................................. 219
Nathaniel C. Lupton, University of Lethbridge, Canada
Guoliang Frank Jiang, Carleton University, Canada
Luis F. Escobar, University of Lethbridge, Canada
This chapter calls for understanding the perspective of multinational enterprises (MNEs) on international
differences in income inequality. The authors set a research agenda on how national differences in income
inequality influence MNE expansion strategies. Applying a transaction cost framework, both negative
and positive economic outcomes of income inequality, from the MNE’s perspective, are identified. Low
levels of income inequality may deter foreign investment, as MNEs prefer countries where they incur
lower levels of transaction costs arising from interactions with various market and non-market actors.
However, the positive effect of income inequality on location attractiveness will likely diminish at higher
levels of inequality when benefits are increasingly offset by additional monitoring, bargaining and security
costs owing to instability and conflict. The chapter further explores the implications for level of MNE
equity applied in the choice of entry mode under different levels of income inequality.
Chapter 12
Low vs. High Income Entrepreneurial Households: Heterogeneous Response to Common
Institution Environment in Developing Countries............................................................................... 242
Stelvia Matos, University of Nottingham, UK
Jeremy Hall, University of Nottingham, UK
Vernon Bachor, Winona State University, USA
Bruno S. Silvestre, University of Manitoba, Canada
We explore how income differences influence heterogeneous entrepreneurial responses to the institutional
environment in Brazil shapes low-income entrepreneurs’ propensity to exploit the informal rather than the
formal economy. Drawing on the Brazilian Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) data, entrepreneurship
discourse and institutional theory, we discuss the influence of inadequate preparedness and barriers to
institutional support influencing entrepreneurs’ abilities to engage in productive economic activities. We
contribute to the entrepreneurship discourse by suggesting that concepts developed within the context
of relatively prosperous settings do not adequately reflect how low-income entrepreneurs respond to
institutional settings.
Chapter 13
Determining Influencing Factors of Currency Exchange Rate for Decision Making in Global
Economy Using MARS Method.......................................................................................................... 261
Hasan Dinçer, Istanbul Medipol University, Turkey
Ümit Hacıoğlu, Istanbul Medipol University, Turkey
Serhat Yüksel, Istanbul Medipol University, Turkey
The aim of this study is to identify the determinants of US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate
for strategic decision making in the global economy. Within this scope, quarterly data for the period
between 1988:1 and 2016:2 was used in this study. In addition to this aspect, 10 explanatory variables
were considered in order to determine the leading indicators of US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange
rate. Moreover, Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines (MARS) method was used so as to achieve this
objective. According to the results of this analysis, it was defined that two different variables affect this

exchange rate in Turkey. First of all, it was identified that there is a negative relationship between current
account balance and the value of US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate. This result shows that
in case of current account deficit problem, Turkish Lira experiences depreciation. Furthermore, it was
also concluded that when there is an economic growth in Turkey, Turkish Lira increases in comparison
with US Dollar. While taking into the consideration of these results, it could be generalized that emerging
economies such as Turkey have to decrease current account deficit and investors should focus on higher
economic growth in order to prevent the depreciation of the money in the strategic investment decision.
Chapter 14
Economic Partnership Agreement Mexico-Japan and Its Impact on Foreign Direct Investment: A
Strategic Analysis................................................................................................................................ 274
José G. Vargas-Hernández, University of Guadalajara, Mexico
This chapter is intended to analyze the advantages to associate with a developing country like México
from the perspective of the theories of the Agency, Institutional, Resource-based Theory and the Theory
of Transaction Costs. Generally, FDI contributes to capital formation, expansion and diversification of
exports, increasing competition, provide access to top technology and improving management systems.
Mexico is of the largest FDI recipients within the developing countries. Japan, on the other hand, is one
of the largest sources of FDI worldwide, and is gaining a larger share in the Mexican FDI context since
the onset of the Economic Partnership Agreement. In this paper, factors that might lead to the depletion of
productive spillovers from Japanese manufacturing companies are reviewed from a qualitative perspective.
The analysis suggests that inefficiencies in endogenous companies; and Japanese companies being part
of firm networks (keiretsu), might lead to productive spillovers depletion.
Chapter 15
A Profile of Foreign Nationals in a Globalising Second-Tier City, Suzhou, China............................. 295
Hyung Min Kim, The University of Melbourne, Australia
The recent development of Chinese cities has witnessed an increasing number of foreign nationals working
in China. Foreign nationals tied up with MNEs are one of the powerful drivers for urban transformation in
the post-reform era. However, little attention has been paid to their socio-economics characteristics. This
chapter, therefore, is to analyse characteristics of foreign nationals in socio-economic, demographic and
spatial aspects. This chapter focuses on a globalising Chinese second tier-city, Suzhou as a case study.

Chapter 16
Cooperation and Competition Among Regions: The Umbrella Brand as a Tool for Tourism
Competitiveness................................................................................................................................... 315
Arminda Almeida Santana, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
Sergio Moreno Gil, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
Many brands exist within the tourism industry. Territorial brands exist at local, regional, national,
and supranational level where they overlap and are interrelated. Therefore, it is necessary that tourist
destinations develop and manage their brands to obtain a strong differentiated position in the competitive
market. This study analyzed relationships between destinations in the new global scenario. It aimed to
improve brand architecture and increase tourist loyalty. A comprehensive analysis considering 6,964
tourists from 17 countries was applied. The study offered recommendations to destinations in order to
expand the design of marketing activities, improve coopetition strategies, and advance competitiveness.
The results confirmed that the destinations must adapt their promotional strategies to the new global
landscape of interconnected business. In addition, they need to develop strategies for horizontal loyalty
between destinations.
Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 337
About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 390
Index.................................................................................................................................................... 398
xvi
Foreword
Strategic Management is a discipline that evolved from a world of business where managers felt that
doing things right was not enough: it became also necessary to do the right things. In fact, Strategic
Management has been defined as a discipline oriented to help managers to do the right things, which
goes beyond the operations of management, which is limited to do things right. Business survival and
success require both: doing the right things right. Moreover, the two components need to be pursued
in sequential manner. We must first observe whether what we have decided to do is the right thing (for
example, launching a new product focused on a certain segment of the international market); and then
carry it out rightly (efficiently, with the desired quality level, etc.). Strategy, thus, affects both the overall
well-being of the organization and society.
Although constantly evolving, strategy and the strategic management process were originally con-
ceived as tasks of the top/general managers, identifying the content of the strategy with an explanation
the company’s success (the ‘flamboyant’ discipline of business success). Sometimes such reasons were
found in external factors -the competitive structure of the industry- and in other occasions in internal
factors -the core resources and capacities of the organization. Hence, over time and depending on the
circumstances, strategy has placed its emphasis on one or another type of factors, which might aptly be
likened to the swing of a pendulum. This also alludes to its evolution as a scientific discipline, through
the succession of theoretical approaches intending to shed some more light on how strategies are for-
mulated and put into practice, as well as on their outcomes.
Strategy has brought to management science a conceptual tool to facilitate the alignment or fit between
the company and its environment. Increasingly the environment evidences higher levels of volatility,
uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity. A very significant part of that environment is the shift from
national or regional economies, to one global or world economy.
Consequently, we now live in a truly global, digital and hyper-connected world, driven substantially
by technological developments, which, as an ongoing process, is having an enormous impact on busi-
ness strategies. Today we can easily recognize companies that are born global, and Internationalization
strategies (in its diverse typologies) are pursued not by big multinationals only, but more and more
often by small and medium enterprises as well. New business models are replacing others misfit to this
new economy. Technology revolution (rather than evolution) is causing severe impacts because of the
tremendous progress in artificial intelligence, automation, and the like.
Meanwhile, within this framework shaped by an apparently unstoppable trend, a new scenario has
emerged as a result of geopolitical uncertainties caused by growing controversial reactions against
globalization in some parts of the world. The actions of nationalist (named as populists by some) politi-
cal parties and governments have created tensions caused by restrictions to immigration, protectionist

Foreword
trade policies, the outright rejection of the status of free trade areas, and currency wars. Both the UK’s
withdrawal from the European Union (Brexit) and Donald Trump’s election to the Presidency of the
United States are obvious recent examples of this trend. This is a call for organizations to rethink the
current system and status quo. We are at the precipice of a new era, in which the old mould is being
demolished and the new one is still unknown. All the while, not knowing whether it is for the better or
for worse for our world.
For all these reasons, a collective book like this edited by Angela Presenza and Lorn Sheehan is
absolutely necessary, as is other work under the same core topic. “Geopolitics and Strategic Manage-
ment in the Global Economy” is a wide and fascinating theme that no single book can tackle given all
its perspectives, dimensions and nuances. In addition, the timing for its launch is ideal, given its present
relevance.
This book provides valuable insight to a cadre of areas related to Global Strategic Management, with
their corresponding challenges and opportunities, such as: cross-cultural issues, business ethics, strategy
as a practice in global environments, the trade-off between cooperation and competition, strategic partner-
ships, learning organizations and the knowledge sharing process driven by ICTs, social entrepreneurship
and innovation, global business models, key success factors for executives in the global economy, regional
free trade agreements, etc. Its approach is diverse and versatile: in some occasions the focus is on cities,
in others on regions or countries, and, of course, in companies and other organizations.
Obviously, its contents don’t exhaust the theme, but they make a valuable contribution for those
interested in gaining a better understanding of the changing nature of strategic management against the
backdrop of the current economy and its intimate connection to rapidly evolving geopolitical forces.
Hopefully this foreword serves as a kind invitation to dive into its reading, with the spirit of a strategist,
ready to think through and live out new approaches to strategy.
Alfonso Vargas-Sánchez
University of Huelva, Spain
xvii
xviii
Preface
The world has evolved and as result the concept of globalization remains a focus of investigation by
scholars and practitioners across disciplines and industries. Almost every country’s economy is either
dependent on or heavily influenced by global markets, factors of production and technology, especially
those categorized as “Emerging Economies”. It is within this framework that global managers face sig-
nificant and highly dynamic geopolitical issues. These challenges encompass geopolitical and economic
risks, foreign country expansion, foreign currency wars, country of origin and brand recognition as a
result of frauds and falsification, data breach, etc. In addition, forces of change in the political, economic,
social, technological, legal, and environmental realms significantly affect the global business landscape.
There is a need for the global manager to stay informed and constantly vigilant of the threatening and
potentially catastrophic events that may negatively affect global operations. As a result, scholars engage
in conducting research with the aim of understanding and mediating the potentially negative impact
caused by the ever-changing external environment. In turn, managers can apply the findings to their
operations to improve productivity, profits, and return on investment. Successful managers can identify
trends that lead to opportunities or threats, direct resources innovation, enhance employee motivation
and productivity, and reduce employee turnover, all of which have a direct effect on the sustainable
profitability and longevity of the firm.
The purpose of this book is to contribute to the body of knowledge and research on global strategic
management. It takes a global view of the challenges and opportunities organizations face in the global
market place. The topics cover several industries as well as several countries. The contributing authors
have addressed issues such as: multinational enterprises strategies, global risk management and resilience,
global ethics in the digital world, critical success factors and strategy making, global entrepreneurship,
social entrepreneurship, comparative management, issues in globalization, centralization, and decen-
tralization of firms.
In sum, the book on Geopolitics and Strategic Management in the Global Economy is for a wide
audience including scholars in higher education, graduate students, managers across industries, consul-
tants, and government agencies.
ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK
The book is divided into 16 chapters which are designed as standalone readings. However, they are
presented in an order that takes the reader from the broad to the specific. In this regard, the book begins
with chapters that frame the topic with an understanding of how global trade has evolved, how organiza-

Preface
tions have responded with global business models as well as strategy-making in a global context, and
the types of success factors required by leaders of these organizations.
From there, several topics germane to understanding the socio-cultural dimensions of strategic man-
agement in a global context are introduced, including social capital, social innovation, cultural diversity,
cross-cultural risks, and cultural context. The remainder of the book chapters delve into specific issues
ranging from the effect of income inequality on MNE location choice to the impact of specific country
trade relationships – all of which have geopolitical implications for strategic management. The following
is a brief summary of each chapter.
Chapter 1: Regionalism and the Multilateral Trading

System – The Role of Regional Trade Agreements
This chapter discusses the new reality and the evolution of the reduction of international barriers to freer
trade under the World Trade Organization (WTO). With the 2008 collapse of Doha, the latest round of
the WTO trade negotiations, some question whether or not the WTO will ever be as relevant to trade
liberalization. More recent trade liberalization has largely moved forward because of regional trade agree-
ments (RTAs). The two largest RTAs, the European Union (EU), and North American Trading Agree-
ment (NAFTA) along with three countries accounted for half of all world trade in 2013. However, even
the future of RTAs is uncertain given recent developments such as the UK’s exit from the EU (Brexit)
and a new United States president taking office in 2017.
Chapter 2: What Makes a Global Business Model?
A firm’s business model is an essential mechanism determining how an organization creates value
for its stakeholders and captures part of the value as profit for its owners. Global enterprises secure
their market positions through properly functioning business models that are globally scalable. Once a
globally scalable business model is successfully designed and validated in one location, it becomes a
addresses the following research questions: (1) what is the role of a business model in the success of
global enterprises? (2) which common attributes do business models of successful global companies
possess? and (3) how can a business model be made more suitable for global expansion? The theoretical
analysis of these questions yields a conceptual framework for examining global companies through the
business model lens. The developed conceptual framework is illustrated and corroborated with several
Chapter 3: Critical Success Factors for Executives in the Global Economy
The global economy has been fueled by a convergence of information, communication and technology
and collaboration as organizations search for lower costs, differentiation, and new markets. The new
challenges and opportunities created by the internet have had a dramatic impact on every kind of organi-
zation. As a result, spatiotemporal borders are disappearing, new business models are being developed,
and companies have discovered completely new strategies to gain competitive advantage. The resulting
societal and technological changes, coupled with accelerating globalization, competitive environments
xix
Preface
and changing customer’s preferences require responses from executives. This chapter identifies and
explains the critical success factors fundamental to the success of executives in the global economy.
Chapter 4: Strategic Planning, Cultural Context, and Business

Continuity Management – Business Cases in the City of Shkoder
Crises, risk, and destruction all threaten the survival of organizations. This chapter examines the role,
importance and practice of business continuity management in relation to strategic planning and cultural
context and offers a holistic framework for short-term and long-term strategic business analysis. The
purpose is to create a unique plan for understanding the antecedents to organizational failure and to cre-
ate a culture of readiness, feedback, and risk management. The findings, based on a quantitative study
of 50 organizations from four different sectors, suggest that embedding business continuity management
in the corporate culture may be seen as another way of integrating business continuity management and
strategic planning.
Chapter 5: A Proposition of Strategy Making in Global

Firms – Reflections From Strategy as Practice
This chapter provides insights into the Strategy-as-Practice approach. In this sense, it considers the extant
mainstream strategy research and focuses on practices that have largely gone unnoticed yet are highly
relevant to operating in the global economy. Consistent with an approach to strategy that “humanizes
management”, they advocate bringing human actors to the center of the strategy to pose questions around
the doing of strategy – Who does it? What do they do? How do they do it? What do they use? And what
are the implications for shaping strategy?
Chapter 6: Efficacy of Organizational Learning and Social Capital in

Online Communities of Practice – Dualities and Intersections
which facilitate knowledge sharing: organizational learning and social capital. Dualities and intersec-
tions between the building blocks of these two components are investigated by discussing organizational
bonding forms. As a critical contemporary step of evolution, information and communication technolo-
gies are also elaborated in order to examine the impact of constant and instant tools on these facilitators
of knowledge sharing. The chapter outlines proxies among these components of organizational learning
and social capital in order to design an integrated framework that reflects the nature of online communi-
ties of practice.
Chapter 7: Social Innovation in the For-Profit

Organization – The Case of Banca Prossima
practitioners, as well as academics. They represent different ways of thinking and addressing social is-
sues often overlooked by public/private organizations and also provide a viable means of responding
xx
Preface
case followed by a more generalized discussion. The case of “Banca Prossima”, illustrates engagement
in social problems and an attempt to find and apply new solutions that simultaneously meet a social
need and lead to new or improved capabilities and relationships and a better use of assets and resources.
Chapter 8: Managing Business Ethics in a Global

Environment – The Impact of Cultural Diversities
This chapter explores how international players, acting at the global level, may overcome a “moral gap”
when it arises. In doing this, the linkage between culture and business ethics is examined in order to
highlight the way values and beliefs differently affect: a) the assumption about what is right or wrong; b)
the individual/organizational moral reasoning; and c) the consistency between individual/organizational
behaviour and the moral standards in a given context. Relevant issues are investigated at three levels –
individual, corporate and systemic – within which a “moral gap” may arise. Accordingly, “bridging”
diversities are identified as a good solution to solve a “moral gap” at all levels. Cross-cultural sensitivity
and cross-cultural negotiation are seen as necessary to find a trade-off between universal norms and
local particularism, as well as to identify new common standards respectful of the opposite positions.
Chapter 9: Project and Risk Management in a Global

Context – The Importance of Cultural Risk
This chapter describes how project risk management can be used to improve organizational reputation
and create value. The control achievable on each project’s constraints (time, cost and quality) and the
actions that result from assessment processes can, at least in theory, guarantee the success of a project.
However, in practice, there are many risks capable of upsetting the project dynamics which ultimately
lead to failure. Risk management, or more specifically, the knowledge of project risk management, is
useful to prevent this possible occurrence. The global dimension of organizations’ networks requires
that the knowledge of project risk management also be applied to its global projects. A definition of a
global project is provided as well as the consequent cross cultural considerations related to the people
involved in a global project. A new risk management framework is advanced. The framework proposes
“cultural risk analysis” as a new category of risk related to management of global project.
Chapter 10: Water-Related Price Risks – Implications for Firm Competitiveness
This chapter presents the risks associated with an increase of the price (tariffs) of water, which are, and
promise to continue to be, a growing challenge for the sustainable management of companies. The term
risk is operationalized and water-related risks are classified. The reasons and their specific characteristics
for the raising of water prices and the objective risks they create for the companies are identified. This
informs management about the possible causes of unjustified increases in the price of water used in their
activities. Several informational and analytical solutions and guidelines for management can prove useful
in preventing or reducing the identified risks and in aiding the sustainable management of companies.
xxi
Preface
Chapter 11: National Income Inequality, Society, and Multinational Enterprises
This chapter calls for understanding the perspective of multinational enterprises (MNEs) on interna-
tional differences in income inequality. This chapter sets an agenda for research on how differences in
national income inequality influence MNE expansion strategies, focusing on both questions of where
(i.e. location choice) and how (i.e. equity vs. non-equity investment). Applying a transaction cost frame-
work, it is argued that there are both negative and positive economic outcomes of income inequality
from the MNE’s perspective, which influence its financial performance, and hence preferences towards
level of national income inequality. Low levels of income inequality may deter foreign investment, as
MNEs prefer countries where they incur lower levels of transaction costs arising from interactions with
various market and non-market actors. However, the positive effect of income inequality on location
attractiveness will likely diminish at higher levels of inequality when benefits are increasingly offset by
additional monitoring, bargaining and security costs owing to instability and conflict. Thus, it is argued
that inequality has a positive but diminishing impact on investment location attractiveness. The chapter
further explores the implications for level of MNE equity applied in the choice of entry mode under
different levels of income inequality. It is suggested that MNEs will prefer to enter moderate inequality
markets with higher equity modes such as wholly owned subsidiaries or majority joint ventures, while
preferring a smaller stake in the highest inequality countries.
Chapter 12: Low vs. High Income Entrepreneurial

Households – Heterogeneous Response to Common
Institution Environment in Developing Countries
We explore how income differences influence heterogeneous entrepreneurial responses to the institu-
tional environment in Brazil and shape the low-income population’s propensity to exploit the informal
rather than the formal economy. Drawing from the Brazilian Global Entrepreneurship Monitor data,
entrepreneurship discourse, and institutional theory, we discuss the influence of lack of preparedness
and barriers to institutional support on entrepreneurs’ limitations to engage in productive economic
activities. As expected, the data shows that low-income start-up entrepreneurs are mostly older, more
likely to be female, less educated, have less confidence in their skills and know fewer entrepreneurs than
high-income entrepreneurs. We found that low-income entrepreneurs lacking formal education were
as alert as their highly educated and high-income counterparts. We contribute to the entrepreneurship
discourse by suggesting that concepts and theories developed within the context of relatively prosperous
settings do not adequately reflect how low-income entrepreneurs will respond to institutional settings,
and provide insights on why lower income entrepreneurs often prefer to exploit opportunities within
the informal economy.
Chapter 13: Determining Influencing Factors of Currency Exchange Rate for

Strategic Decision Making in the Global Economy Using the MARS Method
This chapter presents the results of a study to identify the determinants of US Dollar/Turkish Lira cur-
rency exchange rate for strategic decision making in the global economy. Using quarterly data for the
period 1988 to 2016, this study considered 10 explanatory variables to determine the leading indicators
of the US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate. Results indicate that two different variables af-
xxii
Preface
fect the exchange rate. First, there is a negative relationship between the current account balance and
the value of US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate whereby a current account deficit leads to
depreciation of the Turkish Lira. Second, when there is economic growth in Turkey, the Turkish Lira
increases relative to the US Dollar. Overall, all other things being equal, emerging economies seeking
to stabilize or strengthen their currency, should consider efforts to decrease their current account deficit
and increase investment that leads to economic growth.
Chapter 14: Economic Partnership Agreement Mexico-Japan and

Its Impact on Foreign Direct Investment – A Strategic Analysis
This chapter analyzes the advantages of partnering with a developing country like México from several
theoretical perspectives, including Agency Theory, Institutional Theory, Resource-based Theory, and the
Theory of Transaction Costs. Generally, foreign direct investment (FDI) contributes to capital formation,
expansion and diversification of exports, increasing competition, provides access to leading technology and
improves management systems. Mexico is of the largest FDI recipients among the developing countries.
Japan, on the other hand, is one of the largest sources of FDI worldwide, and is gaining a larger share in
the Mexican FDI context since the onset of the Economic Partnership Agreement. This chapter reviews
factors that might lead to the depletion of productive spillovers from Japanese manufacturing companies.
The analysis used suggests that inefficiencies in endogenous companies, and Japanese companies being
part of firm networks (keiretsu), might lead to productive spillover depletion.
Chapter 15: A Profile of Foreign Nationals in a

Globalising Second-Tier City, Suzhou
This chapter analyzes the characteristics of foreign nationals from socio-economic, demographic and
spatial perspectives. Foreign nationals linked to multinational enterprises (MNEs) are one of the powerful
drivers for urban transformation in the post-reform era. However, little attention has been paid to their
socio-economics characteristics. This chapter focuses on a globalizing Chinese second tier-city, Suzhou
as a case study. The recent development of Chinese cities has witnessed an increasing number of foreign
nationals working in China due to a wide range of driving forces including MNEs.
Chapter 16: Cooperation and Competition Among Regions – The

Umbrella Brand as a Tool for Tourism Competitiveness
The tourism industry may be characterized as a competitive multi-brand environment in which territo-
rial brands at local, regional, national and supranational levels are overlapping and interrelated. In this
context, it is necessary for tourism destinations to develop and manage their brands in order to achieve
a clearly differentiated position. This chapter analyzes the relations between destinations in the new
global economy, with the aim of improving brand architecture and increased levels of tourist loyalty.
Based the analysis of 6964 tourists from 17 countries, the study results confirm that destinations must
adapt their promotion strategies to the new global landscape of interconnected business, as well as the
development of strategies for horizontal loyalty between destinations.
xxiii
Preface
In summary, this book presents insights to the complex and rapidly evolving landscape of geopolitics
and strategic management in the global economy. There are many relevant perspectives on the topic
to be sure. We have chosen several that we believe are reflective of the breadth and diversity that are
relevant to practitioners and researchers. The practitioner will likely seek more breadth and compre-
hensive coverage of issues and views, while the researcher will likely seek more depth with theoretical
and empirical rigor. We understand that we may not have served either as well as we might have had we
chosen to focus on one or the other. However, it is our contention that we must do as much as we can
to bring practitioners (the doers) and researchers (the dreamers) together in discourse. From this, both
groups and society broadly speaking, will benefit – we hope.
Angelo Presenza
Lorn Sheehan
xxiv
xxv
Acknowledgment
We would like to acknowledge the help of all the people involved in this project. More specifically,
we sincerely thank the chapter authors and reviewers for contributing their intellectual efforts and for
patiently working with us in making the necessary revisions following the double-blind review process.
Without their support, this book would not have become a reality. We thank everyone at IGI Global but
especially Marianne Caesar, for her incredible patience and guidance she has given us during the last
stages of the manuscript completion process.
We would also like to thank Prof. Angelo A. Camillo for his support. Our sincere gratitude goes to him
for his time and expertise that he so kindly gave to us.
Angelo Presenza
Lorn Sheehan

1
Chapter 1
Regionalism and the
Multilateral Trading System:
The Role of Regional Trade Agreements
James P. Murphy
Carolan McLarney
ABSTRACT
Regionalism and the Multilateral Trading System: The Role of Regional Trade Agreements is a discussion
about the new reality and the evolution of the reduction of international barriers to freer trade under the
World Trade Organization (WTO) formerly the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs (GATT). The
chapter devotes time to the two largest regional trade agreements (RTAs), the European Union (EU) with
28 countries and North American Trading Agreement (NAFTA) with three countries account for half of
all world trade (WTO, 2017a). The US set a course post World War II as the proponent of globalization
and freer trade. RTAs at that time were failing or inconsequential. In response to the EU trading block,
the US committed to a (Free Trade Area) FTA with Canada and subsequently the NAFTA with Canada
and Mexico the rest of the world began to become concerned about being shut out of a preferential trade
deal. The main theme of the chapter is that trade liberalization is moving forward because of Regional
Trading agreements, not the WTO which is stalled and may never restart in its current form.
INTRODUCTION
The topic “Regionalism and the Multilateral Trading System: The Role of Regional Trade Agreements”
is as much about the multilateral trading systems successes and failures as it is about the role of the
regionalism in the mix. One, (multilateral) gave birth to the other (regional) after meeting with little
success, initially. The paper traces out the evolution of the systems by focusing on the most significant
regional and multilateral systems and expands on the evolution of free trade moving forward.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2673-5.ch001
Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Regionalism and the Multilateral Trading System
The chapter is broken down into sections, covering the current systems of international trade: What
gives rise to regionalism? Why does regionalism work so well? The North American Free Trade Agree-
ment (NAFTA) and the European Union; Comparison of Regionalism to the World Trade Organization
(WTO) and the multilateral system; Other trade factors and concluding with an expectation for the next
phase of trade development.
The first section discusses the systems of international trade and provides an overview of the world-
wide trade in goods today: Where the main participating countries and regions are located; Defines the
benefits of increased trade; Where does the WTO fits in to the multilateral system; What the regional
trading system is and the institutions of the WTO.
The next two sections discuss how multilateral trade agreements spur on regionalism, a brief history
of the multilateral trading system, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)/WTO and the
benefits, the obstacles and the implementation challenges. The next sections elaborate on regionalism
and the measured benefits, statistics on the main regional agreements (the NAFTA and the EU) and an
overview of other regional agreements in Table 1. The next sections look at the EU and the NAFTA in
greater detail followed by a comparison of RTAs, how they fill the multilateral trade agreement void and
some of the inherent problems of RTAs. Finally, the paper looks at other factors effecting trade includ-
ing social, political and environmental issues and the way they are addressed in RTAs and multilateral
agreements.
BACKGROUND
Systems of International Trade
World trade in 2014, from all the WTO countries, in goods represented $19.0 trillion dollars up from
$2.3 trillion in 2010. It was no doubt spurred on by the worldwide growth in trade after WWII and the
backward protectionist “beggar thy neighbour policies” of the 1930s (WTO, 2017b). Here one country
attempts to make corrections in its economy and in doing so they trigger negative economic consequences
to its “neighbour”. To encourage trade and take advantage of the benefits of increased trade, govern-
ments worked together to create organizations to spur on trade. The predominant one is GATT/WTO, a
multilateral trade agreement to reduce the tariff barriers between countries levied against imported goods.
Benefits and Definitions
There are many kinds of free trade agreements, designed to create increased trade between nations with
354 such agreements currently in force according to the WTO. The WTO states (2017a) that free trade
benefits include: growth in income; greater peace; easy dispute resolution; order and rules; lower cost of
living; more consumer choice; greater overall income; growth; efficiencies; less government interference
and pressure from internal special interests through the reduction of barriers to trade (WTO, 2017b).
The argument for freer trade is pervasive where everyone is required to play by the same rules under
the WTO. Many products and services are difficult to agree on and so are not covered by the free trade
agreements such as agricultural subsidies or reductions, non-trade barriers, services, customs procedures,
anti-dumping and the environment to name a few.
2

Free trade areas can be bilateral (between two countries), regional such as the NAFTA or more
broadly based multilateral trade agreements the largest being the GATT. According to the WTO “the
GATT became the only multilateral instrument governing international trade from 1948 until the World
Trade Organization (WTO) was established in 1995.” (WTO, 2017b: 1) There are currently 164 member
countries in the WTO (WTO, 2017c). The GATT and the WTO have basic principles of reciprocity and
non-discrimination with WTO having power to enforce the non-compliance of the agreement. Regional
or preferential trading agreements do not have the same enforcement mechanisms (Bagwell & Staiger,
1998).
Bhagwati (1992: 535) broadly defines regionalism “as preferential trade agreements among a subset
of nations”. According to Bagwell and Staiger (1998) regional trade agreements have the added benefit
in that they can facilitate multilateral liberalization when multilateral trading systems are not working
well and the enforcement mechanisms are unworkable as has been seen with the latest round of the WTO.
The trade discussion has shifted from the WTO to more focused trade deals as the Economist states,
“Regional deals are the only game in town.” (The Economist, Dec 2012). Bilateral trade agreements
comprise the majority of trade agreements put into force since the year 2000. Approximately 130 bilat-
eral agreements, many of which include the European Union and other nations and 11 regional trading
agreements, are in force according to the WTO (WTO, 2017e). Regional trading agreements (RTAs)
have taken off since 1990. With the failure of the Doha Round at the WTO, agreements rose from 70
in 1990 to over 300. More than 354 RTAs are in force (WTO, 2017d). Regional trading agreements are
liberalizing trade worldwide and according to The Economist (2012) could be greatly advanced by a
deal between the US and the EU. Regional Trade agreements lower barriers to trade specifically tariffs
and subsidies (The Economist, 2012).
Who is Involved in the Multilateral Trading System?
The WTO is a multilateral trading system that administers trade agreements among all its 164 members,
settles trade disputes, seeks to expand world trade further, assists governments in negotiating trade agree-
ments and administers the rulings. The GATT created many of the foundation pieces for the WTO (WTO
2017g). The institutions of the WTO are located in Geneva Switzerland and are made up of a Ministe-
rial Conference, a General Council and meet as both the Trade Policy Review Body and the Dispute
Settlement Body. Additionally, there are also the Goods Council, Services Council and the TRIPs the
Intellectual Property Council (WTO 2017g). Scholars argued whether Customs Unions (CUs) and Free
Trade Areas (FTAs) are beneficial to the countries involved or for the world (Bhagwati, 1992). These
arguments will be explored further because they are contrary to the principles of the WTO.
WHAT IS IT ABOUT THE MULTILATERAL TRADING

SYSTEM THAT GIVES RISE TO REGIONALISM?
History
The GATT, signed in 1947, granted Most Favoured Nation (MFN) status to its members and non-dis-
crimination over the flow of goods among the 23 parties to the agreement. It does give approval under
section XXIV to Customs Unions and Free Trade Areas within the group as long as substantially all
3

trade is covered by the agreement (Bhagwati, 1992). Post WWII, the United States was more interested
in pro multilateral trade than it was in preferential economic unions such as The European Community
(EC). The EC, including six countries, came into being in 1958. In the 1960s, even developing countries
hoped to speed along their industrialization by signing preferential bilateral agreements in order to ac-
cess neighbouring markets. The developed countries did so as well. For both, the experience was less
than ideal. Regional agreements just did not have the appeal they have today. In the 1960s the North
Atlantic Trading Area, Pacific Free Trade Area and The Latin American Free Trade Area failed. Only
the EC and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) managed to survive the decade. Bhagwati
(1992) attributes the newfound interest in the regional agreements worldwide to the United States new
focus on its own self-interest.
When the US was faced with a new trading block in Europe they decided to craft their own deals.
The shift happened with the change in the US when they negotiated a free trade agreement with Israel
followed by an agreement with Canada and later with Mexico. The US changed its position from being
an advocate of multilateral trade to one of regional trade, which represented a significant shift as the US
was the main proponent of multilateral trade during the post war period.
Multilateral Trading Agreements are Worthwhile but Difficult to Implement
Worthwhile
Merchandise trade (exports) in the WTO countries has grown from $5.8 trillion to $16.7 trillion per year
from 2001 to 2011 an increase of 188% (WTO, 2017i). Worldwide exports of Commercial Services have
grown equally as fast from $1.5 trillion worldwide to $4.2 trillion over the same period (WTO, 2017i).
Comparative advantage, according to the economist David Ricardo, suggests that trade between two
countries is beneficial to both (WTO, 2017i). Freer trade (the reduction of barriers to trade) should make
them even better off. The WTO advocates freer trade through negotiations, Most Favoured Nation (MFN)
status, and non-discrimination among trading partners, meaning that any special trade deals are offered
to all. The WTO has the legal ability to enforce those agreements (WTO, 2017).
World trade growth stagnated through the 1930s and 1940s. The GATT resuscitated world trade. For
25 years after WWII, while world GDP growth was averaging 5% per year, world trade grew even faster
at 8% per year (WTO, 2017i). Even as recently as 2015 world merchandise exports have grown 75%
faster than GDP from 2005-2011 according to the WTO (WTO, 2017i). The increased trade objective
of the WTO amongst member countries appears to be working even in the absence of a new agreement.
Difficult to Implement
Multilateral trade agreements such as GATT and the WTO take decades to negotiate and involve well
over hundreds of national governments and agencies, whereas the regional trading agreements can
involve as little as two national governments or agencies by comparison. The health of the GATT and
later the WTO was not affected by the GATT itself but by other events happening in the world of trade
agreements, specifically the EU in Europe and NAFTA in North America (Baldwin, 1993). There is
4

little doubt the benefits of liberalized trade worldwide are many according to the WTO, it just takes a
long time to gain consensus. The Uruguay Round of GATT that formed the WTO took eight years and
the WTO Doha Round started in 2001 has not yet concluded (WTO, 2017h). According to Baldwin
(1993) negotiations have been long, slow and difficult. Most countries that are part of the WTO are also
involved in a bilateral free trade agreement, likely because they are losing patience (Whalley, 1998).
WHY DOES REGIONALISM WORK SO WELL?
Econometrically Speaking
Regional agreements allow the partners to the agreement to negotiate a broader range of issues than would
otherwise be possible with GATT or the WTO. (Ethier, 1998) Baier & Bergstrand (2007) discovered that
bilateral agreements improve countries trade with each other by 100 percent on average after 10 years.
They focused on the econometrics of free trade in their evaluation of the impact. They also suggest
that the successful gains of the GATT and the WTO are attributed to the reduction in tariff barriers to
trade post WWII and that the more difficult barriers to negotiate are causing the discussions to stall such
as “deeper integration” issues, which can be answered with regional agreements (Baier & Bergstrand,
2007: 78). The deeper integration issues are more difficult to negotiate.
They have also concluded that the main equation, the gravity equation, for evaluating the impact on
the benefit of regional free trade areas (FTAs) does not lead them to conclude that the FTAs do have an
undeniable impact on trade despite the increase in the number of FTAs over the from 1992-2007. Further
study is warranted. They tried to answer the question “Do free trade agreements actually increase mem-
bers’ international trade?” The found, using other measurement techniques, the FTA is an endogenous
variable in the calculation versus an exogenous variable (Baier & Bergstrand, 2007: 78).
Statistics on Regional Agreements
A sampling of regional agreements including the NAFTA and EFTA and EU provides some insights into
the success of some regional agreements and their impact over a 10-year period from 2001 to 2011. Over
that time frame world trade (exports) in goods increased 195%, going from $6.2 trillion to $18.3 trillion
according to the WTO, of which countries in the WTO accounted for 90% (2013a). The major regional
trading partners NAFTA, EFTA and the EU saw their increase account for nine percent, two percent and
30 percent respectively. Both NAFTA and the EU have seen their relative importance diminish over the
same 10-year period. NAFTA trade in 2001 represented 19 percent of all world exports down to nine
percent in 2011 while EU exports shrunk from 40 percent to 30 percent over the same time period. In
dollar terms trade grew for both the EU and NAFTA still accounting for 46% of world exports in goods.
The other largest increases came from the Middle East and Asia at 16 percent.
Major Regional Trading Regions and Agreements
While the major regional trading agreements of the EU and NAFTA export volumes shrunk in their
relative importance down from 61% to 48% they still grew over the 10-year period more than doubling
5

trading volumes from $3.8 trillion to $8.7 trillion per year up $4.9 trillion. The WTO countries main-
tained 92 percent of export volume down from 94 percent in 2001. The South and Central America
regional trade agreements, African and Middle Eastern RTAs grew rapidly over the 10 years at almost
double the pace of the North American and Europe exports. (WTO, 2013b) RTAs accounted for 68%
of world trade in 2011 (Table 1).
It would appear from the evidence and numbers that the RTAs do in fact help to increase trade, more
significantly the growth in trade among the smaller RTAs is quite dramatic over the 10-year period.
Table 1. Major regional trading regions and agreements
Regional Trade Agreements Percentage of world RTAs Primary Countries (2011)

(Initial Enforce Year) Trade (exports)
2011
North America & Europe 48%
EFTA 2% European Free Trade Association:
(1960) Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland
European Union 33% Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus Czech Republic, Denmark,
(1958) Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania,
Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain; Sweden, United Kingdom
NAFTA (1994) 13% Canada, Mexico, USA
South & Central America 3%
Andean Community (1988) 1% Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru
MERCOSUR 2% Southern Common Market:
(1991) Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay
Africa 4%
COMESA 1% Common Market for Eastern and South Africa:
(1994) Angola, Burundi, Comoros, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Malawi,
Mauritius, Rwanda, Sudan, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia,
Zimbabwe
ECCAS 1% Economic Community of Central African States: n/a
ECOWAS 1% Economic Community of West African States:
(1993) Benin; Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-
Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Gambia, Togo
SADC 1% South African Development Community:
(2000) Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia,
South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe
Middle East and Asia
ASEAN 7% Association of Southeast Asian Nations:
Free Trade Area Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines,
(1992) Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam
GCC 6% Gulf Cooperation Council:
(2003) UAE, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar, Kuwait
SAPTA (1995) 3% South Asian Preferential Trading Arrangement:
Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Pakistan, Nepal and Sri Lanka.
Source: (WTO, 2013a-c)
6

NAFTA AND THE EUROPEAN UNION
The most significant regional trading agreements are the NAFTA and the EU. Combined they account
for 46 percent of the world’s trade in goods (Table 2). The NAFTA came into force in 1994 and the EU
in 1958 (WTO, 2013c). At the leading edge, the environmental rules of the NAFTA and the EU are
considerably further ahead of the WTO because WTO has so many diverse economic systems that make
it very difficult to agree on any issues (Steinberg 1997).
NAFTA
NAFTA, a regional trade agreement amongst three governments of the United States, Canada and Mexico.
It is designed to facilitate the barrier free movement of goods and services between individual countries
with most favoured nation status for each. NAFTA was negotiated with the intention of lowering tariffs
on goods and services. NAFTA, section 102, states that the agreement was to remove barriers to trade in
goods and services, improve opportunities for investment, protect intellectual property rights, and cre-
ate procedures to settle disputes (NAFTA 2013). The study by Mehanna & Shamsub (2002) shows that
NAFTA has created more trade in all three countries with the largest impact from a GDP perspective on
Canada’s economy with the US benefiting with the most trade created. NAFTA created more trade up
200% from 1993-2006 and increased direct foreign investment (FDI), increased economic integration
in all three countries (Schott & Hufbauer, 2007).
NAFTA History
The political discussions in the late 1980s were about the Canada-US FTA. In 1987 Canada and the USA
agreed to an FTA (CUSFTA) covering tariffs and non-tariff barriers and trade in services. The US was
going to negotiate a bilateral trade agreement with Mexico. Canada at the time was concerned about the
impact of being on the outside. The CUSFTA was replaced by NAFTA, which included Mexico. (Foreign
Affairs, 2017). Ironically, NAFTA, which had been the leading opponents to NAFTA while they were
in opposition (Schwartz 1998). NAFTA entered into force in 1994 (WTO, 2013c).
Strengths and Weaknesses
There are a few areas of strengths and weaknesses to be highlighted in the NAFTA (Table 3).
European Union
The EU is now made up of 28 countries (Table 4). Candidate counties include Iceland, Montenegro,
Serbia, Macedonia, Turkey and potential candidates: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo
(EU, 2017a). The institutions of the EU include, The European Council which sets the political agenda,
The European Parliament, elected by the people, along with Council of the European Union made up of
government representatives and the European Commission and is responsible for making laws governing
the EU (EU, 2017c). The deal goes deeper than a free trade agreement.
7

Table 2. Merchandise trade by selected groups of economies, 2001-2011
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Growth Average Dollar Trade Trade
2001- Grwoth Growth Percent Percent
2011 Factor 2001- 2001 2011
2011
EXPORTS
World 6191 6492 7586 9218 10495 12120 14012 16140 12542 15274 18255 195% 1.9 1064 100% 100%
North Amercia and Europe
EFTA 143 154 176 208 238 274 313 378 291 331 399 178% 1.8 256 2% 2%
EU 2469 2638 3149 3762 4065 4591 5347 5923 4595 5157 6039 145% 1.4 3569 40% 33%
NAFTA 1148 1106 1163 1320 1476 1664 1841 2035 1602 1964 2282 99% 1.0 1135 19% 13%
Total 3760 3897 4487 5290 5779 6529 7501 8336 6489 7452 8770 132% 1.3 4960 61% 48%
South and Central Amercia
Andean Pact 25 26 30 39 51 65 77 94 79 99 134 430% 4.3 109 0% 1%
CACM 14 17 18 20 22 24 27 30 26 30 36 148% 1.5 21 0% 0%
CARICOM 8 7 9 11 15 20 20 26 15 18 22 180% 1.8 14 0% 0%
MERCOSUR 88 89 106 136 164 190 224 278 217 281 353 302% 3.0 266 1% 2%
Total 135 139 163 206 252 299 348 428 337 428 545 303% 3.0 409 2% 3%
Africa
CEMAC 8 9 12 17 23 27 30 43 27 35 45 440% 4.4 37 0% 0%
COMESA 28 29 37 49 66 83 99 127 93 118 97 246% 2.5 69 0% 1%
ECCAS 16 19 23 32 50 62 78 111 72 92 118 641% 6.4 102 0% 1%
ECOWAS 28 29 37 54 67 78 87 112 83 113 154 456% 4.6 126 0% 1%
SADC 49 52 62 80 98 117 144 178 131 170 210 331% 3.3 161 1% 1%
WAEMU 7 9 10 12 13 14 15 19 19 19 22 222% 2.2 15 0% 0%
Total 136 146 180 243 317 381 454 589 425 547 646 377% 3.8 510 2% 4%
Middle East and Asia
ASEAN 388 407 475 569 656 770 865 990 814 1052 1242 220% 2.2 855 6% 7%
GCC 160 168 213 285 398 481 555 762 519 665 934 483% 4.8 774 3% 5%
SAPTA 64 71 84 105 133 159 190 241 206 277 367 469% 4.7 302 1% 2%
Total 612 646 771 969 1186 1409 1610 1993 1539 1994 2543 315% 3.2 1931 10% 14%
Memorandum
ACP 107 112 137 181 227 270 317 399 288 379 479 346% 3.0 371 2% 3%
LDCs 36 40 46 60 82 103 128 168 127 162 203 463% 5.0 167 1% 1%
WTO 5801 6084 7097 8595 9714 11175 12911 14757 11558 14020 16714 188% 2.0 10913 94% 92%
Members
Source: (WTO, 2013b)
Table 3. NAFTA: Strengths and weaknesses
Strengths Weaknesses
• Economies are better off with greater three-way trade. • Detractors say that jobs have gone to Mexico from the US.
• Canada has the resources, US has the education system and • Needs better integration to take advantage of the education
Mexico has the young labour (Sirkin 2012) system of the US compared to Mexico and to better utilize the
• The countries share common borders and already have under educated and under employed people of Mexico. (Sirkin,
significant cross border trade with each other. 2012)
• The environmental standards and not well defined.
(“Alphabetti”, 1998)
8

Table 4. European Union Members
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania,
Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, United
Finland Luxemburg, Malta Kingdom
Source: (EU, 2017a)
EU History
The European Union (EU) started in 1956 with Belgium, France, Italy Luxemburg and the Netherlands
after the Coal and Steel community in 1950 began to link country’s economies. The treaty of Rome in
1957 formed the European Economic Community (EEC), which grew into a larger common market over
the subsequent decades with its own currency and open borders. Later the EU was to let members live
anywhere in the EU, soldiers to be under one leadership, central bankers no longer answering to their
own governments and finance ministers no longer permitted to set their own deficit amounts (“What’s
in a deal”, 1991). The EU is a much deeper integration than NAFTA in that covers even more economic
issues (Ethier, 1998). The Maastricht Treaty covers economic, monetary union as well as political union
with common foreign policies (“What’s in a deal”, 1991).
Monetary Union
For individual countries to ride out any demand shocks to their economies, the union needs to be able
to account for any impact. Spain and Germany’s economies are quite different. With a single currency,
any disruption (sudden and dramatic rise in interest rates globally) that will lower investment and con-
sumer spending could have a greater negative impact on one economy versus the next within the EU.
The individual governments’ fiscally and monetary policies are severely restricted with spending and
interest rates managed centrally. Feldstein (1997) recommends: flexibility in wages and prices, labour
mobility where displaced workers can move to areas where employment opportunities are greater, and
fiscal transfers where the central government can transfer monies to those areas negatively affected by
the changes.
Strengths and Weaknesses
The EU is also about a common market and currency. Some of its strengths and weaknesses are found
in Table 5.
COMPARISON OF REGIONAL AGREEMENTS TO THE WTO
The NAFTA and the EU and other regional agreements are very different when compared to the GATT
and the WTO. Issues including EU agricultural subsidies and political unwillingness to let up on anti-
dumping legislation and immigration reform in the US and current account deficits in both regions and
9

Table 5. EU: Strengths and weaknesses
Strengths Weaknesses
• The EU’s sheer size is strength. It has more people than the • Some countries institutions need further development first to
NAFTA countries. fit in. (“Keeping Up”, 2013)
• Its currency is a strength. • The many languages of the countries in the EU limit the
• The increased trade internally is a strength. mobility of its labour force.
• Agriculture subsidies distort trade. (Bergsten, 2005)
• The region may be becoming too large to function properly
with 28 members. (EU, 2017b)
• Countries entering the EU after the Maastricht treaty will
find that their controls over their economies both domestically and
internationally will no longer be theirs. (Feldstein, 1999)
“growing anti-globalization sentiment on both sides of the Atlantic” make the WTO even more difficult
to implement (Bergsten, 2005: 4). Many RTAs are very different as they are negotiated to accomplish
different goals. The EU was negotiated in the 1950s in order to give the parties more bargaining power
with the US in multilateral negotiations (Whalley, 1998). Exporters benefit from the additional business
and are more willing to lobby for joining a regional trade agreement (Baldwin, 1993).
NAFTA is a trade agreement with benefits for the three parties involved which reduced the barriers
to trade in those countries involved. The environmental and labour standards of the NAFTA were greater
in scope of the standards of the GATT/WTO at the time. The CUSFTA also negotiated trade in services
that was not covered by the GATT/WTO (Whalley, 1998). The NAFTA agreement focused of services,
environment, labour standards, countervailing duties on the auto and textiles whereas the EU was more
focused on agriculture and steel, regional social transfers (Whalley, 1998). The NAFTA could go further
in the integration and the EU may be reaching its limits for country involvement.
The EU involves 28 parties. The EU is very integrated with increased trade, lower barriers to the
mobility of its citizens and established a common currency (EU Enlargement, 2013). The WTO on the
other hand has made little progress since 2001 when the DOHA Round began. The agenda of the WTO
is huge and the number of countries involved is enormous. While the WTO has stalled, the EU is making
progress and many other regional trade agreements are lowering the barriers to trade. The concessions
that countries were not willing to make at the WTO are made to join the EU. The EFTA members joined
the EU for fear of being left out.
Bilateral Agreements
Many bilateral agreements have been signed for the same reason, countries were scrambling to join the
EU. A smaller economy needs to have access to the larger economy to avoid being shut out. Many of
the bilateral RTAs signed since the WTO Doha Round stalled, have been signed by countries aligning
themselves with a significant trading partner such as the EU, US, China, Japan, EFTA, ASEAN, Central
America or instances of countries such as Russia Turkey and Georgia aligning themselves with neigh-
bouring countries bilaterally (WTO, 2017e).
The NAFTA came about because the FTA Canada signed was threat to Canada when the US was
considering a FTA with Mexico. Two bilateral agreements became one larger regional agreement.
Regional trading agreements succeed because many of the countries are already have substantial trade
10

already and are in close geographic proximity with low barriers to trade already, so in the end the step
to a bilateral agreement is less disruptive to cross border traffic (Fernández & Portes, 1998).
Foreign investment is a significant impetus for less developed countries to sign RTAs as well, even
though they will be suffering with lost revenue for import tariffs (Fernández & Portes, 1998). Another
reason for the success for the RTAs is the superior enforcement mechanisms, through direct retaliation if
an industry is given preferential treatment by the government, causing governments to cease from acting in
this manner. GATT was not as strong and the enforcement was not as direct (Fernández & Portes, 1998).
Regional Trade Agreements Promote Further Multilateral Trade Negotiations
The Doha Round of the WTO negotiations stalled as have the previous rounds of the WTO. The WTO
needs to continue moving to further trade liberalization and avoid moving toward “bilateralism and
protectionism” to remain relevant. Previous talks stalled in the WTO Uruguay Round because of the EU
agricultural subsidies. The US negotiated NAFTA, and threatened to create a trade pact with the Pacific
area countries with the APEC Summit. The EU changed its stance one month later. Sometimes regional
agreements, or the threat of them, helps to get multilateral deals moving forward (Bergsten, 2005).
Problems with RTAs
One of the problems with RTAs is that regional trade patterns are more dictated by GDP of a country
or the distance between it and a trading partner than anything else (Ethier, 1998). The “beggar-thy-
neighbour effect” can also make RTAs an attractive proposition for potential members, for goods can
be substituted within the RTA away from goods that are imported with tariffs attached to them. The
third party, the low-cost producer is shut out of the game. With the low-cost producer outside the region
“Trade diverting” occurs, when a regional block is formed and the external tariffs remain high resulting
in the direction of trade to a higher cost country in the block from a lower cost country outside the block.
This distortion on trade leaves everyone worse off. Some argue the negative trade diverting effect
has implications because the EU has subsidies and tariffs countries in the union pay too much for many
agricultural products (Fernández & Portes, 1998). Another problem is RTAs do not reform monetary or
fiscal policies of the national governments, rather they tempt governments to manipulate them (Fernán-
dez & Portes, 1998).
RTAs That Failed
The new regionalism of the 1960s and the old regionalism in the 1980s differ in that we saw that it was
every country for itself. Under the old regionalism, the US did not want to have any part of any regional
trade agreement. The bureaucratic entanglement in negotiations for the less developed countries de-
railed any attempt at negotiating FTAs, as these countries desperately needed the economies of scale
of industrialization. Since, there has been an outbreak of new deals (Bhagwati, 1992). For example, the
1998 the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum has a target date for 2020 for a new major
regional trade deal (“Aphagetti” 1998).
11

OTHER FACTORS EFFECTING RTAS AND MULTILATERAL AGREEMENTS
Politics of RTAs
RTA tend to provide increased trade protection in many areas resulting in trade diversion and an economi-
cally inefficient situation. To make the agreement work and gain acceptance by politically motivated
special interest groups, total social welfare will be reduced. With the exclusion of some sectors the
political opposition to the agreement is lessened. Producers benefit and consumers lose out. Grossman
(1993) also suggested that there should be a mechanism by which exporters who are made better off in
one country compensate the importer competitors who are made worse off, however, this is unlikely to
ever happen (Grossman, 1993). Exporters can win if they can lobby the government. There is an incentive
for countries, as in the case of Mexico, to negotiate from a position of weakness to grant concessions
to leverage domestic reforms that were otherwise not possible (Whalley, 1998). It is a strange political
outcome; a trade deal that can impose domestic reforms.
Social or Environmental Focus of WTO and RTAs
The greener, wealthier nations have forced their environmental standards on the poorer nations. As
trade becomes more integrated, the environmental considerations of trade become more relevant. Trade
liberalization increases the threat to health and safety standards, lowers standards for goods produced
in the countries with lower standards of toxins, can create environmental degradation in border regions,
and creates trade institutions that monitor and resolve environmental issues (Steinberg, 1997). Trade
liberalization is therefore good for the environment.
Steinberg (1997) suggests that more trade friendly environmental rules are the result of more extensive
trade liberalization. Labour and environmental language was been incorporated into NAFTA after its
inception (Schott, J. & Hufbauer, 2007). The WTO in the Doha Round negotiated for the freer move-
ment of environmental goods and consistency with environmental rules (WTO, 2017f). Environmental
rules around trade are more developed in the EU and the NAFTA than the WTO. The countries in the
EU and the countries in the NAFTA each in their own way share similarities of geography and business
dealings. Environmental rules can be more easily developed in the EU and the NAFTA than the WTO
who has many diverse and developing countries which are less concerned with environmental issues
than the more developed countries of the EU and NAFTA.
Special Interest Groups
As previously mentioned, special interest groups include exporters and importers (Baldwin, 1993).
Ethier (1998) states that protectionist special interest groups are the norm for the integrated RTAs of
today. The EU has established an Economic and Social Committee that listens to input from employers,
employees and other interested groups such as farmers and consumer groups (EU, 2017d). Agricultural
issues have been an integral part of trade negotiations both with the WTO and the NAFTA discussions
(Ogden, 1996). The NAFTA lobbies for commodities are very strong in Mexico and the US. Supporters
of trade liberalization included corn growers, livestock processers, and detractors include the farmer’s
union, wheat producers and fruit and vegetable producers to name a few. “In 1990 GATT was deadlocked
on agriculture” as well (Orden, 1996: 74).
12

Impact on RTAs
Governments are lobbied to increase tariffs but when a FTA is agreed upon, not only are the tariffs in-
side the group reduced but it impacts the external tariffs as well, reducing them, which is an unexpected
outcome (Ornelas, 2005). Looking at the reasons for implementing a FTA, Ornelas (2005) suggests that
the political stock of governments from lobby group contributions and the tariff tax revenues losses need
to be balanced against the consumer benefits of the reduced costs and the access to other export markets
for the producers and choice for consumers.
Impact on Multilateral Trading System
The WTO claims rightly that special interest groups do not have a significant impact on the WTO. In
their literature, they speak of the limited effect of lobby groups on the multilateral trading system. Un-
fortunately talks have not progressed in any substantial way for the latest round to reduce tariffs, quotas
or subsidies (WTO, 2017f). According to Ornelas (2005), as governments move toward multilateral trade
the political contributions disappear and total welfare becomes more important than special interests.
Special interest groups have little influence on something that does not work, the WTO.
SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Regionalism is not the answer but it may be the only answer with the stalled WTO Doha Round of talks
on such a broad array of topics that it is unlikely that any consensus will ever be built. Bhagwati (1992)
who claims that “multilateral free trade for all” is the goal but in the face of all the regional trade agree-
ments since the 1980s it may be undermined. He thinks its revival is unfortunate. Ethier (1998) states
that the close proximity of trading partners will lead to greater trade and the fewer number of partners
to the agreement the greater number of terms can be agreed upon and then it will be easier to reach an
agreement. Countries seek bilateral agreements because it provides them with benefits that could not
be obtained either by going alone or just by only being part of the WTO (Table 6).
Agriculture represents a small percentage of GDP for most developed countries (Ogden 1996) yet
developing countries that can produce goods much cheaper are effectively shut out because of the agri-
culture support structures (subsidies and quota guaranteed prices) in many developed countries (WTO,
2017f). RTAs are the future. Governments lower their tariffs after joining a RTAs and so improve their
welfare resulting in trade flow increases both internally and externally. All countries gain from the
RTAs. The RTAs can help “to pave the way” toward multilateral freer trade benefiting “the world trad-
ing system” (Ornelas, 2005: 491).
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
If we were to look into the future fifty years from now what will we see in terms of trade agreements.
Will there be none? If there are none does that mean we will have true free global trade or will there be
islands of protectionism where there is little or no trade between nations. We feel that somewhere between
full globalization and pure isolationism our future will exist. Brown (2016) puts forth the idea that we
13

Table 6. Assessing the importance of country objectives for particular regional agreements
COUNTRY OBJECTIVES REGIONAL TRADE AGREEMENT

EC NAFTA Canada-US Mercosur
Traditional Trade Gains W W
Strengthening Domestic Policy Reform S
(Mexico)
Increased Multi-Lateral Bargaining W W
Power (Bargaining in
NAFTA)
Access Guarantees W S
(Canada)
Strategic Linkage S
Multi-Lateral and Regional Interplay W W S
(US) (Canada, US)
(Notes: S = strong objective; W = weaker objectives)
Source: (Whalley, 1998, p. 75)
might be moving into the era of mega-regional agreements. This is where we feel the next generation of
research needs to be focused. These mega-regional agreements appear to be on the rise due to two forces:
global supply chains and China. Future research into the role of fully integrated global supply chains, as
are seen in the automotive industry need to be understood as mega-agreements on their own. In terms
of China, its rise has caused ripples of geo-political uncertainty and a shift in trade negotiations toward
Asia Pacific. Future research needs to focus on agreements like the Trans Pacific Partnership (TPP).
CONCLUSION
The evolution of multilateral trading system and the importance of GATT /WTO cannot be underestimated
as a means to open up world trade by lowering barriers to trade. Very little cross border trade took place
in the 1930s where there was a dramatic beggar thy neighbour attitude with protectionist tariffs. It is
less likely now to have a country invade another when many foreign direct investments and significant
bilateral trade takes place. Europe has been fairly peaceful for over 60 years now. The GATT/WTO had
a great impact on the growth in trade for a few years with 164 members currently.
Regional Trading Agreements now represent the largest blocks of trade in goods after the WTO
with the EU and NAFTA dominating the scene after the WTO. With the 500 million people in the EU
and the 400 million in NAFTA representing 46% of world trade in goods, the regional blocks are most
formidable and in some cases, more responsive and in all cases growing (WTO, 2017j).
The WTO is struggling to maintain its mandate. National policies that increase market access by for-
eign companies are not the concern of national governments focused on domestic social issues, politics,
culture and economic concerns over increased trade (Patterson, 2010). Governments are not likely to
give up their control over the next group of changes coming from the WTO, whose Doha Round talks
were suspended in 2008 (Patterson, 2010).
14

The chapter has discussed the current systems of international trade: regional trade agreements and
international trade institutions. It has explored the questions “What gives rise to regionalism? And Why
does regionalism work so well”? It specifically looked at The North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) and the European Union and compared Regionalism to the World Trade Organization (WTO).
Finally, it concluded with an expectation for the next phase of trade development.
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KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Common Market: A form of regional economic integration where all barriers to trade are removed,
a common external trade policy is adopted, and factors of production are given mobility.
Customs Union: A form of regional economic integration where all barriers to trade are removed
and a common external trade policy is adopted.
Economic Union: A form of regional economic integration where all barriers to trade are removed,
common external trade policy is adopted, factors of production are given mobility, common currency is
established, tax rates are harmonized, and there is a common monetary and fiscal policy.
Free Trade Area: A form of regional economic integration where all barriers to trade are removed
and each member determines its own trade policy.
Maastricht Treaty: Is an international agreement signed in maastricht, netherlands by all eec member
states on february 7, 1992. It established the european union (eu).
Regional Trade Agreements: Agreements among countries in a geographic region to reduce, and
ultimately remove, tariff and nontariff barriers to the free flow of goods, services and factors of produc-
tion among each other.
Trade Diversion: Occurs when trade is diverted from a more efficient exporter towards a less ef-
ficient as a consequence of a regional trade agreement.
Treaty of Rome: Is an international agreement, signed in Rome, Italy on march 25, 1957, by Belgium,
France, the Federal Republic of Germany (then West Germany), Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.
it established the European Economic Community (EEC) and created a common market and customs
union amongst its members.
18
19
Chapter 2
What Makes a Global
Business Model?
Oleksiy Osiyevskyy
University of Calgary, Canada & Northeastern University, USA
Milena Troshkova
Northeastern University, USA
Yongjian Bao
University of Lethbridge, Canada
ABSTRACT
A firm’s business model is an essential mechanism determining how an organization creates value for
its stakeholders and captures part of the created value as profit for its owners. Global enterprises secure
their market positions through properly functioning business models that are globally scalable. Once
a globally scalable business model is successfully designed and validated in one location, it becomes a
addresses the following research questions: (1) What is the role of a business model in the success of
global enterprises? (2) Which common attributes do business models of successful global companies
possess? and (3) How to make a business model more suitable for global expansion? The theoretical
analysis of these questions yields a conceptual framework for examining the global companies through
the business model lens. The developed conceptual framework is illustrated and corroborated with the
INTRODUCTION
The keystone of any global enterprise lies in its non-location-bound (NLB) firm-specific advantages
(FSAs), which, once developed in one location, can be executed in other locations with marginal benefits
exceeding marginal costs, by this means creating the incentives for global expansion (Rugman & Verbeke,
1992; Rugman & Almodóvar, 2011; Verbeke & Yuan, 2010; Grøgaard & Verbeke, 2012; Verbeke, 2013;
Verbeke, Zargarzadeh, & Osiyevskyy, 2014). Traditionally, non-location-bound firm-specific advantages
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2673-5.ch002

What Makes a Global Business Model?
were considered to be originating from the R&D or marketing activities through creation of intangible
assets (such as new products, globally recognized brand name or reputation) that can be profitably lever-
aged on a global scale (Verbeke et al., 2014). In this chapter we suggest that these sources of FSAs have
to be supplemented by one more essential factor, the firm’s business model, which – once successfully
developed and validated – becomes a firm-specific advantage itself (Osiyevskyy & Zargarzadeh, 2015),
simultaneously becoming a critical determinant of the possibility of leveraging other non-location-bound
firm-specific advantages in other markets (Hennart, 2014).
A firm’s business model is the organizational meta-routine serving two basic purposes: (1) value
creation for the firm stakeholders, and (2) value appropriation for firm owners (Osiyevskyy & Dewald,
2015a; Osiyevskyy & Zargarzadeh, 2015). Value creation is achieved through providing attractive value
propositions to key stakeholders, while value appropriation is determined by the firm’s ability to sus-
tain the economic rents thanks to superior bargaining power vis-à-vis essential resource providers and
customers. Importantly, it is only the combination of high value creation and appropriation that leads
to a sustainable, “Winner” business model; whereas superior results in only one of these dimensions
lead to inherently unsustainable positions of a “Giver trap” [having happy stakeholders yet unhappy
shareholders] or a “Taker trap” [companies that enjoy temporarily high profits unsupported by superior
stakeholder value] (Biloshapka et al., 2016).
The “routine” conceptualization of the business model allows proper anchoring of this still conten-
tious construct (Zott et al., 2011) within the traditional evolutionary economic theory terms (Nelson &
Winter, 1982), defined as intentional, repetitive patterns of activity within the organization (Osiyevskyy
& Zargarzadeh, 2015).
An interest in the business model concept has dramatically increased over the 15-year period between
1995 and 2010 (Zott et al., 2011). Scholars claim that this resulted largely from the advent of the Internet
(e.g., Amit & Zott, 2001), rapid growth in emerging markets (Prahalad & Hart, 2002; Seelos & Mair,
2007; Thompson & MacMillan, 2010), and the expanding industries and organizations dependent on
post-industrial technologies (Perkmann & Spicer, 2010). These trends led to business model becom-
ing a new unit of analysis that is distinct from the product, firm, industry, or network; even though it
is based on a focal firm, its boundaries expand further than those of the firm (Zott et al., 2011; Zott &
Amit, 2013). Firms do not execute their business models in a competitive vacuum, but rather compete
through their business models that serve as a potential source of competitive advantage (Osiyevskyy,
2014) and superior value creation (Morris et al., 2005). Importantly, as any routine, a business model
acts as a mechanism of organizational memory (Nelson & Winter, 1982), accumulating the knowledge
about a successful way of generating and capturing economic value, particularly in a global context.
Similarly to other types of commercial organizations in a free market economy, global enterprises
secure their market positions and profit through properly functioning business models (Osiyevskyy &
Zargarzadeh, 2015; Hennart, 2014). The business models of such enterprises are globally scalable, al-
lowing profitable international expansion.
As we are showing in this study, the globally scalable business models have essential peculiarities that
make them suitable for international expansion. Yet, despite the crucial importance of specific features
of globally scalable business models, this topic received insufficient attention in prior literature. This
sets the motivation for the current chapter, which intends to examine the global companies through the
business model lens, addressing the following formal questions: (i) what is the role of a business model
in the success of a global enterprise? (ii) which common attributes do business models of successful
global companies possess? and (iii) how to make a business model more suitable for global expansion?
20

This chapter is divided into three sections. First, we introduce an original framework for systematic
analysis and comparison of business models. Second, we conceptually examine the characteristics of
business models of global companies, including International New Ventures (INVs) and Multinational
Enterprises (MNEs). Third, we offer practical managerial advice on how to make a business model
more suitable for global expansion. The discussed theoretical concepts are illustrated and corroborated
with the mini-cases of global enterprises, demonstrating the applicability of the developed deductively
framework to real-world situations (Siggelkow, 2007).
BUSINESS MODEL CHARACTERISTICS: AN ANALYTIC FRAMEWORK
Four-Dimensional Business Model Structure
For the purposes of our comparative analysis, it is convenient to analyze a firm’s business model through
the four-dimensional theoretical lens. It summarizes and integrates in a coherent way the proposed in prior
literature approaches towards structuring the business models, most importantly the three-dimensional
business model view [value, transactive and resource dimensions: see George & Bock (2011), Osiyevskyy
& Dewald, (2015b)], or the widely adopted in practice ‘9 Building Blocks’ of a business model canvas
(Osterwalder & Pigneur, 2010).
The proposed in this paper framework emphasizes four essential areas that allow analyzing a firm’s
business model and comparing business models of different firms with each other. The underlying
reasoning behind the proposed analytical framework is that a business model is defined by four broad
characteristics: the target industry, the stakeholder value proposition, the design of activity system, and
the resources for the business model (see Table 1).
Target Industry
An industry can be broadly defined as a group of firms that produce products or services that serve the
same general purpose (Meyer & Crane, 2014). The target industry sets the stage for choosing, design-
ing, and supporting a business model, and hence should be analyzed as an essential part of a business
model (Biloshapka et al., 2016). An industry is comprised of segments (a set of competitors addressing
Table 1. Business model analysis framework
Target Industry Stakeholder Value Proposition

• Broad industry definition • Key stakeholders: end users (consumers), channel partners,
• Customer segments/niches (initial target, expansion plans) suppliers, government…
• Value proposition to each stakeholder: problem solved, solution’s
differentiating factors
Design of Activity System Resources for the Business Model
• Revenue model • Investment capital
• Go-To-Market model • Human capital
• Production model • Partnerships
• Product/service development model • Tangible assets
• Intangible assets
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particular customer groups), and niche markets. Whereas large established companies usually dominate
a set of segments within a particular industry (e.g., Google having substantive position in the segments
of automated web search and e-mail within the broader Internet industry), the entrepreneurs founding
new ventures most often focus on creating winning products for a niche market before expanding (e.g.,
Amazon in 1994-1997 concentrating on on-line book selling niche, before expanding to other segments/
niches within the e-commerce industry). This is due to a niche market holding a specific pocket for op-
portunity within a segment. There are a number of factors to be evaluated when determining an attractive
industry/segment/niche (Meyer & Crane, 2014): a) its current size and growth rates of customer demand,
b) major trends sweeping across the industry, c) the competition in the industry and the evidence of suc-
cessful business models, d) the activity level of new companies, venture deals, and M&A transactions, e)
the technology life cycle stage of the industry overall, f) the channels of distribution within an industry,
g) reasonably priced and widely available key components, technologies, and ingredients needed for the
production and delivery of a product or service, and h) the absence of existing barriers to entry.
Stakeholder Value Proposition
The ultimate driving forces of any commercial enterprise in a market economy is in resolving stakehold-
ers’ problems in an industry by introducing a product/service developed with the use of proper technol-
ogy. The role of the stakeholders is essential here, as they provide the firm with resources needed for
its functioning. In addition to winning the customers’ support, most business models require to attract
at least one more crucial stakeholder, e.g.: the beverage producers need to establish the relationship
with distributors; or the web search companies need to secure the buy-in form advertisers. In general,
the list of key stakeholders to consider within the business model analysis and design process includes
end-users, buyers, sales channel partners, suppliers, government, employees, investors, and local com-
munities the company operates in. In order to win their support, a business model needs to provide an
attractive value proposition: the problem being solved (what exactly the pain point is that the business
model solves or the passion it satisfies), the proposed solution (i.e., how exactly the business model does
it), and the differentiation from the existing alternatives on the market (e.g., advanced accessibility, price
for customer, multi-functionality, privacy, and user control). Moreover, the design of a business model
usually has to successfully manage the conflicting expectation of stakeholders by providing a balanced
solution (Falkenberg & Osiyevskyy, 2014).
Design of Activity System
The design of an activity system reflects the transactive part of the business model (George & Bock,
2011; Zott & Amit, 2010), determining “the way operations (business processes) are organized to utilize
available resources toward delivering value to stakeholders” (Osiyevskyy & Dewald, 2015b, p.1012).
In particular, the design of an activity system of a business model comprises its revenue model, go-
to-market model, production model, and product/service development model (Meyer & Crane, 2014;
Biloshapka et al., 2016).
The revenue model describes the way a firm charges its customers, including the revenue type (one-
time sale fee / subscription / usage fee / brokerage commission) and pricing. Obviously, a company can
have more than one revenue stream: e.g., the audiobook seller Audible (now part of Amazon) charges
its customers both a monthly subscription fee and one-time sale fee for additional audiobooks.
22

The go-to-market model determines the way a business model interacts with customers: the sales
channels (e.g., direct sales, web-site, distribution network), promotion and branding approach, and the
economics of customer acquisition within the business model (customer lifetime value versus the cost
of customer acquisition).
The production model determines the system of processes that deliver on the stakeholder value
proposition: i.e., how exactly the company makes and delivers its products or provides its services
(manufacturing, logistics, supply chain management, after-sales support processes), the effectiveness
and efficiency of this configuration.
Finally, the product/service development model describes the approach of a business model towards
R&D (e.g., internal or outsourced) and protection of intellectual property.
Resources for the Business Model
The resources for the business model dimension determines the essential assets and capabilities needed
for deploying and sustaining the business model (Osiyevskyy & Dewald, 2015b): e.g., investment capital,
human capital, partnerships, tangible and intangible assets.
An example of applying the proposed business model analysis framework to the case of Facebook
is presented in Table 2.
In the next section we will apply the suggested analytical framework for determining the peculiarities
of the globally scalable business models.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GLOBAL COMPANIES’ BUSINESS MODELS
International New Ventures (INVs) and Multinational Enterprises (MNEs)
Multinational Enterprise is traditionally defined as an enterprise that has its facilities and other assets
in at least one country other than its home country (Dunning, 2012). International new venture (INV)
Table 2. Facebook, Inc: Business model analysis framework

• Broad industry definition: Internet • Key stakeholders: end-users (social network users), advertisers
• Key customer segment: Social Network Users • Value proposition to end-users: satisfies the need for
communication through a free social network with the broadest
global user base
• Value proposition to advertisers: allows to reach the target
audience (of social network users) with precise, targeted, highly
effective advertising messages
• Revenue model: free for end-users, advertising fee for advertisers Key resources needed to maintain the business model:
• Go-To-Market model: key channel: web-site • Large customer base (of social network users), to attract
• Production model: key processes (user support, advertiser advertisers
support) are organized internally • Unique social network technologies
• Product/service development model: (1) internal R&D • Brand recognition
processes; (2) acquiring startups with promising technologies
23

is “a business organization that, from inception, seeks to derive significant competitive advantage from
the use of resources and the sale of outputs in multiple countries” (Oviatt & McDougall, 1994, p.49).
In other words, INVs are firms that internationalize from the outset, or soon afterward, and eventually
sell a high share of their output abroad (Hennart, 2014; Verbeke et al., 2014).
Both INVs and MNEs are global enterprises that create and appropriate value globally through
their business models (Osiyevskyy & Zargarzadeh, 2015). Moreover, both INVs and MNEs are able
to expand by leveraging their non-location-bound (NLB) firm specific advantages (FSAs) (Rugman &
Verbeke, 1992; Rugman & Almodóvar, 2011; Verbeke & Yuan, 2010; Verbeke, 2013; Verbeke et al.,
2014). In line with the internationalization theory, the foundation for a successful global expansion in
terms of value creation and appropriation is built on ownership, control and/or a superior combination
of not fully utilized resources, their distribution and coordination abroad, in addition to the choice of
the comparatively most efficient foreign operating mode (Verbeke, 2013; Grøgaard, & Verbeke, 2012).
Thus, any form of global expansion in terms of scale, entry mode or location and its timing is controlled
by FSAs, both existing and developing (Verbeke et al., 2014).
The Role of a Business Model in the Success of Global Enterprises
Similarly to other types of for-profit firms in a free market economy, global enterprises secure their
market positions and rents through properly functioning business models (Osiyevskyy & Zargarzadeh,
2015; Hennart, 2014). The business models of such enterprises are globally scalable, allowing profitable
international expansion. Once a globally scalable business model is successfully designed and validated
in one location, it becomes a non-location-bound firm-specific advantage, promoting the firm’s interna-
tional expansion through replication of the value creation and appropriation routine in other parts of the
world. Replicating a business model in foreign markets allows global enterprises to exploit their resource
(Penrosian) advantage by leveraging the unique, valuable and inimitable capabilities; to achieve the
Bainian market power by improving the firm’s bargaining position; and to secure the innovator’s quasi-
rents (of Schumpeterian type) by coming up with business model innovations in one context and then
scaling them up to the global context (Osiyevskyy & Zargarzadeh, 2015). Predictably, the replication of
local market routines, including the key organizational routine – its business model, without innovative
modifications often faces unpredictable issues in foreign markets (Osiyevskyy & Zargarzadeh, 2015).
Globally Scalable Business Models: Common Attributes
Globally scalable business models have a set of distinct characteristics (see Table 3) that ensure success-
ful global expansion of an enterprise, either MNE (Osiyevskyy & Zargarzadeh, 2015) or INV (Hennart,
2014). Obviously, not all of these characteristics must be present in each global business model; yet, each
of them increases a firm’s chances of successful internationalization, with the benefits of this process
exceeding the costs.
In terms of target industry, the globally scalable business models usually originate from countries with
a small home market for their product or service – the environment that forces the companies to consider
internationalizing from day one (e.g., consider the Israeli start-ups: Senor & Singer (2009)). Obviously,
the countries with large home markets (e.g., the U.S. or China) also host numerous successful MNEs,
24

Table 3. Distinctive common features of global business models

• Based in a country with a small home market for their product or • Key stakeholders: internationally dispersed expert customers
service • Customers have homogenous tastes
• Distinctive niche products and services • Value proposition flexible to local peculiarities
• Go-To-Market model: avoiding international marketing mix • Non-location-bound firm-specific advantages:
adaptations; low-cost means of communication and delivery • Founding entrepreneurs’ characteristics (education, experience,
• Production model: services or low weight, non-perishable international connections)
products; production processes located in low-cost countries; • Globally recognized brand/reputation
minimal after-sales support • Innovative product portfolio / technology
• Product/service development model: R&D aimed at innovations • Unique valuable knowledge
applicable outside home market
but in such circumstances the global expansion is preceded by a long process of establishing the market
position in a home market, and the chances of internationalization for such firms are much lower. Second,
globally scalable business models are more likely to be developed around distinctive niche products and
services demanded by internationally dispersed expert customers (Hennart, 2014). This enables INVs
to reach customers through low cost means (since the buyers will be actively searching for a solution),
as less time is spent on market research, advertising, and sales promotion.
A firm is more likely to expand globally if consumers have homogenous tastes – a condition that al-
lows an internationalizing company to minimize or avoid international marketing mix adaptations for its
products and services (Hennart, 2014). For example, a business model deploying a proven cancer drug
(Verbeke et al., 2014) is very likely to be suitable for global scaling. Thus, globally scalable business
models are likely to be designed around low-cost means of communication (e.g., Internet advertising
and word-of-mouth).
In terms of production model, global business models usually rely on delivery of low weight, non-
perishable products (Hennart, 2014): e.g., luxury watch brand is more suitable for global expansion,
comparing to luxury food provider. Successful MNEs also make a full use of locating the production in
countries with relatively low cost levels. The R&D processes at global companies are usually aimed at
innovations applicable outside their home markets.
Finally, the key resources underpinning globally scalable business models are non-location-bound
firm-specific advantages, serving as the basis for international expansion: e.g., the globally recognized
brand/reputation, social network ties, or globally applicable technology. These FSAs are either developed
within the firm over time through investments into R&D and marketing (the Uppsala model of MNE
expansion), or are embedded with the funding team of INV (Verbeke et al., 2014). Corroborating the latter
point, the INVs studies demonstrate that the founding entrepreneurs’ pre-launch experience, managerial
capacity, and international business networks are fundamental to new venture success (Autio et al., 2000;
Zahra 2005; Cressy, 2006; Verbeke et al., 2014). Given the above, founder-entrepreneurs with higher
education levels are more likely to internationalize in the early years of a new venture (Verbeke et al.,
2014). New ventures with immigrant founding entrepreneurs are also more likely to expand to foreign
markets in the early years of operation.
25

GLOBALLY SCALABLE BUSINESS MODELS: CASE EXAMPLES
Jacob Jensen Design (JJD): Success of Interwoven IP Elements
The outstanding success of Jacob Jensen Design’s global endeavor can be explained by our business
model framework, particularly when the four areas are interwoven together around an IP (intellectual
property right) protecting JJD branding capability as its core competence.
JJD was a creation of Jacob Jensen more than fifty years ago. His design is on the CNN top 12 list of
“Best Designs in the last 100 Years”. The studio has been famous for its commissioned works for Bang
& Olufsen, Bosch, Siemens, GE, Lego, Toshiba and Volvo. Companies from different countries loved
JJD’s design as well as appreciated the simple and pure lifestyle of Scandinavian countries.
When his son, Tim Jacob Jensen, took the helm of the studio, he decided to leverage the reputation
of JJD’s design competence for a global brand that offers “affordable design” to a mass market. He
changed the corporate strategy, re-organized the structure, and staged local presence in China, Thailand,
and South Africa first. In a decade, JJD oriented toward a global network of regional branch offices that
distribute brand products and design services for clients in four continents – Europe, Asia, Africa, and
South America.
From a design studio to a global emporium of “affordable designs”, JJD has made substantial prog-
ress over the past ten years. This venture’s future is promising because all four areas identified by our
framework are naturally interwoven together and centered on JJD’s strong IP-based branding power.
Table 4 summarizes how these four criteria are complementary to each other.
JJD used to be a strong player in a small niche market of industrial design in Denmark. Having learned
from painful experiences of IP encroaching before, JJD tried to fuse design services with JJD brand prod-
ucts. The changing of market positioning was perfectly timed with global endearment of Scandinavian
life style and Danish design. So, JJD chose to target the market in emerging economies with “affordable
designs” from Denmark, which included both design service and brand products.
Table 4. JJD business model of interwoven IP elements

• Home country with a small market: Denmark • Manufacturers: face-lifting industrial design by famous JJD
• Affordable Danish design for the world Studio
• Industrial design service and JJD brand products for emerging • Interns: apprenticeship, royalty from winning designs,
markets employment opportunity
• Franchisees: association with JJD, distribute brand products
• Value proposition flexible to local peculiarities: design education
for local government and universities, inclusive vernacular designs
• Multiple revenues: commission, sales, royalty, franchise fee • Non-location-bound firm-specific advantages: legendary
• Marketing via design campaign: partnership with government, reputation of the founders, organizing capability of the CEO,
trade associations and educational institutions. relationship with Danish government, carefully selected local
• Local sourcing production: resident designers, internship student partners
designers, local franchisees • Founding entrepreneurs’ characteristics: not too much formal
• Product/service development model: Total design solution. education, street smart, extensive international experiences, risk
Corporate infrastructure support on design, business dealing, and taking personality
administration • Globally recognized brand/reputation: Jacob Janssen is credited
the father of modern industrial design, has works exhibited in
many museums including MOMA in New York
26

To better serve its stakeholders, JJD re-organized its activity system for efficiency and exclusiveness.
Relying on government enthusiasm on industrial design education, JJD worked with Danish government
for promotion of national events overseas. It also formed strategic alliances with local government and
education institutions in Thailand and China for design education. JJD set up a design academy and used
educational events to promote its brand and raise awareness of its services among local clients. This
design of marketing saved JJD a lot of costs.
JJD also focused on non-location bounded portion of production. It offered industrial designs, mar-
keting strategy, and franchise arrangement. For the physical production of brand products, JJD relied
on OEM, manufacturing clients, franchised distributors and branch stores to carry out tangible aspects
of production. This mode of production allowed JJD to scale up from one country to another easily.
To influence as well as serve local partners, JJD continued to work on R&D, design form language,
design procedure framework, and other meta-languages of design at the corporate level. It also has a
consolidated business platform at the corporate level which is user-friendly even at a local level. Its
R&D activities continue to strengthen the know-how, and transfer capabilities to divisions and branch
levels when needed.
Jacob Jensen has five areas of income: 1) indirect sale of brand products to branch offices which then
sell the brand products directly to retailers; 2) royalties that branch offices receive from their clients for the
design solutions; 3) royalties from brand products designed by Jacob Jensen for its Licensing Partners; 4)
commission on all time and material invoiced clients for design solutions by branch offices; 5) franchise
fees that each branch office pays Jacob Jensen for the right to run a regional/local Jacob Jensen business.
The above organization of activity system enables JJD to offer three key stakeholders unique values.
Under the general value proposition as “affordable design”, JJD tailored specifics for different JJD
stakeholders. For manufacture clients, JJD enables them to face-lift their old products with new indus-
trial designs. For business customers (boutiques, retail chains, department stores), JJD provides high
quality, brand products that are affordable. For partner education institutions, JJD facilitates industrial
design education and furnishes internship for students. JJD owns the brand, manages product portfolio,
controls design form and framework, while products are co-designed with students and manufactured
by partner companies locally.
JJD would not be able to offer total design solution with brand products, had it not owned a set of
firm-specific resources, which contributed to its firm-specific advantages. Free or low marketing re-
sources came from JJD’s leveraged reputation and brand attraction. Its leading designers often conducted
interviews and newspaper featured articles. It also enjoyed free promotion from participating in local
design festivals and news events.
JJD also developed a network of designers, clients and local partners. It allowed the firm to acquire
low cost office space, resident designers and local staff. JJD strategically develops its brand power of
attracting production partners step by step. As a result of forming alliances with foreign universities and
business enterprises, JJD established its presence in local markets with heavy subsidies from partners.
Once JJD built up its branch offices and business network, it attracted international experts to be their
resident designers. Meanwhile, local students upon graduation have joined the JJD workforce in many
branch offices. So for design studio, the production is organized both internationally for resident design-
ers and locally for low-level assistants.
The founder’s internationally well-known reputation turns out to be the most valuable resources
for JJD. The founder has several works exhibited in MOMA New York. He was ranked among the top
modern influential industrial designers.
27

Under the leadership of Tim Jacob Jensen, JJD strategically converted reputed intangible resources
into brand power in foreign countries. Tim Jensen worked closely with the Danish Embassy on various
events to promote Denmark, meanwhile bringing the attention to JJD. By participating in design educa-
tion in China and Thailand, JJD acquired business venues and operational supports with minimum costs
in those locations.
Another critical resource JJD possesses is the designers network initiated by Tim Jensen. It brought
internationally dispersed resident designers into local studios of JJD. In addition, JJD has also enjoyed the
benefit of bringing up quality staff from students who had an internship experience there. This network
guaranteed JJD the most efficient and capable human resources.
Within seven years, JJD grew from a highly reputed local design studio in Denmark into a global
network of brand products and industrial design. Its initial success reflected strategic utilization of all
four areas of our business model framework.
Shanghai Green Court Investment Group (Green Court):

Success of Interconnected Social Capital
Listed in Shanghai Stock Exchange with both class A and B shares, Green Court was formed in 1985,
and had its first IPO in 1993. The company had been making poultry and processed food products for
nearly three decades until 2014. It first branched into private equity investment in China, then ventured
into the U.S. market for global asset management.
The sharp turn confused investors at the beginning. After two years of transformation, the market has
started to respond positively to its new international venture. Our business model framework (Table 5)
provides a concise explanation of its initial success during the transition. Green Court took advantage
of its interconnected social capital out of three areas of the framework, which allowed the company to
target a thick market opportunity with concentrated demands from customers. Green Court targeted a
special segment in the financial industry: private equity and global asset management. It is a compara-
Table 5. Green Court business model, advantage out of interconnected social capital

• Real estate based asset management • Rich global investors from China: preferred real estate based
• Securitized financial products for Chinese investors who need financial products with controllable risks
global assets management portfolio • China financial retailers: unique and attractive products for local
customers
• Value proposition flexible to local peculiarities: real estate,
global asset allocation, U.S. market, currency exchange rate
hedging, country risk hedging
• Revenues: commission, sales, capital appreciation • Non-location-bound firm-specific advantages: funds from
• Marketing based on social capital: endorsement of local business transformed IPO companies, social connections and knowledge of
leaders, perceived prestige with leading university, alumni referral, both U.S. and China markets
research reports from opinion leaders • Founding entrepreneurs’ characteristics: expatriates, successful
• Mezzanine Style Production: intermediate fund management entrepreneurs, circle of alumni
team, joint venture of Mezzanine funds, alliance with retailers and • Globally recognized reputation: community leader of the founder,
distributors previous success in real estate and food industries
• Product/service development model: internal team supervised
the execution and provided on-call advisory to partners
28

tively mature segment in the United States. However, Green Court identified a unique niche of “global
asset portfolio allocation” for rich Chinese investors who have been concerned about Chinese currency
depreciation and looking for real estate assets in the United States. Green Court’s financial products
allow investors to capture growth opportunity in the United States and hedge against risks of market
correction in China simultaneously. But setting up the architecture for cross-country trading and reach-
ing clients across cultures was not easy. Green Court did it because it leveraged social capital in the two
markets for advantage-building.
The niche market for Green Court is built upon several major changes in the Chinese economic
environment. Derived from 30 years of rapid economic growth, China produced the largest number of
multi-millionaires next to the United States. However, the economic trend is turning downward, and the
currency of Chinese RMB is doomed to depreciate in the long term. This created an incentive for the
rich Chinese to diversify their assets globally. The U.S. market has been considered the primary choice
for global asset relocation. Green Court sensed the emerging market opportunity and the lack of profes-
sional firms who would be able to conduct trans-pacific portfolio management for the Chinese clients.
To take advantage of a new market opportunity, Green Court developed a Mezzanine fund structure
that offers a unique value to clients in China: 1) they can participate in real estate projects; 2) they can
purchase financial products that are investments in real estate projects; 3) they are able to buy while
in China with Chinese Yuan; 4) the assets would be denominated in U.S. dollars. This structure has
allowed the Chinese investors to benefit from real estate projects and to hedge against volatility of cur-
rency exchange rates.
Global asset portfolio allocation is a very specialized area that usually requires many years of ex-
perience and a market record in order to acquire licenses in any operating countries. Adding to these
difficulties would be the recruitment of clients who have large amounts of disposable income for invest-
ment. In other words, the costs, both time and financial, of expanding to a global market and building
capabilities up would scare away many potential entrants.
What Green Court has been doing is quite firm specific. First, instead of constructing the production
line from scratch, it has formed a strategic alliance with West Group, an established real estate investment
entity in the United States. The joint venture immediately provided Green Court the needed credentials in
the United States as well as initial portfolio of financial products. The initial portfolio included Moynihan
Station Project, Dulles Metrorail, World Trade Center Re-development, and UNCF Headquarters projects.
In order to expand into the Chinese market, Green Court leveraged its social network and business rela-
tionships with banks and financial retail companies to promote its products without directly interacting
with end customers. The alliance for sales strategy speeded up the expansion process.
To further assist partners on both sides, China and the United States, Green Court has organized a
small cohort of professionals within the firm, as well as a research institute with a well-known university
in Shanghai, Fudan University. Both designs facilitate Green Court’s capability in product and service
development.
The internal cohort are experienced professionals, and they have received new training from Green
Court on how to “raise, manage, govern, and exit” the funds. They act like “pit boss” or fund leader for
self-selected funds, in which individual managers are also invested proportionally, so they have “skin in
the game” and are self-motivated to perform. Fund leaders are actively involved in the entire process of
the development and capitalization of financial products. With the incentive alignment, their professional
capability and in-depth involvement effectively guides the growth of the funds.
29

In addition to close involvement of fund leaders, partner institutions who distribute the products in
China also receive knowledge-based advice from research reports out of Green Court Research Institute.
Since the products and services are novel for Chinese investors, the continuous support of information
and know-how help to educate business partners and facilitate the sales at their ends.
The unique way of organizing the activity system allows Green Court to directly contribute to Green
Court attracting a valuable base of stakeholders: rich Chinese investors who need to diversify their as-
sets, and business partners who distribute their products in the large Chinese market. For investors, an
asset portfolio based on real estate is more substantial and realistic than other financial products. Inves-
tors, the Chinese investors in particular, have perceptual preferences to real estate. Projects in hot areas
in the United States made the value proposition easy to apprehend. As for the financial retailers, banks
and fund management firms, Green Court has provided a new product tailored to the passion of their
clients, growing with a mature market in a mature industry.
The Chair of Green Court, Ms. N.F. Yu, organized firm’s resources effectively. She strategically mo-
bilized social capital in both markets, China and the United States, that made a significant difference in
creating the firm’s core competence. The Chair of Green Court has been a socially active entrepreneur in
Shanghai and Washington. She was a community leader while growing up in Shanghai, which allowed
her to access financial and education resources quicker than others. While she studied and worked in the
Bay area, Chair Yu built up a network with high tech and real estate businesses. Her active participation
in professional organizations in Shanghai and Washington helped the formation of strategic alliances
with key partners in both countries. It also expedited the formation of a professional team within Green
Court. Currently, all key members of the management team have shared experiences from colleagues or
previous workplaces. That is strong evidence of the role of connectivity and social capital accounting
for a rapid transition of Green Court into the global market.
Other firm-specific resources include the credibility of an IPO company in Shanghai. Green Court
has a long history in the Shanghai Stock Exchange, which reinforced its social legitimacy when pro-
moting funds to the public. Its direct association with Green Court Research Institute in a well-known
university also created positive halo effects for its products. Together with the internal professional team
and members’ performance records, Green Court successfully constructed a new core competence out
of interconnected social capital and human resources.
Detao Masters Academy: Failure by Intermingled Execution
On January 2016, Detao Masters Academy (DTMA) was accredited as the “Platform Provider” by the
Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA/CIQG). DTMA turned out to be the first certified
for-profit education institution in Asia by CHEA. It was designed as a super channel for creative knowl-
edge production. The design was so novel that the admirers were from around the world, including MBA
students from Europe and America.
DTMA’s business model consists of three pillars: recruiting the leading experts in industry around
the world; setting up a “master studio” for the experts in China; and integrating apprenticeship and
business venturing (Table 6). The design aimed to be a “super channel for creative knowledge educa-
tion and production.” However, after 6 years and more than 50 million-dollars of investment, the entity
is hobbling towards an uncertain future. Our business model framework identified a vulnerability of
DTMA’s strategy, and its fatal weakness in its activity system: the intermingled execution suffocated
its strategic potential.
30

Table 6. DTMA global business model of intermingled execution
Intermingled Target Industry Diffused Stakeholder Value Proposition

• Super channel for creative knowledge education and production • Experts: free entry into China market, subsidy on commercial
• Master Studios for apprenticeship and product development projects
• Apprentices who want personal mentoring: internationally well-
known masters provide direct coaching and mentoring
• Businesses that aspire for transformative advisory: consulting
and partnership
• Universities demand for industrial experts: co-delivery of courses
Intermingled Activity System Non-Sustainable Resources Management
• Traditional marketing: billboard, online, and news media • Key resources are location-bound: foreign experts cannot stay in
• Expensive production model: international experts on call, China too long
translation of speeches, advisory team, paid publication of books • No firm-specific advantages
• Replicated services: simple replication of existing services from • Experts also collaborated with others, hard to maintain the
masters’ home country exclusiveness
• Revenues: tuition, royalty, capital gain, service sales • Lack of middle level adopters: foreign expertise often was lost in
translation
• Lack of means to capitalize the experts’ reputation and brands
From the beginning, DTMA endeavored to create a new market place by combining global education
resources and domestic business opportunities in China. But the market is too novel to be exploited in
the short term, and the four areas of DTMA business model happened to have high cost items that were
not sustainable for long term success. Among all the issues, the high cost and intermingled execution
prevented effective value appropriation. In the past 6 years, DTMA brought many social benefits to its
stakeholders, but it hasn’t achieved its revenue target. We will use our global business model framework
to highlight potential value of DTMA and where it fumbled.
In China, education is an ever-green business. Chinese families are famous in the world for preparing
their children for life starting from kindergarten. For example, according to the Ministry of Education of
China, more than 50,000 Chinese students went abroad to pursue higher education in 2015 alone. Among
all paths of growth, being mentored by celebrity educators has always been perceived as a powerful
recipe for career development. In this cultural context, DTMA tried to offer a turbo-charged solution:
taking apprenticeship with world leading experts, being mentored by the experts in their studios, and
having opportunities to work with the experts for commercial projects.
This value proposition suits the interests of four key stakeholders. For experts (DTMA called them
masters), free entry into the Chinese market via DTMA Studios provides benefits from cheap labor of
apprentices for their commercial projects. For prospective students, the benefits include mentorship,
working opportunity, and seed funding for qualified venture projects. For partner universities and local
governments, they could access talent pools from overseas for educational courses. For domestic com-
panies, they would receive cost-effective consultation from internationally well-known experts invited
by DTMA.
To create the super knowledge channel for the above stakeholders, DTMA recruited more than 500
industrial experts from 23 countries. These experts were selected by their award-winning achievements
and high reputations in their field. Some of these experts were the founder of Frog Design, Hartmut Es-
slinger, scientist Jay Lee, and Sir John Daniel who was president of Open University in U.K. and officer
of UNESCO. Together, the 500 recruited experts won more than 2000 awards in 57 fields. None of any
education entity in Asia has ever housed so many experts with rich industrial experiences.
31

After the recruitment, DTMA started the first 15 Master Studios on trendy businesses, such as indus-
trial design, animation, and fashion design. DTMA’s model has been widely reported by news media,
and attracted visitors from the United States and Europe. But the issues with value appropriation and
the activity system continued to haunt the company. Their lack of global management capability posed
a direct challenge to the future of DTMA. Valuable but not appropriable value proposition was a result
of several weaknesses in the four areas of DTMA’s business model.
DTMA planned to have multiple revenue sources: tuition for apprenticeship, royalty payment by cli-
ents, capital gains from invested ventures by the experts, and sales of knowledge services to university
and government agencies. DTMA’s expert resources have been highly valued by local stakeholders,
such as local universities. It formed a strategic alliance with highly reputed universities in China, such
as Beijing University and Shanghai Visual Arts Institution. They have built up model classes with more
than 400 participants in the past three years. However, the partner universities considered the programs
charity and donation from DTMA, instead of business collaboration. With the large investment from
DTMA in building up the studio, experts are supposed to bring up at least 5 cohorts of apprentices each
year in order to make the ends meet. However, it would be hard to achieve such goal with the current
activity system and resource configuration.
The entire process of the activity system made it too luxurious to be profitable. Master Studios is
the first education project of DTMA. With no history, DTMA used financial incentives to attract the
leading figures in industry to sign contracts. Industrial experts from foreign countries were invited with
round-trip business class tickets and benefits for spouses. Master Studios in Shanghai and Beijing were
fully financed by DTMA equipped with a team of supportive staff for business operation. International
experts were chauffeured around to visit potential business partners as well as sightseeing attractions.
When all the costs were added up, Master Studios expected to bring in apprentices and businesses quickly
in order to make the ends meet. Unfortunately, this goal has not been achieved.
Another example of insufficient planning of operational process is related to the scheduling difficulties
and language obstacles with the international experts. All of them have their established lines of busi-
ness in home countries. This led them to often treat the Chinese studio as a side deal or even a working
vacation from their busy schedules back home. With a very limited stay in China, studios had hard time
planning for apprenticeship programs. Additionally, international experts from 23 different countries
often communicated in their native languages. For apprentices and business partners, the language and
culture barriers were substantial and realistic. Very often, the Chinese would find themselves being lost
in translation, which also caused problems in communication between experts and top management team.
Since the business model is quite novel and the value proposition inapprehensible by the first look,
DTMA has been struggling in marketing messages and go-to-market choices. It tried university channel
by hosting free seminars in partner institutions, explored airport advertising board, and promoted via
trade magazines. None of them hit the targeted customers effectively. People often have three separate
perceived values of international experts, apprenticeship, and co-venturing business between apprentices
and their mentors. None of the messages delivered an integrated value proposition to targeted customers.
A gap between resources and capabilities engulfed the tremendous potential of DTMA’s business
model. The super channel of creative knowhow is new not only in China but everywhere in the world.
DTMA tried successfully to put a variety of international experts and domestic education partners
together in its platform. However, integrating the resources and delivering the products required a
business-specific capability.
32

The capability must include the following elements, which DTMA failed to build up. First, staff with
domain knowledge, so they can communicate with experts from 57 fields without problem. DTMA
has a large team of administrative assistants, but failed to train and equip them with required domain
knowledge. Second, coordinating routine between staff and experts to generate suitable products and
services in China. DTMA relied heavily on foreign experts to develop projects in China alone. The
experts lacked local market knowledge and could not flip their practices into marketable services in
China. Third, Chinese customers had a general tendency to appreciate tangible aspects of services and
discounted the value of intellectual property rights. To be successful, studios need to develop hybrid of
service and product for the market. That has been missing in the process of development.
In conclusion, with the tremendous and valuable resources DTMA hoarded, it failed to demonstrate
the capabilities to convert the intangible resources of international experts into tangible services and
products. Our framework highlighted the weaknesses in four areas of DTMA’s model, and revealed the
problem of intermingled execution.
Wanhua Industrial Group Inc.: A Success Story of Integrated Production
Polyurethane raw materials (MDI, TDI) are chemical materials that are used in almost all consumer
products. However, its production had been monopolized by a few leading companies, such as BASF,
Covestro (former Bayer), Huntsman (acquired ICI), Dow, NPU, Mitsuichem, until Wanhua Industrial
Group Inc. (Wanhua hereafter) came to the market. Wanhua overcame technological barriers in the 1990s
and grew into a conglomerate including Wanhua Chemical, its largest subsidiary that issued its first IPO
in Shanghai Stock Exchange in 2001. By 2015, Wanhua had grown into a global enterprise with 40% of
its 3.3 billion USD revenue from the overseas market.
Wanhua’s successful globalization was exemplified by its acquisition of BorsodChem Zrt in 2011,
a Hungarian isocyanate producer. The acquisition that was worth 12.6 billion EUR made Wanhua the
third largest isocyanate producer in the world. Our global business model framework shows how Wanhua
succeeded in its strategic expansion into Europe (Table 7).
Wanhua’s success has been firmly rooted in a Niche Market. Wanhua targeted the upstream raw ma-
terials production (MDI, TDI, ADI), because they have extensive applications in almost all consumer
products, cars, shoes, cloths, as well as medical suppliers. The segment used to be monopolized by the
Table 7. Wanhua Group business model of integrated production

• General purpose chemical raw materials • Industrial customers all consumer products market
• MCI, TCI, ACI and their derivative products • New material manufacturers
• Derivative products for special purpose manufacturing, such as
healthcare devices
• Go-To-Market model: closeness to industrial customers, • Production knowhow and risk management capability are
customized delivery by sizes and purity not bounded by locations, can be applied in different locations
• Production model: low cost production of MCI/TCI/ACI, critical internationally, such as plant in Hungary.
ingredients that require no after sale services • Globally recognized reputation of reliable production and risk
• Product/service development model: R&D aimed at high margin control, as well as low labor costs
new applications of the chemical ingredients
• Revenue: sales of raw materials
33

top 6 chemical companies in the world. It created a high return due to the concentration of producers.
The demand of its products is general, consistent, and significant, the suppliers are limited, and the
return is high.
Wanhua concentrated its business in the niche market for another reason. Due the capital requirement,
high regulation on risk management, and complexity of industrial knowhow, this niche market has high
barriers to any prospective entrants.
A non-substitutable value proposition guaranteed sustainability of its model. Users of MDI and TDI
are from all industries of consumer goods as well as industrial goods, such as medical devices. The
chemical materials of MDI and TDI have extensive applications and are used in almost every part of
our life. The market is universal, no cultural or national differences. The needs of business customers
are homogenous, except for requests for customized sizes and degrees of purity.
Advantages also came from the integrated activity system and global resource allocation. Wanhua’s
management team focused on three factors for strengthening its advantages: the degree of integration of
the production system, the global production facility and the research capability of derivative products
determine an advantageous position.
The production process demands many other industrial chemicals from coal, oil and gas. A high
degree of integration helps to reduce costs as well as improve purity. The global production facility will
reduce the risks and costs of transportation. It can also improve business status when negotiating with
competitors for distribution cooperation and countertrade. Due to the costs and risks of transportation,
competitors often involve countertrade with each other, and distribute the purchase on behalf of competitors.
A third factor is that research and development capabilities affect the product portfolio of the company.
MDI has many derivative products, but the company must have high R&D capability to extract the deriva-
tives to satisfy particular needs from customers from different industries. For example, a pharmaceutical
company may request a special catalyst from MDI. It is usually a small amount but with high margin.
Wanhua benefited from all three factors. It has successfully constructed an industrial eco-system to
integrate inputs and production within its system. The production of all related inputs are either done
internally or by joint venture partners. The high degree of integration guaranteed Wanhua a reliable
supply chain.
In summary, the potent sources of competitiveness are from the intangible resources of Wanhua’s
talents. Wanhua set up research centers in Beijing, Shanghai, and America. It also built up a sales network
in 40 countries. The local offices continued to feed market intelligence back to research centers. With
half of the overhead costs of the industry average, Wanhua employed more than 1000 highly trained
technicians and researchers to study market trends and develop premium products rapidly.
With the consolidation of the four areas of its business model, Wanhua was able to take advantage
of the 2008 crisis to acquire BorsodChem Zrt, a production facility in Hungary. This strategic move
allowed Wanhua a primary position in the European market. It also improved its strategic flexibility in
the global market, since it could easily adjust the production and distribution schedule to counter-act
rival’s moves. After the acquisition, the Financial Times praised the timing of Wanhua’s entry into the
European market. Our analysis showed steadfast build-up in all four areas of its model before Wanhua
took the opportunity to strike a good deal in the tough market of Europe. In this case both process and
timing are two phenomena that were successful to the business model.
34

DISCUSSION
In this study we concentrated on answering the following research questions: (1) what is the role of a
business model in the success of global enterprises? (2) which common attributes do business models
of successful global companies possess? and (3) how to make a business model more suitable for global
expansion? Relying on prior literature for deductive development of the presented conceptual argument,
we demonstrated the importance of a firm’s business model for global expansion, as well as the particu-
lar attributes of business models that increase the chances of a firm’s successful internationalization.
From a theoretical perspective, we demonstrate that the business models framework is instrumental in
explaining the process of expansion and growth of MNEs. Once a successful business model is designed
in any location, it becomes the FSA, and then the further expansion of the firm happens largely through
successfully replicating it in other contexts. The provided case material is used to demonstrate the ap-
plicability of the deductively developed framework, rather than as means to inductive theory building
(Siggelkow, 2007).
The prior conceptual argument and case examples discuss the common characteristics of globally
scalable business models. Although not all of these characteristics must be present for successful inter-
nationalization, each of the factors listed in Table 3 increases the chances of successful global scaling.
The management of established companies or founding teams of potential international ventures
should devote sufficient attention to proper initial segment choice (for INVs) or proper positioning
within the available industry (for MNEs), to reach the internationally dispersed expert customers with
relatively homogenous tastes, in the active search for solutions to their real problems. This would allow
the companies to reach their customers through low-cost means, spending less time and resources on
market research, advertising, and sales promotion. The globally scalable business models are usually
designed using low-cost means of communication (e.g., Internet advertising and word-of-mouth). Yet,
despite the best efforts to select the homogenous customer group, in most cases there will be the need
of adjusting the value proposition for satisfying stakeholders beyond the home country. For this reason
the benefits of global scope will be fully utilized only if the business model’s activity system is designed
for efficient business model operation worldwide. In terms of production model, the global business
models usually rely on delivery of low weight, non-perishable products. The successful MNEs also make
full use of locating production in the countries with relative low cost levels. The R&D process in global
companies should be aimed at innovations applicable outside their home markets.
Finally, the key resources underpinning the globally scalable business models must be based on non-
location-bound firm-specific advantages, serving the basis for international expansion: e.g., the globally
recognized brand/reputation, social network ties, or globally applicable technology. These FSAs are
either developed within the firm over time through investments into R&D and marketing (the Uppsala
model of MNE expansion), or are embedded with the funding team of INV.
An essential note has to be added regarding the process of international expansion. Local autonomy,
leading to decentralization, creates the conditions for the emergence of the organizational innovation
capability. This, in turn, facilitates changes in organizational products, processes and administrative sys-
tems - essential components of the business model - during global expansion (Osiyevskyy & Zargarzadeh,
2015). Diversity and unpredictability of decision-making outcomes resulting from the involvement of
a high number of employees in the process stimulate organizational innovation capability (Osiyevskyy
& Zargarzadeh, 2015). Thus, employee autonomy is one of the key enablers of routines and behaviours
fundamental to MNE innovation capability.
35

Furthermore, recombination of resources is an essential factor in the successful alteration of an MNE’s

business model to be suitable for global expansion (Verbeke, 2013; Grøgaard et al., 2011). In the inter-
national context, MNEs should find innovative ways to change their host country business models and
craft novel ways of combining internal and external resources as a response to perceived opportunities
(Osiyevskyy & Zargarzadeh, 2015).
Future Research Directions
The findings presented in this study open a set of avenues for further research. First, although not a
part of the “globally scalable business model” concept, an important tactical decision of any MNE is
the mode of foreign expansion (e.g., exporting, licensing, franchising, contract manufacturing, offshor-
ing, service sector outsourcing, turnkey operations, management contracts, international joint ventures,
wholly owned subsidiaries). Of course, the selection of the optimal mode of entry to a foreign market
is endogenous with respect to a firm’s business model and host country characteristics, such as political
and economic environment. We strongly encourage further papers investigating the link between the
attributes of the globally scalable business models and models of foreign expansion.
Second, we encourage future deductive, theory-testing studies that would corroborate and refine the
conceptual framework presented in this chapter regarding the peculiarities of the globally scalable business
models (such as Verbeke et al., 2014, testing a limited set of characteristics of business models of INVs).
CONCLUSION
As a general conclusion, our argument suggests that a business model framework is instrumental in ex-
plaining the process of expansion and growth of global businesses (INVs and MNEs). Once a successful
business model is designed in any location, it becomes the core FSA, and the subsequent further expan-
sion of the firm happens largely through successfully replicating it in other contexts, with appropriate
modifications. As such, the construct of a globally scalable business model becomes essential for the
field of international business studies.
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Business Model: The key organizational routine serving two purposes: (a) creating value for firm
stakeholders (most important: customers); (b) capturing part of the created value for firm shareholders.
Globally Scalable Business Model: An organizational routine of value creation and appropriation
that allows profitable international expansion. Once a globally scalable business model is successfully
designed and validated in one location, it becomes a non-location-bound firm-specific advantage, pro-
moting the firm’s international expansion through replication of the value creation and appropriation
routine in other locations.
International New Venture (INV): A new venture that internationalizes from the outset or soon
afterward, and eventually sells a high share of its output outside its home country.
Multinational Enterprise (MNE): An enterprise that has its facilities and other assets in at least
one country other than its home country.
39
40
Chapter 3
Critical Success Factors for
Executives in Global Economy
Neeta Baporikar
Namibia University of Science and Technology, Namibia & University of Pune, India
ABSTRACT
With the convergence of information, communication and technology and global collaboration drives
in modern management, it becomes imperative and crucial to understand the critical success factors
(CSFs) for executives. In this globalized scenario, the internet has a dramatic impact on every kind of
organization. It forms completely new challenges on the one hand but on the other hand it offers entirely
new facilities. Additionally, spatiotemporal borders disappear. Totally new business models are being
developed and companies have discovered completely new strategies to gain competitive advantage in
this information age. Further, the advancements in society and technology, coupled with accelerations
in globalization, competitive environments and changing customer’s preferences have created new chal-
lenges as well as opportunities for executives. There is need to leverage on this vicissitude. To do so, it
is essential to identify and understand the critical success factors (CSFs) fundamental to the success of
executives and that is the core objective of this chapter.
INTRODUCTION
Critical Success Factor refers to an element of organizational activity which is central to its future success.
Critical success factors may change over time, and may include items such as product quality, employee
attitudes, manufacturing flexibility, and brand awareness. This can enable analysis. Critical Success
Factor can also be any of the aspects of a business that are identified as vital for successful targets to
be reached and maintained. Critical success factors are normally identified in such areas as production
processes, employee and organization skills, functions, techniques, and technologies. The identification
and strengthening of such factors may be similar. Thus, Critical Success Factor (CSF) or Critical Success
Factors is a business term for an element which is necessary for an organization or project to achieve
its mission? For example, a CSF for a successful Information Technology (IT) project is user involve-
ment. The importance of CSFs in management first gained widespread attention following publication
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2673-5.ch003

Critical Success Factors for Executives in Global Economy
of an article by Rockart (1979). It showed the need among top executives for certain critical elements of
information, not provided by the management information systems (MIS) or the data analysis systems
available. Rockart (1979) defined CSFs as: …the limited number of areas in which results, if they are
satisfactory, will ensure successful competitive performance for the organization. They are the few key
areas where things must go right for the business to flourish. If results in these areas are not adequate,
the organization’s efforts for the period will be less than desired. He further described them as “areas of
activity that should receive constant and careful attention from management.” Thus the core aim of this
chapter is to identify, understand and evaluate the critical success factors for executives in developing
global markets. In doing so, the objectives are: to understand the relevance of executives in building
excellent organizations, identify the critical success factors for executives and evaluate the identified
critical factors.
The chapter consists of the following parts: following a brief introduction, is the background giving
the general perspective of the globalized environment, economy, business, expected role of executives
and broad definitions of the terms including literature review and the objectives of the chapter. Fol-
lowed by that is the identification of the critical success factors for executives along with the discussion
therein. Next there are the recommendations, followed by future areas for further research and finally
the conclusion is given.
BACKGROUND
The objective of management, especially in global economy is repetitive success. This is also the ex-
pectation from executives. Hence, it does little good if executives are considered successful but do not
know why they were successful and do not know how to repeat their successes. Success that is the re-
sult of luck is not really success. Hence there is a need to identify and understand the factors which are
critical in making the executives successful repeatedly. But, with phrases like Critical Success Factors
and Executives having ‘common usage’ within technical environments it is difficult to identify the true
history in the context of business, management and human resources. Spencer (1955) asks the question:
“What are the essential factors that produce success in my company?” which for 1955 is getting close to
the beginnings of CSFs – so for those interested in the early beginnings is worth a look. Predating these
pieces is a short entry by Lebreton (1957, p. 103) “the factors which seem to be paramount in determining
success in this industry” this is by far the earliest mention of what is today known as “Critical Success
factors”. Ronald (1961), does not use the term CSF or even the phrase Critical Success factors, but does
discuss critical elements and non-critical elements of a business leading to “controlling competitive
success”. He also uses the term “success factors” in the context that we would understand today. One
test for originality is the use of the TLA (Three Letter Acronym) of CSF (Rockart, 1979). To our mind
the first published work of this approach is by Rockart.
There are four basic types of critical success factors (CSF’s). They are:
1. Industry critical success factors (CSF’s) resulting from specific industry characteristics;
2. Strategy critical success factors (CSF’s) resulting from the chosen competitive strategy of the
business;
3. Environmental critical success factors (CSF’s) resulting from economic or technological changes;
and
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4. Temporal critical success factors (CSF’s) resulting from internal organizational needs and changes.
Things that are measured get done more often than things that are not measured. Thus, each critical
success factors (CSF’s) should be measurable and associated with a target goal. You don’t need exact
measures to manage. Primary measures that should be listed include critical success levels (such as
number of transactions per month) or, in cases where specific measurements are more difficult, general
goals should be specified (such as moving up in an industry customer service survey).
CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS
Identifying and managing CSFs, and tracking them separately from the ever increasing amount of data
to which executives are subjected, has been the focus of significant private sector research. Some of
the research has limited the study to those activities over which the program manager has direct control
(Cleland and King, 1988); the majority of researchers have broadened the focus to include elements
beyond the direct control of a project manager, but still within the sphere of things that either he could
manage, or that could exert significant influence on his activities. Bullen (Bullen and Rockart, 1981)
has suggested that CSF identification be focused on whether CSFs fall into one or more of several key
areas. These key areas, plus one (effectiveness of executives) we have added, are:
• Global or Industry Related: These are activities essential to project success that would be true
of any project or company operating in the particular environment (industry or business area).
• External Influences: These CSFs are governed by external factors that can significantly influence
the success of your endeavor.
• Internal Influences: These are determined by internal factors that can significantly influence
project success.
• Current and Future: Included here are time-driven CSFs that are essential to project success.
Current CSFs are activities that must be done in the near future. Future CSFs are those which are
long range. Planning for the success of future CSFs may be an activity that requires immediate
attention.
• Temporal and Enduring: These are significant influences that either have a short-term duration
or are present through most or all of a project.
• Risk Abatement: Some activities are necessary in order to avoid significant identified risks to
project success.
• Performance: These are identifiable levels of performance or achievement that must be realized
for the project to be successful.
• Special Monitoring: These activities or events require special monitoring, protection, or contin-
gency planning in order to assure project success.
• Quality: Quality requirements, if not met, will mean the failure of the project.
• Effectiveness of Executives: Some activities or conditions that currently exist or are currently
planned will, if not managed appropriately, by and through effectiveness of executives, will lead
to failure.
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Most research has been focused on the identification of CSFs for executive level managers in specific
industries, or heads of specific kinds of departments, principally MIS departments. There has also been
some minimal research focused on the diversity of applications of CSFs. One fairly common problem
with much of the reported research is that many of the identified CSFs have not been stated in the form
of an activity, as was clear in the original group of definitions given by Rockart and noted above. This
led to the identification of CSFs that were ambiguous and hard to measure. One of the early research
studies that demonstrated this problem was conducted by Boynton and Zmud (1984). This research
focused on the use of CSF, and showed that CSF analysis can be used successfully to identify key
concerns of senior MIS management, can be used in developing strategic plans, and can help identify
critical implementation issues. CSFs can also be used to help managers achieve high performance and
establish guidelines for monitoring a corporation’s activities. They also noted that CSF analysis dem-
onstrated certain weaknesses. Boynton and Zmud (1984) conclude that the weaknesses attributed to
CSFs can be overcome through careful application of the method, while CSF strength as a structured
design process for eliciting both MIS plans and managerial information needs would be a key to its
success. In another significant study, “Variation of Critical Success Factors over Stages in the Project
Life Cycle” (Pinto and Prescott, 1988), the authors hypothesized a set of CSFs, and then conducted a
validation study based on empirical evidence. Zahedi (1987) developed an evaluation of reliability of
an information system as a measure of the system’s success based on CSFs. This research addressed the
issue of the difference between behavioural and perceived measures of IS effectiveness resulting from a
lack of conceptual foundation to guide proper measurement development, and the absence of a rigorous
program of measurement validation.
It identified the need to define CSFs and identify how they are interconnected. This was another look
at a question similar to that investigated by Pinto and Prescott (1988), but looking at the set of CSFs from
a reliability viewpoint. In each case the CSFs were not treated as isolated objects but rather activities
that are interrelated. In “The Multiple Uses of CSFs” (Leidecker and Bruno, 1984), the authors stress the
applicability of CSFs for strategic planning and business strategy development, identification of threats
and opportunities, and identifying a criterion for strengths and weaknesses assessment. Walsh and Kanter
(1988) stress the importance of using the CSF identification process to identify major causes of project
failure and then ranking these major causes by relative value, so that such problems can be avoided in
future programs. One of the few comparative studies done (Chung, 1987) concluded that if the inquirer
wants to know what management is, then the process view should be studied. However if one wants
to know why selected organizations are successful in highly competitive environments, then one must
study the three critical success factors of corporate strategies, human resources, and operational systems.
His conclusion is that the truly successful companies deal with these three CSFs differently from the
way they are treated in other companies. More recently, the research has continued with the same com-
mercial emphasis as described above, but applied to current business trends. One group studied critical
success factors as they apply to establishing strategic alliances (Rai, Borah, and Ramaprasad, 1996). A
further study of CSFs in business alliances, this time with a process focus in the oil and gas industry,
was reported in the trade press (Seven Critical Success Factors, 1996). CSF analysis has also been used
for community improvement. This is closer to the public sector than most studies, and is an example of
the analysis being applied to a fairly narrow focus area (VanDeusen, 1996). The researcher gleaned six
factors from 14 community scale future search conferences conducted between 1993 and 1995. These
CSFs are leadership, scope, participation, structure, results, and strong conference management.
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One can again note the ambiguity and the problem when CSFs are not specified in terms of activities.
It is very difficult to measure something like “structure” or “scope” or even “leadership,” especially when
something like leadership can be defined and measured in so many different ways. Business processes
for new product development have not escaped the application of CSF analysis. A benchmarking re-
search study of 161 business units (Cooper and Kleinschmidt, 1996) identified the CSFs for new product
performance at the business unit level. The researchers found that the CSFs fell into major categories.
Two key performance dimensions—profitability and impact—were identified. Four key drivers were
identified: a high-quality new product process, the new product strategy for the business unit, resource
availability, and research and development spending levels. Merely having a formal new product process
had no impact. CSF analysis has also been applied directly to people, to measure productivity. Christine
Bullen, one of the leaders in the application of CSF analysis, completed a research study of knowledge
worker productivity (Bullen, 1995). She found that the context-specific nature of personal productivity
demands an understanding of the processes by which knowledge workers achieve their goals and objec-
tives. Once the nature of personal productivity is understood, measurement becomes a much simpler
task and the measures have real meaning. These studies all show how CSF analysis is applicable to a
wide variety of industries and subsets of industries.
CSF analysis has also been effectively applied to individual process areas within a corporation, such
as strategic planning and information technology implementation; although it is not routinely found
as a part of strategic management and the use of critical success factors (CSFs) in the management of
corporations has been the subject of several published studies. Research on the application of CSFs to
executives and in particular to executives in global economy is lacking. Research on evaluating the true
criticality of identified CSFs is lacking in global environment be it for government or private sector.
There is an implied assumption in much of the research to date that managers are relatively equal in
their ability to identify CSFs that truly are critical to success. This is easier said than done especially
in the light of complexities and the globe becoming boundary less. Moreover, due to the pressures of
globalization and competition, the quality of executives has come under great scrutiny as questions are
being raised worldwide regarding the ability of executives and leaders to articulate and deliver a vision
commanding the broad support of investors, customers, employees, and other stakeholders that is be
innovative (Baporikar, 2014d). Most large companies acknowledge the need to be more responsive to
shifting societal expectations, to be better able to establish trusting relationships with stakeholders, and
to become more open and accountable. And yet those same companies often struggle to translate good
intentions into good practice. In no small way this is due to the lack of any serious, practical guidance
addressing the outmoded way in which their executives/leaders tend to be selected and developed.
BUT WHAT CONSTITUTES ‘EXECUTIVE’
Senior management, executive management, or management team is generally a team of individuals at

the highest level of organizational management who have the day-to-day responsibilities of managing a
company or corporation. They hold specific executive powers conferred onto them with and by authority
of the board of directors and/or the shareholders. An executive management team is directly responsible
for managing the day-to-day operations profitably for a company. Positions that are commonly considered
to be part of that team include the following: Chief executive Officer (CEO), Chief Financial Officer
(CFO), Chief Security Officer (CSO)/Chief Information Security Officer (CISO), Chief Information
44

Officer (CIO), Legal Advisor, Chief Operations Officer (COO), Chief Procurement Officer (CPO), Chief
Technology Officer (CTO), Chief Human Resources Officer (CHRO). Of late with knowledge society
and knowledge management becoming a competitive advantage, the organizations are supposed to be
embedded with learning mechanisms so Chief Learning Officer (CLO) is a new addition to manage-
ment teams. Thus, the executive management typically consists of the heads of the firm’s product and/
or geographic units and of functional executives such as the chief financial officer, the chief operating
officer, and the chief strategy officer (Menz, 2012)
However, the terms “manager” and “executive” are sometimes used interchangeably. Although the
two functions have similarities and frequently overlap in the business world, distinct differences exist
in the roles that managers and executives play within a company. These differences often have specific
legal implications on workplace issues, specifically where work schedules and overtime pay are involved.
Hence, manager is one who oversees specific operations within a company, such as a division or section.
Managers often have one or more employees that report directly to them, either connected to a particu-
lar project, or assigned to a specific division. While managers can be an essential element in making
a company work, in many instances, managers do not direct the policy or mission of the company. On
the other hand, executives guide the general policy and the overall mission of a company and are com-
monly assigned to the highest levels of the organizational ladder (Drucker, 1967). Executives often have
broad latitude and authority to make decisions that affect large segments of a company, if not the entire
company (Mintzberg, 1973). Without getting into the nuisances of the nomenclature we review the roles
which executives have to play before identifying the CSFs. According to Mintzberg (1975), they can be
grouped into three major types:
• Decisional roles require managers to plan strategy and utilize resources.

• Interpersonal roles require managers to direct and supervise employees and the organization.
• Informational roles are those in which managers obtain and transmit information.
For these roles to be played effectively there are essentials skills required. According to Menz, 2012,
these are five critical skills:
• Technical skill involves understanding and demonstrating proficiency in a particular workplace

activity.
• Interpersonal skill involves human relations, or the manager’s ability to interact effectively with
organizational members.
• Conceptual skill is a manager’s ability to see the organization as a whole, as a complete entity.
• Diagnostic skill is used to investigate problems, decide on a remedy, and implement a solution.
• Political skill involves obtaining power and preventing other employees from taking away one’s
power.
To these, in the current scenario of globalization, we would like to add the following:
• Geopoltical skill involving the abilities to understand how nations interact for different reasons
based on geography and political alignment.
• Knowledge broking skill involving the abilities to leverage and use knowledge as a basis for ne-
gotiations (Baporikar, 2014c).
45

• Ethical and value skill involves the abilities to distinguish right from wrong and credible versus
non-credible.
• Sustainability skills involve the competencies and abilities to endure and hold on for long term
success including the inclusive approach to be adopted (Baporikar, 2016b).
However, in today’s environment industry consolidation—creating huge global corporations through

joint ventures, mergers, alliances, and other kinds of interorganizational cooperative efforts—has become
increasingly important (Hansen and Nohria, 2004). Among organizations of all sizes, concepts such as
agile manufacturing, just-in-time inventory management, and ambidextrous organizations are impact-
ing managers’ thinking about their organizational structure (O’Reilly and Tushman, 2004). Indeed, few
organization and executives are likely to blindly implement the traditional hierarchical structure common
in the first half of the century (Mintzberg, 1980). The first half of the twentieth century was dominated
by the one-size-fits-all traditional structure. The early twenty-first century has been dominated by the
thinking that changing organizational structures, while still a monumental managerial challenge, can
be a necessary condition for competitive success (Brews and Tucci, 2004). Moreover, every knowledge
worker in a modern organization is an “executive” if, by virtue of his position or knowledge, he or she
is responsible for a contribution that materially affects the capacity of the organization to perform and
to obtain results. For the authority of knowledge is surely as legitimate as the authority of position
(Drucker, 1967).
LEADERSHIP DEFINED
Discussing executives without the concept of leadership may leave the discussion incomplete. Moreover,
executives are in leading position and one of their important tasks is to lead and motivate people for
achieving the objectives of the organizations. Leadership may be seen as the action of leading a group
of people or an organization, or the ability to do this. Leadership style is the way the executive/manager
behaves in his or her role. The behaviour differs from individual to individual, nature of work, and place
of work. Leadership is defined as “exercising of command and direction in a skilful and responsible
fashion” (Rosenberg, 1983). However, there are various types of leadership which are classified and
based on the style and functions. Some of the important ones are briefly discussed below:
• Transformational Leadership: a leader develops “creative self-efficacy (CSE) and employee cre-
ativity to do things in a better way and develops knowledge sharing in employee for high perfor-
mance” (Swati and Lochan, 2015:894).
• Shared Leadership: a leader concentrates in getting team cohesion to keep all employees (subordi-
nates) together rather than aiming for performance (Mathieu, Kukenberger, D’Innocenzo, Reilly,
2015).
• Behavioural Leadership: is where “politics” play a major part in decision making ignoring the
values. The “silo” mental outlook of the leader results in poor alignment of resources with goals.
It is correctly stated that “Too many leaders are ill-equipped to lead in the current climate, as they
are not in possession of the behavioural science knowledge and skills required of leaders to be
successful in today’s academic health enterprise. A shift in orientation from knowing to doing is
a critical leadership competency” (Grigsby, 2015 p. 123).
46

• Servant Leadership: is a modern leadership approach where the leadership encompasses the ele-
ments such as love, humility, altruism, vision, trust, empowerment and service (Lokman and Sitki,
2014).
• Situational Leadership: the leader uses his/her faculty in understanding the situation (problem)
and takes appropriate decision, but there are flaws in this leadership such as frequent changes of
decisions due to lack of continuity and conformity (Baporikar, 2017b).
• Transactional Leadership: will be created where there is short term relationship between the lead-
er and the follower. In this case it is to be found often that both transactional and transformational
behaviour are applied (Baporikar, 2017a).
• Entrepreneurial Leadership: the leader takes risk in the running of an organization to improve the
organization’s performance. If the leader imposes modern practices the staff may have temporary
negative perceptions. In the long run, there will be improved perceptions by staff when it is estab-
lished that there is significant correlation between entrepreneurial leadership and improving the
results and quality (Akmaliah, Afsaneh and Soaib, 2014).
• Women Leadership: the main thrust is to develop women to become leaders by offering ‘women
only training, an equality and diversity board and women’s network (Kate, 2013). Parker and
Welch (2013, p. 332) observed that: “women are more likely to be in discipline leadership po-
sitions and less likely to be a leader of a research center or have an administrative university
leadership position [and] having more women in the network reduces the likelihood of holding
discipline leadership positions and less likely to be a leader of a research center or have an admin-
istrative university leadership position... having more women in the network reduces the likeli-
hood of holding discipline or center leadership positions”.
• Ethical Leadership: is mainly seen as being based on the characteristics of the leader, as Moses
sheds a light on the formative experiences of an ethical leader (from a Christian perspective) and
his actions demonstrate how such a leader can act under challenging circumstances (Shlomo and
Karsten, 2012, p. 962).
Parker and Welch (2013) also suggested the creation of a common leadership language. Work load
factors, succession planning and orientation have an impact in leadership development (Ladyshewsky
and Flavell, 2012). To become effective executives, particularly corporate global executives, certain
ingredients are required such as; education, training, experience, career management, family influence,
networking, sponsorship and organizational support (Sexton, Lemak, Wainio, 2014).
Leadership Theories Effect on Executive Behaviour
Early leadership studies focused on the “great man” theory: leaders are born (mostly as white males),
not developed, and have almost mythical qualities that ensure a bevy of followers (Gallagher, 2012).
Modern leadership theory first emerged in the 1940s, following the machine-like principles of scientific
management (Rost, 1997). This “rational man” model is implemented via command-and-control structures
and a strict hierarchical division of labor (Dugan and Komives, 2010). In the 1950s, the transactional
leadership theory emerged with the recognition that workers perform better when attention is paid to
motivation. While still mechanistic and linear in its approach, transactional leadership emphasizes the
role of workers in the success of an organization and a leader by offering rewards for better performance.
Transformational leadership, popularized in the late 1970s and still the dominant leadership model
47

taught in higher education (Hunt 1999) and the popular literature, takes this evolution one step further.
Charismatic “transformational” leaders transform entire organizations toward a “higher ethical purpose”
through their skills in visioning, communication and building trust and loyalty (Bass and Steidlmeier,
1999). Environmental leadership as a subset of modern leadership theory is in the early developmental
phase in the literature and in practice. Early environmental leaders tended to be naturalists and intellec-
tuals (e.g., William Bartram and Ralph Waldo Emerson) or key figures in the civic reform movements
of the early 20th Century (Andrews, 2012). Leadership arose organically, based on local concerns (e.g.,
sanitation or the protection of a particular area), often with a charismatic figure as the public voice.
IDENTIFIED CSFS FOR EXECUTIVES
Graf (2008) discussed two types of CSFs in the context of strategic management: administrative CSFs
and operational CSFs, which addressed the resources and competencies of the organization. It can be
seen, that CSFs vary from organization to organization, and even among the managers within the same
organization (Geller, 1985). Different organizations have different priorities in terms of strategies and
different perceived critical success factors which would have a snow ball effect on critical success factors
for executives (Baporikar, 2013). Though, the critical areas are unique to individual companies-reflecting
industry position, age, competitive strategy, environmental factors, management style, financial strength,
and so on (Geller, 1985), the identified CSFs for factors for executives are:
1. Understanding the Wider Picture: Organizations today are part of a wider picture of a world
with new challenges that business has to address. The current agenda includes a complex mixture
of geo-political uncertainty caused by the fall in the oil price and speculation about its future, and
regional unrest in Ukraine, parts of the Middle East and the South China Sea. On the face of it, the
fall in the oil price has been good for business. It is part of what one CEO delegate calls a ‘double
shot in the arm’ for businesses. The other part is quantitative easing by the banking and financial
institutions world over. With these two reductions in input prices, organizations need to do some of
the structural reforms that it has so far resisted. If it misses this window of opportunity, they may
end up less competitive. But the oil price fall could prove a mixed blessing, as it brings down the
cost of oil commodities which helps industries that use them, but it may discourage investment in
future exploration. Moreover, businesses want and need stability so they can plan for the future.
But the present global environment has created a climate of uncertainty. The lack of a clear vision
about what either ‘in’ or ‘out’ looks like and the blurring of geographical boundaries in business,
meaning that stability may be some way off. There is also a wider picture to consider. The fall in
the oil price has delivered a benefit to most companies, but there are signs that labour rates are
beginning to rise and that stagnation has led to a misalignment of salaries and skills. Global execu-
tives will be at the heart of all these debates.
2. Tax Versus Incentives: Tax has become a major issue on the public agenda, but also subject to
major misunderstanding – sometimes what are seen by business as legitimate incentives are inter-
preted by broader public opinion as aggressive tax avoidance. It is clear that executives and their
companies cannot avoid the connection between paying tax and their reputation as good corporate
citizens. ‘Reputational economics’ has become a new issue on boardroom agendas.
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3. Leadership in the Digital Age: Because customers increasingly do business with brands they
trust, managing corporate reputation is becoming more important. But in the age of social media
and increased scrutiny, this involves more than simple compliance and reliance upon regulation – it
requires a new kind of ‘moral courage’ and judgement that must be led from the top and embedded
among managers at all levels. The need to embrace new technologies is becoming increasingly
critical but many organisations are not exploiting the digital development that could transform
performance and labour costs. Executives and other leaders must tackle these issues in a world
where there is a growing ‘spectrum of uncertainty’. There is now a link between ethics and value
creation which raises two key questions: How is that link to be managed? Another points out that
this means organisations working in a different kind of way – less hierarchical. ‘You can no longer
rely on hierarchy alone to provide you with solutions you thought you had before.’ That is because
in the Digital Age, when a problem needs attention, there is a premium on taking a decision before
the issue escalates through social media. Leadership has two key roles in the technology debate
for the Digital Age. First, leaders must articulate the need for governments, business organisa-
tions and others to provide the digital skills that are currently in short supply. Second, they need
to tackle the fear factor which paralyses too many organisations into inaction when they come to
consider technology issues. Certainly, there are challenging issues to tackle – building future-proof
systems, strengthening cyber security and others – but it is leadership from the top that will spur
an organisation to tackle them. As one executive notes: ‘It takes a lot of courage to manage that
change process. It takes a brave person to say, “We must go forward. We can’t just fossilise”.’
4. People, Pay, and Performance: Expressed concerns about the difficulties of recruiting accountancy
professionals with the right experience for demanding roles, and the pay pressures which seem
to be mounting both in the profession and the wider labour market. An executive who is a board
member in a public sector organisation sees recruitment in the present climate as ‘a real challenge’.
The lesson for global organizations - is that skills planning require a long-term horizon (Baporikar,
2016).
5. Business Horizon: It is rightly remarked that ‘spectrum of uncertainty’ clouds the business horizon.
The world exists in an endless process of ever faster change (Baporikar, 2015). The minimum task
for business executives and leaders is to prevent their organisations falling behind. Whether it’s
thinking through the implications of Britain inside or outside the EU, the future of the oil price, or
which new digital technologies to back, executive team and professionals have a growing role. But,
if they are to play that role effectively, they will need to draw not only on their traditional skills,
but on new leadership qualities. Moreover, it is true that ‘Leaders are not necessarily managers
and good managers do not necessarily make leaders.’ Thus one of the core qualities of a leader is
to be able to see through the complexity to what is important at that moment – and deal with it.
6. Working as One: The establishment of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) provides an
impetus for South East Asian countries to develop trade within the region and integrate their
economies. But while South East Asia is a cohesive geographical region, it contains a wide range
of cultures which may hinder integration. One approach for multinational businesses is to develop
common policies designed to build trust between participants from different countries. Trust
building begins by respecting the cultural and business diversity within the region. In developing
an integrated regional economy, one of the key issues that will need to be tackled is corruption.
49

There is currently insufficient emphasis on governance issues. Businesses and government will
need to place governance and ethics at centre stage in the future if the region is to build a series of
integrated economies with global standards. The starting point for building that trust, is respect-
ing the cultural and business diversity within the region. Not every country is as developed as, for
example, Singapore. But it’s wrong to impose ideas. It’s much more effective to give people space
to learn. The aim is for a cohesive global economy – but that doesn’t mean every economy has to
be the same. Cohesion is about finding ways to work together rather than creating a set of identikit
economies.
7. Building Honest Economies: One of the big issues for global executives – is corporate governance.
Hanging over the question of governance is the spectre of corruption, which remains ingrained
in business culture in many. Hence necessary training and development to provide with both the
skills and the ‘moral compass’ to be in the front row of the fight against corruption is required.
Hence, a fresh view of governance is much needed. Governance raises a host of difficult questions,
such as ethics, diversity and sustainability, which today’s businesses need to answer. As the public
perception of what is the right thing to do changes, it is not easy to chart a course through a moral
minefield.
8. Leading the Change: Growing economies are banking on local talent to achieve growth. However,
if the latent talent is to be used to best effect, local and international businesses will need to develop
policies designed to train and develop local people, ensuring a balance of expertise. The traditional
hierarchical societies have created a culture where it has been difficult for new talent to emerge.
Leaders of the future will come from the millennial generation which has a more international
approach and is less constrained by traditional culture.
9. Branding the Profession: Professionally trained executives need to be valued at par, but this is
not so and the value placed is different in different parts of the world. This needs to change if the
profession is to make a fuller contribution to the development of the region. But where the profes-
sion is able to engage the enthusiasm of the best young talent, it will nurture the leaders of the
future and also accelerate the pace of change.
10. Growth Challenge: Despite doubts about the world economy, growth in the US economy remains
strong. But there are concerns that over-heating financial markets could cause problems similar to
the credit crunch. The US has a combination of unique strengths – a can-do business culture, access
to capital markets and world-leading innovative technologies – which will enable it to continue
to grow. There are concerns, however, that the level of corporate taxes in the US may encourage
some companies to expand overseas rather than at home. Innovative technologies may also pose
a challenge. There are few traditional business models that will not be disrupted by technology in
the years ahead. Executives will find their work changes as new technologies take over, enabling
them to focus more on future risks than past performance.
11. Hunt for Talent: The ability to link talent and technology is a critical success factor in modern
business. The young are a source of new talent – and can also provide fresh insights into how to use
new technologies most effectively. But the ‘millennial generation’ have a different attitude to work
and careers. Millennials are more likely to be excited about working on a succession of projects
in tune with their own values and aspirations than in developing a traditional linear career in one
organisation.
50

Based on the identified CSFs and the role of executives discussed above recommendations are given below:
• Educate managers and their staff in the CSF identification process. The failure to explicitly iden-
tify CSFs for a particular function or role will invariably result in the continued focus on cost and
schedule after they become problems, will inhibit the development and use of effective life cycle
measures, and will prevent the development of a truly effective organization. Cost and schedule
problems are generally effects, not causes. They are the results of conditions that should be identi-
fied and managed much earlier than the time when a cost and schedule variance first appears. It
is also essential to educate the functional managers and their staff in development of information
networks consistent with the critical success factors and establishing oversight reporting mecha-
nisms consistent with critical success factors so that critical information is reported when it is
needed.
• It is recommended that organizations, when planning and developing their information strategies,
should take into account the perceived or anticipated management information needs of heads of
departments to a much greater extent than it is usually done (Baporikar, 2014b).
• It is recommended that organizations should consider ways in which they might provide more
effectively structured training not only for newly appointed executives and managers but also for
those wishing to refresh or update their managerial skills (Baporikar, 2014a).
• It is recommended that top management or board of directors, in conjunction with other members
of the organizations senior management team re-examine the relevance of the financial informa-
tion they supply to executives, the form and manner in which such information is communicated
and the frequency with which it is communicated. Unless this is streamlined and efficient many
executives with limited financial management skills or have considerable difficulty in understand-
ing or interpreting the financial information provided to them, or both, will not be able to make
better decisions with better impact even if CSFs are well identified.
• It is recommended that the conditions and manner of appointment of individuals to the post of
executives should be more closely examined and rationalized and that, in particular, the potential
value of providing formal longer periods in office should be considered.
• It is recommended that organizations should consider the balance between the work-life of their
executives as it is evident their growing managerial responsibilities, not least the need to meet the
growing demands made upon them by their organizations substantially encroach on time which
many of them would otherwise devote to self-development and learning.
Research to reflect whether there are any changes to the CSFs as reported by managers need to be on a
continuous basis. Change in the strategies, new market development, new products or service introduced
will bring a change in the CSFs which need to be well predicted. Continued research is also required to
produce a model for evaluation of actual criticality of reported CSFs. It is anticipated that the develop-
ment of such models will provide a means to alleviate the need to assume that all executives are equally
skilled in their ability to identify CSFs and engage in effective strategic thinking. Even industry – firm
51

comparison of CSFs would be interesting areas of research which will enable benchmarking for effi-
ciency and productivity.
CONCLUSION
Executive and leadership debates are increasingly about corporate themes of governance, ethics and values
– all issues critical to future business success. Leadership is not demonstrated when someone from the
C-suite issues a set of specific edicts, but rather when those individuals develop objectives, strategies,
and a disciplined plan that both guide and respond to the best people and ideas across an increasingly
diverse portfolio of markets and business functions. This has implications for senior managers as well
as for those who hold executive roles in other parts of the organization. It is notable that many of the
“leading company” are characterized by decentralized authority and decision-making. More companies
are extending this approach to include key external stakeholders who, until recently, were not considered
critical players in corporate decisions. Furthermore, as companies look to attract and develop their next
generation of leaders, they will need different skill sets to be able to manage the increasingly complex
sustainability factors impacting companies (Deshpande and Baporikar, 2014a). Thus, effective corporate
executive ship, at all levels of an organization - from front-line change agents to senior management -
will increasingly depend on a sophisticated ability to identify, engage, and incorporate the needs and
interests of a diverse range of internal and external stakeholders.
Some of the most difficult decisions which executives must make are about how to balance growth
against sustainability criteria. With a global outlook, executives must be in a well placed to provide a
significant contribution to this debate. It is rightly said: “executives of tomorrow need to have the ability
to step back and define the problem they are trying to address and to assess the resources they need to
solve the problem. Increasingly, those resources will be about quality of knowledge, skills and innova-
tion and how you put all that to work.” The ability to think strategically should lie at the heart of the
executive mind set. The problem-solving training which most executives receive should enable them to
analyse situations and bring a global perspective to their solutions. Successful executives of the future
will need the ability to bring together not only talent and technology to create new ways of doing busi-
ness but also to lay their hands and mind on the CSFs in relation to their businesses and organizations.
Finally, the world and the business models are disruptive; hence to be winners, the executives will be
those who disrupt rather than those who are disrupted.
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Barrier: An external condition or organizational (internal) weakness that hinders an organization’s

ability to accomplish a goal or objective.
Critical Success Factors (CSFs): The handful of key areas where an organization must perform
well on a consistent basis to achieve its mission.
Enabler: An external condition or organizational strength that facilitates an organization’s ability to
accomplish its goals or objectives.
Executive Performance Measure: Performance targets relevant to each executive versus objective.
Executive: A person with senior managerial responsibility in a business.
Information Technology (IT): The hardware, software, and telecommunications that facilitate the
acquisition, processing, storage, delivery, and sharing of information and other digital content in an
organization.
Operational Planning: The process of making decisions about the allocation of organizational
resources (capital and staff) to pursue a strategy.
Strategic Goal: A primary goal of an organization or enterprise that implies a particular strategy
or set of strategies.
Strategic Planning: A process for defining an organization’s strategy, or direction, and making
decisions about how to allocate its resources to pursue this strategy, including its capital and people.
Strategy: A derived approach to achieving the mission, goals, and objectives of an organization. It
supports the organizational vision, takes into account organizational enablers and barriers.
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Chapter 4
Strategic Planning, Cultural
Context, and Business
Continuity Management:
Business Cases in the City of Shkoder
Mirko Perano
Reald University of Vlore (ASAR), Albania
Xhimi Hysa
Epoka University, Albania
Mario Calabrese
Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
ABSTRACT
This study is focused on the role, importance and practice of Business Continuity Management (BCM)
in relation with Strategic Planning (SP) and Cultural Context (CC) by offering a holistic framework for
short-term and long-term strategic business analysis. The purpose is to create a unique structured plan
for understanding the organizational failure willingness and to create a culture of readiness, feedback
and risk management. The methodology used is quantitative with questionnaire for collection data. The
study sample includes 50 organizations from four different sectors: banking, services, industrial and
insurance in Shkoder (Albania). The research findings show a positive correlation between SP and BCM
(0.54%), with a significant positive impact of SP on BCM. A positive correlation is founded between SP
and CC (0.588%). The study suggests that placing the BCM in the Corporate Culture may be entitled
as another manner of integrating BCM and SP in one structure. Between culture and strategy there is a
huge number of characteristics and similarities they have in common with each other.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2673-5.ch004

Strategic Planning, Cultural Context, and Business Continuity Management
INTRODUCTION
Even though crises, risk, and destruction intimidate the short/long-term survival of some business orga-
nizations, and regardless the risk has the most important impact in organizational dynamics in front of
this hastily changing business world, still strategic management scholars continue to demonstrate limited
and partial awareness in the organizational risk. It also must be considered that the effect of geopolitical
actions impact on the globalization and the organizations can react differently depending on cultural
context and on interest markets. Overall, the studies about the relationship between organizational risk
and strategy are limited. Such limits have their consequences in these studies which are constrained to
be divided and to change the face of organizational risk from application and responsibility (Wiseman,
1999; Ruefli et al., 1999).
According to Ritchie (2003), for making a strategic plan it is needed to make some additional research
and experimental work and also some enlargements of the conceptual model linked to crises operation,
risk and destruction. It also required expanding the meaning of the implementation of crises operation,
risk and destruction by usage of further fields and regulations, by giving attention to the disciplinary-
action of the organizational crises, which appeal for an integrative approach of crises operation, risk and
destruction (Sheaffer & Mano-Negrin, 2003).
Referring to Graham and Kaye (2006), the organization should firstly inspect the business and figure
out the risk in order to determine and to fulfill a valuable program for business continuity management
and finally to fulfill effectively the business continuity program.
According to Selden and Perks (2007), failing to plan is planning to fail. It means that businesses
must know to manage the urgent situation they may face in any time. The greatest plan is to be done
before the incident and not after it. It has been pointed out by the author also the importance about the
integration of Business Continuity Management (BCM) with Strategic Planning (SP) in one structure
which is in the same line with this study’s research aim.
The aim of this study is to underline the role, importance, and the practice of Business Continuity
Management (BCM), Strategic Planning (SP), and the relation between them in short and long-term.
In addition, the study focuses on integrating in one holistic framework that includes BCM with SP by
analyzing the factors that are likely to influence the integration of BCM with SP by analyzing the factors
that are likely to influence the integration of BCM with SP in one structure.
By studying the relation between BCM and SP, particular attention has been given to the intervention
of Cultural Context (CC) as a moderating variable, especially by defining the timeframe orientation (long
term or short term). Also, the research work is centered on the key components of Business Continuity
Planning which provide an obvious plan for organizational failure willingness. It means paying more
interest in practical strategies and having a total approach to construct general ability in the urgent will-
ingness and feedback as well as to have risk elimination.
Herbane et al. (2004) mentioned that more research and practical studies centered on the strategic
role of BCM about integrating BCM and SP in one structure are needed since the field of the study so
far is without revealing. In addition, literature shows that ample research in the field of BCM is strongly
connected with CC. Cultural context is a unique factor that directs regulation and ultimately the plan-
ning success, because every organization has a special plan, and because it does not exist in any manual
solution design in business continuity management.
The Business Continuity Institute’s Good Practice Guide for several years has supported “Integrat-
ing BCM in the Organization’s culture” as the only one of the management practices. Regardless of this
58

practice or maybe the reason of it, there are a lot of cultural obstacles such as “it will never be happening
this to us” syndrome situation. This happens because of confusing the increasing responsiveness and
skills training with the cultural transformation. To transform the CC, it requires more knowledge than the
procedure of what includes the BCM. It needs to study a wider level of the management understanding
and to be organized with further management control inside the business. Notably it is necessary to insert
knowledge of the CC within the practices and apply this knowledge in order to increase the attraction and
importance of the BCM in organizations. In case it is difficult to understand the importance of culture
within organizations, or in case the management supra-structure enforces cultural transformation, then
there is the risk of “conformity”. It must work in group with strategic managers and with leadership of
the Human Recourses Department in order to have a control or change the culture and then to form a
culture of continuity or flexibility (Simpson, 2013). In addition, to better understand there are developed
three steps just to improve some skills, capabilities to get connected with other cultures and to identify the
necessities of the cultural change in organizations. These steps are: first one, it is difficult to go beyond
the common culture of the BCM; secondly, understanding how to integrate culture into organizations in
one structure; and thirdly, understanding the culture of the BCM and finally prove to support the others
to make some transformations. As a result, this research puts an emphasis in identifying some of the
Business Continuity Management (BCM) researchers who have underlined the importance of increasing
a better perception about the relation between SP, CC and BCM in order to find out about the business
activities in long and short-term period. Other emphasis is on the BCM practice and the impact of in-
tegrating BCM with SP in one structure and to reach an integrated strategic structure for BCM and SP
which aims to give to the business a broad potential of flexibility beside powerful organizational crises,
risk and destruction. The benefits from this integration can be considered as part of competitive advantage
in general for the organizations that operate in globalizations markets, but in particular for the Albanian
firms participating in the survey, which, with the next entry in the European Union, they will face more
problems arising from the geopolitical actions. The correct integration between SP, CC and BCM and
their integration in the organizations’ culture can represent a way to facilitate the competitiveness not
only in the European but also in the global economy.
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Strategic Planning (SP)
The survival of each organization depend on its capability to reach the specific goals and maintain a high
adapting capability to the dynamic markets, especially for the organizations operating in international-
ized markets and more in the context of emerging economy. These goals can have similarity between
organizations in the same sector, but they have specificity for each organization. The way that can help
to reach each goal depend on the ability of the management to read the environment and anticipate the
competitors’ actions by building an adequate strategic planning system and select (from strategic deci-
sion making) the better strategy for that moment and that organization. Among these (planning and
strategies) there is a relation (Mintzberg, 1994a) that impact, for organizations, on the capability of value
creation for survive; but definitely “strategic planning is not strategic thinking”. Strategic thinking is a
“synthesis” and “involves intuition and creativity” (Mintzberg, 1994b). This synthesis can be realized
by using appropriate analytical techniques for understand and develop strategy (Porter, 1987). From
59

literature on strategic management field, this rational and analytical approach (Ansoff, 1991; Goold,
1992) was often considered as synonymous with strategic planning (Camillus, 1986; Goold and Quinn,
1993; Lorange et al., 1986; Porter, 1980; Richards, 1986). Henry Mintzberg (1973) defined Planning
and adaptive strategy making like different approaches to strategy formulation.
The strategic planning is a method that shifts the educational organization throughout the steps about
understanding the differences in external environment, evaluating strengths and weaknesses, expanding
the vision of the desired future about the organization and several methods to attain the mission (Brown,
1987). The role of strategic planners is to “[…] support strategy making by aiding and encouraging
managers to think strategically”.
For having greatest outcomes, the strategic planning needs to collect efficient information, enlarging
and looking for strategic options, and also highlighting the future suggestions for the existing choices
(Bryson, 1995). In addition, it recognizes the appropriate operations in the environment, evaluates the
powerful suggestions, and develops united strategy to conduct the future actions in front of uncertainty
(Cooper, 2003). The better benefit in having a good strategic planning as mechanism for improving
the strategic decision is “[…] coordinating strategic decision making and (for) driving performance
improvement” (Grant, 2003).
Strategic planning in its potential structure begins with the society as the principal client and receiver
and continues to determine the allocation of the organizations. This technique comforts the relation
between the organizations creation, applying, distribution and the external outcomes (Kaufman, 1996).
The strategic planning process permits community groups to predict reasonable options for future
that help to obtain proper strategic purposes by using the right information about linking movement and
increasing the collection along the method of the environmental examination.
The key purpose of the strategic planning is saving the organization from being a “hostage” of un-
certainty, having alternatives and performing to build the future, and changing activity for being a moti-
vated and dynamic member in order to be flexible by adjusting itself when unexpected change happens
(Romney, 1996). In addition, it illustrates both the opinion of the people and offers to the stakeholders
a chance to have optimism about the future of the institutions and pay attention to the most important
problems by dealing with them in advance.
The strategic planning process involves a thoughtful methodology to have a wide understanding
about the feelings and performance of the stakeholders’ activity. It is recommended to apply numerous
data collection methods by involving document gathering, monitoring and informal interviews (Bishop,
Hines, and Collins, 2007).
Culture Context (CC)
Culture is the concept of producing different perceptions where people understand their knowledge and
direct the activity. Also the culture is a directed structure of definitions and symbols where it obtains
social relations (Tharp, 2010).
Culture aspect emerge from interactions and relations between organizations and its stakeholders in a
specific ecosystem. From a quality and cultural orientation of this relations can depend the survival of
each component of ecosystems (Pellicano, Perano, Casali, 2016).
The organizational aspect in culture context is seen as a key aspect for having business success,
sometimes more than strategy and structure. The characteristics of organizational culture are norms,
60

values, beliefs and regulations and the methods of behavior, which are implemented between people in
any organization. It is implied that the managers’ capability is affected from organizational culture for
developing information and applying tactics during the decision-making methods (Hofstede et al., 2010).
In order to get things completed, the structure of norms, values, attitudes, principles, assumptions
and beliefs might be unwritten actions and this gives a special illustration to the organizational struc-
ture. The goal of the culture is to get together the correct people for accomplishing the organizational
objectives. It results that the team orientation that is a trait of the organizational culture is related with
the attainment-oriented culture. According to Brown (1998), basic sources of organizational culture are:
general cultures, climate investigation, the human resource management and organizational structure.
Business Continuity Management (BCM)
The BCM recognizes the main important part in the organization where it is difficult to manage loses,
as well as the information, stock, properties, and the personnel, and also to make plans to avoid the
unpredictable crises and risks (Protiviti, 2013). Furthermore, BCM enlarges the strategies, plans and
activities which ensure the defense and the different methods for the function of these actions or for the
business development, but in case these become discontinuous then the organizations will face large
and important loses outcomes.
The BCM commits the prediction of incidents, which will involve the mission of significant task
and development of the organization, and be ready to any unpleasant incident in a premeditated and
prepared method.
It is compulsory for the organization to have a “secret” plan and to use it in case of any incident in
order to ensure organizational survivor with little and small damages (Gallagher, 2003). BCM is not
only a topic referred to plans.
A positive side of the BCM is about to make sure that actions are established to decrease the chances
of the problems and to include basics of the flexibility and eventuality into the business which also in-
cludes formation of the proper BCM culture aspects. BCM improves the ability of avoiding, organizing,
reacting, managing and improving from the influence of critical incidents (Gallagher, 2003). In addition,
it builds more resilient organizations.
The Relation and Integration Between SP, CC and BCM
It is highlighted the significance of placing BCM in the culture of the organization through a continu-
ing program of testing, preservation, training and improving the on-going plans (Dawes, 2004; Savage,
2002; Wojcik, 2002; Kippenberger, 1999). Placing the Business Continuity Management in the corporate
culture may be entitled as another manner of integrating BCM and SP in one structure.
In relation with the cultural context (CC), the SP and CC can be replaceable with each other, par-
ticularly when the community culture is dissimilar and constrains the organizations to make extra plans
(Weick, 1987). On the other side, BCM aims to expand the organizational culture flexibility and every
employee is required to take part, cooperate and respond to failures and crises with a planned strategy.
BCM is related with the way of thinking, answering and behaving in front of unpredicted events
and incidents. Furthermore, it is not sufficient only to identify the BCM as an applied and implemented
plan. According to Alesi (2008), the BCM can be seen as an advanced learning in every day activity
which highlights the flexibility, portability and technological combination and have to be implanted in
61

the culture of the organization. In a culture of flexibility there is a free environment for announcing and
concentrate on trouble solutions and in the organizational threats and risks (Elliot et al., 2010). According
to Starr (2002) the flexible organizations are able to resist disruptions and discontinuity because they
are adaptable in a changing environment.
The successful cultural changes are accomplished with training (Self et al., 2007). Therefore, in-
tegrating BCM in the organizational culture might be accomplished as a result of creating continuity
participatory plans by inviting every employee in the BCM, by forming plans which are flexible and
understandable, and by inspirational leadership (Alesi, 2008; Elliot et al., 2010; Schraeder et al., 2005).
BCM can be embedded in the organization’s culture through continuous training, testing, maintenance
and updating of the BCM plans, including the business continuity plan and the disaster recovery plan
(Low, 2010; Gibb and Buchanan, 2006).
Performing such activities (which are also referred to as BCM program management) on regular basis
creates and preserves continuity culture and encourages all the employees to participate actively in BCM.
Throughout the years 1970s and 1980s it was a decrease of the SP reputation but several researchers
mentioned that SP continues to be useful and the traditional SP methods continue to be helpful (Glaister,
1999). However, strategic planning must be changed for holding stability and combining it with the
external environment, as it is known the business environment is changing rapidly (Proctor, 1997)
According to (Kash & Darling, 1998; Preble, 1997; Camillus, 1996), even though SP assists to
predict the future, still planning practices in business are missing when it comes to manage crisis, risk,
and destruction. By integrating BCM with SP in one structure it is likely to establish the organizational
strategic potential flexibility (Herbane et al, 2004).
BCM as a concept has been coined in 2000s and consequently is a new qualified practice (Borodzicz,
2005). Thus, few studies are done on the topic of integrating BCM with SP in one structure (Herbane
et al., 2004; Malone, 198; Wong, 2009)
Integrating BCM with SP in one structure helps the organizations to recover from the crises with
a slight collision to the environment competitiveness (Wong, 2009). According to a study of 12 North
American organizations it was suggested to form BCM within strategy because it will assist to have long
term goals, build up protective capability, develop the Strategic Planning and form a flexibility culture
(Foster & Karen, 2005).
According to Malone (1989) and Collins & Porras (1996) it exist a positive correlation between SP
and BCM where this last has the capability to accomplish business vision because it is evaluated as the
element of the strategic planning and also can predict the future continuity. This signifies the integration
of BCM with SP in one structure by connecting with the business vision. Actually, the new ISO 22301
resilience standard has implied that BCM program plan should be more strategic supporter (Potter, 2014).
Finally, several factors related with organizational responsibility, future crises and destruction forecast,
and the importance of increasing the strategic level of the business continuity management have been
studied (Herbane et al., 2004; Hurley-Hanson, 2006; Ritchie, 2003; Roberts & Stephens, 2009; Hiles,
2004; Kash & Darling, 1998; Smith, 2002, 2013). The main factors of the external business environ-
ment are: the business concerns for defending the clients, concerns about the economic threat, about
technological threat, about environmental threat (global warming), about political threat, about social
and cultural threat, concerns for globalization threat, and the necessity to fulfill international and legal
rules/regulations. The business environment is affected even from some internal factors, such as: human
skills, risks that affect corporate services, individuals and structures, concerns for supporting competitive
improvements and also the validity of the infrastructure, time and the budget.
62

METHODOLOGY AND ANALYSIS
The research done in this work is a quantitative one based on the descriptive design and exploratory
under positivism philosophy for validate our research hypothesis. From the positivism it is illustrated
the deductive approach. For the strategy it was applied the survey method.
Concretely, the research is focused on the relationship between some variables that the authors have
called as SP (strategic planning), CC (cultural context) and BCM (business continuity management).
Therefore, the research questions aroused are:
• What is the relationship between Strategic Planning and Cultural Context?

• What is the relationship between Strategic Planning and Business Continuity Management?
The verification of the proposed model is structured into the following phases:
1. Research Design.
2. Survey and Data Collection.
3. Data Analysis and Research Findings.
Data are gathered through the instrument of questionnaire and analyzed statistically through the
EViews software. Research setting refers to the ancient city of Shkoder, located in the northern part of
Albania and populated by different business categories.
Research Design
The theme of the Strategic Planning has been addressed almost entirely to the performance of organiza-
tions (Ong’ayo, 2012; Arasa & K’obonyo, 2012). According to us, no research has instead focused on the
relationship between SP and CC and relationship between SP and BCM. Consequently, it was considered
to test exploratory purposes, and the model shown in reference to this context. To test hypotheses, men-
tioned above, the authors thought to focus on the identification of the relationships (Robinson, 2003).
According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2008), social phenomena (that depend on human behavior) are
best explained using qualitative and quantitative research.
Survey and Data Collection
The data used in this study are primary data sources, collected by questionnaires. The main tool for col-
lecting data in this study was questionnaires. According to Patton (2002), the quality of the data obtained
through this type of collection for art, is largely dependent on the skills of the researcher conducting the
analysis. By coding the answers in the order of sequential associations you can get a rough measure of
their relative strength (Hutchinson, 1983). Unlike the vast majority of existing studies in the literature,
performed using a composite sample of university students, our choice was to focus on the interviews
of 50 organizations in a developing country from four different sectors: banking, services, industrial and
insurance in different businesses in Shkoder (Albania). Considering the exploratory nature of the analysis
and the Albanian geographical dimension (and numerosity of organizations of each sector investigated),
the sample collected can be considered suitable.
63

According to Knight (2001), the questionnaire contains all the necessary elements to get the answers.
To use a questionnaire within a survey study it permits the researcher to get the data through people’s
thoughts, judgments and activities. Moreover it helps the researcher to gather information’s regarding
the people’s awareness about the risk, culture and experiences and for the future prospects (Neuman,
2000). In addition, by analyzing the literature review it was revealed that the questionnaire was the most
frequent data collection instrument applied on BCM research (Chow, 2000; Woodman, 2008; Pitt &
Goyal, 2004), confirming with this the research setting.
Accordingly, the organizations in the city of Shkoder are very sensitive in sharing their information
regarding BCM, organizational culture and SP, because they consider it as confidential. In addition, to
have straight entrance through BCM, organizational culture and SP it might be somehow difficult and
might take times. Moreover, using a questionnaire method in these studies it will permit the researcher
to gather additional responses and maybe to ask private questions since the questions are prepared to
be in a confidential way (Knight, 2001). For these reasons mentioned above in this research study it is
used a questionnaire method.
The questionnaires are divided in two different types, such as: self-administered and interviewer
administered, according to (Saunders et al., 2015). The self-administered questionnaires are fulfilled by
respondents itself; in contrast, the interviewer administered questionnaires are fulfilled by interviewer
regarding the answers of respondents. Furthermore, the self-administered questionnaires involve three
different ways of collecting the answers, through: online, e-mail and distribution and gathering the
questionnaires. Moreover, the interviewer administered questionnaires involve two ways for gathering
the answers, through: structured interviews and phone questionnaire. In this work are used both types
of questionnaires but mostly it is centered into interviewer-administered questionnaire, except the fact
this kind of questionnaire waste the time and is expensive for researchers (Knight, 2001).
In this study it was selected the structured interview type of interviewer administered questionnaire.
The questionnaire was a bit long because intends to examine the role, importance and practice of the
BCM and SP, and the relation between SP, CC and BCM (long/short-term period). In addition, it was
aimed the integration of BCM with SP in one structure and the analysis of the several factors that are
likely to influence the integration of BCM with SP in one structure. It is suggested that long question-
naires are performed as structured interviews (Saunders et al., 2015).
Regarding the sample, 50 organizations from different sectors were chosen randomly from Albanian
Shkoder city area. The demographic sample characteristics are shown in table 1.
Data Analysis and Research Findings
Data analysis is the process that begins with the collection phase and ends with the stage for the prepara-
tion and data interpretation (Kothari, 2004). For the data analysis it is used the EViews software. In table
2 it is shown the correlation analysis between SP and CC based on the answers given by the responders
in consideration to the administered questionnaire.
According to the correlation test mainly the correlation of the question is positive but not very strong.
The highest correlation is found between question 6 of SP and question 3 of CC at a value of 0.62%. Thus,
scanning the business environment is highly correlated with implementing continuously new methods
in the business in order to improve it.
However there are also some very low negative correlation between question 2 of SP (“Motivating
innovation and creation”) and question 9 of CC (“People understands what needs to be done for us to
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Table 1. The Demographic Sample Characteristics
Frequency %
EMPLOYEES
Less than 10 34 65%
10-49 13 26%
50-249 2 4%
More than 250 1 2%
YEARS IN SP
Less than 1 year 3 6%
1-5 years 12 24%
6-15 years 24 48%
More than 15 years 11 22%
CATEGORIES OF THE ORGANIZATIONS INDUSTRY
Industrial 5 10%
Banking 7 14%
Insurance 2 4%
Service 3 64%
Other 4 8%
TYPES OF SHAREHOLDERS OF THE ORGANIZATIONS OWNERSHIP
Private Organizations 49 98%
Governments 1 2%
RISK LEVEL
Very Low 6 12%
Low 21 42%
Medium 23 46%
Table 2. Analyzing the relationship between Strategic Planning (SP) and Cultural Context (CC)
SP1 SP2 SP3 SP4 SP5 SP6 SP7 SP8

CC1 0.350512 0.096457 0.100721 0.525296 0.108722 0.35484 0.370568 0.199246
CC10 0.312359 0.168127 0.165888 0.460301 0.173203 0.329515 0.178011 0.17856
CC11 0.263943 0.16218 0.246117 0.430117 0.008981 0.298443 0.043111 0.189817
CC12 0.324969 0.170847 0.319459 0.422611 0.098863 0.267761 0.240894 0.268326
CC13 0.410525 0.103792 0.141629 0.363481 0.117882 0.211366 0.130886 0.135662
CC14 0.153651 0.211387 0.159078 0.018795 0.265708 0.224869 -0.02779 0.104205
CC2 0.111883 0.242351 0.208664 0.312284 -0.03381 0.273261 0.377256 0.473676
CC3 0.460224 0.544062 0.465434 0.431147 0.062392 0.621395 0.522399 0.387153
CC4 0.327408 0.160394 0.00905 0.379439 0.281595 0.288164 0.549056 0.075735
CC5 0.498356 0.339898 0.10743 0.467717 0.122882 0.384437 0.527476 0.365846
CC6 0.322877 0.19241 0.307861 0.488759 -0.05417 0.420381 0.159833 0.092443
CC7 0.377304 0.227582 0.23857 0.482943 -0.02571 0.336161 0.228911 0.066573
CC8 0.334957 0.445215 0.513168 0.339683 -0.01195 0.482066 0.326283 0.429363
CC9 0.167459 -0.00038 0.120502 0.322382 0.274543 0.333865 0.216529 0.081354
65

succeed in the long-run”), between question 5 of SP (“Identifying various types of risks facing the
organization”) and question 2, 6, 7, and 8 of CC (“We respond well to competitors and other changes
in the business environment”, “There is a purpose and long-term direction”, “There is a clear strategy
for the future”, and “Leaders set goals that are ambitious, but realistic”), and between question 7 of SP
(“Ensuring the existence of proactive business continuity planning”) and 14 of CC (“We are able to cope
with short-term requirements without compromising our long-term vision”). The correlation of the total
point of SP and CC is positive at the amount of 0.588%, as declared in table 3.
Table 4 reflects the analysis of the impact of each CC question on the total SP point taken for each
company. Accordingly, the questions 3 and 7 of CC have the highest impact on SP, and respectively
question 3 has a positive impact of 3.4 points and question 7 a negative impact of 4.6 point. In addition,
these two questions are the only questions that have significant impact on SP. Thus, continuously adopted
new ways and improved to do the work have a significant positive impact on SP of the company while
having a fixed strategy for the future affects negatively in SP of the company.
In table 5 it is analyzed the impact of the question of CC divided on three groups: analysis, motivation
and long term, on the average point taken for each company in SP. Accordingly the group of strategy
and motivation have the highest impact on SP, where motivation is significant at significance level of
0.1 and the other two groups have insignificant impact on SP.
Accordingly, CC has a significant positive impact in SP (Table 6).
In table 7 it is shown the correlation analysis between the questions of SP and BCM.
According to the correlation test mainly the correlation of the question is positive but not very strong.
The highest correlation is found between question 1 of SP and question 17 of BCM and question 7 of
SP and 11 of BCM, respectively at a value of 0.64% and 61%. Thus, achieving sustainable competitive
advantage and ensuring the existence of proactive business continuity planning are respectively highly
correlated with concerns about maintaining customers and the need to recover effectively from disasters.
However there are also some very low negative correlations between question 1 of SP (“Accomplishing
sustainable competitive advantages”) and question 7 of BCM (“Compliance to legal acts”), between
question 4 of SP (“Ensuring ongoing growth and success”) and questions 6, 7, 8, and 18 of BCM (“Con-
cerns about natural risk”, “Compliance to legal acts”, “Concerns about the forces of globalization”, and
“Concerns about social risk”) and between question 5 of SP (“Identifying various types of risks facing
the organization”) and 7 of BCM (“Compliance to legal acts”), between question 6 of SP (“Scanning
business environment”) and question 8 and 12 of BCM (“Concerns about the forces of globalization”
and “Concerns about biological risk”). The correlation of the total points of SP and BCM is positive at
the amount of 0.54%, as it is evidenced in table 8.
The following table 9 reflects the impact of each SP question on the total BCM point taken for each
company. Accordingly, the highest impact on BCM comes from the questions 4 and 7 of SP; respectively,
Table 3. The correlation of the SP and CC
SPTOT CCTOT
SPTOT 1.000000 0.588149
CCTOT 0.588149 1.000000
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Table 4. Analysis of the impact of each CC question on the total SP point for each company
Dependent Variable: SPTOT

Method: Least Squares
Date: 05/23/15 Time: 15:56
Sample (adjusted): 1 49
Included observations: 49 after adjustments
Variable Coefficient Std. Error t-Statistic Prob.
CC1 1.841633 1.096939 1.678884 0.1023
CC2 -0.131055 0.814166 -0.160968 0.8731
CC3 3.402335 0.913611 3.724054 0.0007
CC4 0.394849 1.015793 0.388710 0.6999
CC5 0.190874 0.804928 0.237131 0.8140
CC6 2.133705 1.469129 1.452360 0.1556
CC7 -4.680808 1.825084 -2.564708 0.0149
CC8 0.492434 0.880205 0.559453 0.5795
CC9 0.061900 0.500618 0.123648 0.9023
CC10 0.330115 1.059017 0.311718 0.7572
CC11 -0.348709 1.164959 -0.299331 0.7665
CC12 0.861957 0.673924 1.279012 0.2096
CC13 -0.307906 0.821033 -0.375022 0.7100
CC14 -0.506759 0.784056 -0.646330 0.5224
C 18.30073 5.641218 3.244110 0.0026
R-squared 0.619428 Mean dependent var 32.93878
Adjusted R-squared 0.462721 S.D. dependent var 4.875142
S.E. of regression 3.573445 Akaike info criterion 5.631722
Sum squared resid 434.1633 Schwarz criterion 6.210851
Log likelihood -122.9772 Hannan-Quinn criter. 5.851443
F-statistic 3.952793 Durbin-Watson stat 2.031593
Prob(F-statistic) 0.000522
question 4 has a negative impact of 4.7 points and question 7 a positive impact of 3.8 point. Moreover,
the questions that have a significant impact on BCM are 3, 4, 5 and 7. Thus, “Implementing productive
action plans”, “Identifying various types of risks facing the organization”, and “Ensuring the existence
of proactive business continuity planning” have a significant positive impact of BCM while “Ensuring
ongoing growth and success” has a significant negative impact of BCM.
Moreover, SP questions are divided in three groups: analyzing, management and success. In the tables
below (10 and 11) it is analyzed the impact of these three groups on BCM where the highest impact and
the only significant impact is resulted by management group.
Furthermore, in Tables 10 and 11, the significant positive impact of SP on BCM is shown.
67

Table 5. CC impact divided on three groups: analysis, motivation and long term
Dependent Variable: TOTAL_AVG_POINT_SP

Date: 05/23/15 Time: 15:35
Sample: 1 50
Included observations: 50
STRATEGY 0.230857 0.181441 1.272352 0.2096
MOTIVATION 0.241703 0.143254 1.687230 0.0983
LONG_TERM 0.011185 0.175791 0.063629 0.9495
C 2.196665 0.444333 4.943732 0.0000
Table 6. Analysis of the total impact of CC on SP
Dependent Variable: SPTOT

Date: 05/23/15 Time: 16:20
Sample (adjusted): 1 49
Included observations: 49 after adjustments
CCTOT 0.302101 0.060594 4.985638 0.0000
C 16.19374 3.406548 4.753708 0.0000
FUTURE RESEARCH
Strategic aspect in managing organization is an old but even new topic on which scholars and prac-
titioners give attention. Strategic Planning, as mentioned, is not strategic management, but it can be
considered as a relevant process in searching of competitive advantages. Do SP requires knowledge
68

Table 7. Analyzing the relationship between Strategic Planning (SP) and BCM
SP1 SP2 SP3 SP4 SP5 SP6 SP7 SP8

B1 0.437785 0.260959 0.178526 0.446596 0.17635 0.322675 0.359476 0.134657
B2 0.360711 0.199278 0.350314 0.400026 0.196706 0.400605 0.290497 0.02755
B3 0.438315 0.232394 0.016339 0.240954 0.50605 0.113247 0.295615 0.111792
B4 0.230267 0.407794 0.517768 0.209422 0.167923 0.424925 0.427345 0.284363
B5 0.077469 0.04785 0.220099 0.073115 0.179059 0.197597 0.110144 0.228062
B6 0.07325 0.120181 0.153596 -0.03716 0.012408 0.25644 0.081192 0.22087
B7 -0.1567 0.139332 0.366006 -0.24661 -0.05585 0.12276 -0.01843 0.177287
B8 0.11698 0.06914 0.121984 -0.24083 0.233691 -0.16168 -0.0128 0.006624
B9 0.171831 0.255804 0.362838 0.08593 0.019131 0.148505 0.355648 0.32518
B10 0.436284 0.413458 0.380762 0.282959 0.328251 0.387087 0.562679 0.568066
B11 0.404058 0.368752 0.42064 0.326927 0.336741 0.304058 0.608423 0.371527
B12 0.231595 0.154659 0.23574 0.07599 0.37872 -0.08501 0.289981 0.10654
B13 0.382444 0.391391 0.326336 0.053907 0.342048 0.186848 0.345953 0.261722
B14 0.026876 0.368369 0.404494 0.027345 0.294179 0.256546 0.329333 0.237032
B15 0.125411 0.45641 0.282468 0.085728 0.283876 0.437846 0.491335 0.445312
B16 0.222953 0.075424 0.180594 0.517991 0.226214 0.087752 0.401229 0.038723
B17 0.639693 0.270122 0.235192 0.360293 0.309767 0.191511 0.329211 0.262607
B18 0.226446 0.387904 0.340742 -0.03726 0.326388 0.039056 0.345041 0.213078
Table 8. The correlation of SP and BCM
BTOT SPTOT
BTOT 1.000000 0.546348
SPTOT 0.546348 1.000000
(not only technical), but also related to cultural context and continuity management. Starting from this
consideration and from the results obtained, the next step of this research can be extend the sample and
achieve a statistical representativeness at least for Albanian territory. Achieved this second goal, it will
be possible to further extend the sample with other territories, or countries and realize a comparative
analysis to highlight possible other aspect related to CC and BCM and SP.
CONCLUSION
This study has shown both theoretically and empirically that in the field of SP it is very significant to
accomplish some organizational principles such as: accomplishing sustainable competitive advantages,
motivating the innovation and foundation, applying a helpful action plan, and make sure the continu-
ing development and achievement of the organization. The SP was furthermore significant to attain
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Table 9. Analysis the impact of each SP question of the total BCM point for each company
Dependent Variable: BTOT

Date: 05/23/15 Time: 16:27
Sample: 1 50
SP1 1.743729 1.564079 1.114860 0.2714
SP2 -0.339848 1.614279 -0.210526 0.8343
SP3 3.601028 1.407586 2.558300 0.0143
SP4 -4.740229 2.094604 -2.263067 0.0290
SP5 2.502456 1.197059 2.090503 0.0428
SP6 -0.114161 1.466163 -0.077864 0.9383
SP7 3.868924 1.639608 2.359665 0.0231
SP8 0.487715 1.396402 0.349265 0.7287
C 15.02779 8.590402 1.749370 0.0877
Table 10. Impact analysis of SP questions divided on three groups: analyzing, management and success
Dependent Variable: TOTAL_AVG_POINT_BCM

Date: 05/23/15 Time: 16:37
Sample: 1 50
ANALYSIS 0.040835 0.184256 0.221621 0.8256
MANAGEMENT 0.331496 0.131422 2.522372 0.0152
SUCCESS 0.237535 0.132007 1.799403 0.0785
C 0.965779 0.538685 1.792844 0.0796
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Table 11. Analysis the SP impact of BCM
Dependent Variable: BTOT

Date: 05/23/15 Time: 16:38
Sample: 1 50
SPTOT 1.049250 0.232169 4.519338 0.0000
C 7.496707 7.732309 0.969530 0.3371
the organizational principles linked with BCM through: recognizing different kind of risks faced by
the organization, analyzing the business environment, providing the continuation of proactive business
continuity planning, and showing resilient capabilities after a failure or a disaster. Furthermore, it shows
the unionization of BCM and SP through the empirical results given.
According to the correlation test mainly the correlation of the questions is positive but not very strong.
The correlation of the total point of SP and BCM is positive at the amount of 0.54%. Accordingly, the
highest impact on BCM has the questions 4 and 7 of SP; respectively, question 4 has a negative impact of
4.7 points and question 7 a positive impact of 3.8 point. Additionally, SP has a significant positive impact
on BCM. Therefore, in the same time the correlation of the total point of SP and CC is positive at the
amount of 0.588%; it is positive but not very strong. The highest correlation is found between question
6 of SP and question 3 of Culture Context at a value of 0.62%. Thus, scanning the business environment
is highly correlated with implementing continuously new methods in the business in order to improve
it. However, there are also some very low negative correlation between question 2 of SP and question 9
of CC, between question 5 of SP and question 2, 6, 7, and 8 of CC and between question 7 of SP and 14
of CC. The study suggests that placing the Business Continuity Management in the Corporate Culture
may be entitled as another manner of integrating BCM and SP in one structure. Sometimes, strategy and
culture together overlap and have common characteristics with many topics in the organization, which
some consider strategy and some others consider culture. Furthermore, between culture and strategy
exists a huge number of common characteristics and similarities.
Regarding the need to integrate holistically in one structure the BCM within business organizations
located in Shkoder, along permanent testing, training and renewing the plans, the method of BCM
implemented in Shkoder city has the possibility to help in realizing and attaining the integration of BCM
with SP in one structure. The previous analysis shows also that in some businesses there are several
disadvantages and barriers for the integration of the proposed framework, like: lack of experienced hu-
man resources, concerns about the economic risk, concerns about technological risk, concern of cultural
change, natural disasters, concerns about keeping clients, and concerns about the globalization. In contrast,
71

there are also some accelerating factors which advantage the businesses in Shkoder in order to integrate
the BCM with SP in one structure, such as: to make sure the long term continuance of the organizations,
availability of time, to reduce risk, to recognize the business environment, compliance with corporate
governance, availability of organizational infrastructure and concerns about internal organizational risks.
Despite the contribution of the present study, some limitations are to be mentioned. For instance, this
research relies on a survey research strategy and exploratory approach. While the methodology used in
this research has accomplished some of the weaknesses in the past literature, however it could not find
deep details of some sectors linked with BCM, of the impact related with the integration BCM with SP
in one structure, and of the significance of culture context relation between the two.
Another problematic encountered during data gathering regards the respondents’ feelings and skepti-
cism about the confidentiality of answers. The respondents demonstrate doubtful willingness to answer
the questions and, in some cases, they perceive their information as personal. Therefore, some respondents
did not answer some of the questions.
The preferred target of respondents was that of senior managers since the authors deal with strategic
issues, but it was hard and complicated to realize this for every business in Shkoder. Even some senior
managers could not fulfill and answer all the questions for their personal purposes and motives. In the
absence of the senior managers in those organizations, it was the possibility to contact with the other
experts who had the right background to answer the questions.
Finally, it seems physiological after this research to offer some recommendations for future inquires.
According to the findings of this research, it is recommended for businesses in Shkoder that it is needed
to pay more attention to the topics, which facilitates the extension of the business continuity management
into a strategic field, and to sustain the CC within BCM and SP. The businesses of Shkoder must raise
their understanding of the importance of these topics and subjects for accomplishing the integration of
BCM with SP in one structure, also to align themselves with the geopolitical new trends in order to seize
all the opportunities emerging from global economy.
There is no necessity to follow any training of actions in view of the fact that the businesses are not
likely to display and uncover the imported risk cases. It is recommended that every organization must
make further endeavors within the vulnerability analysis and evaluation with the reason to understand
the weak points because it will encourage and improve extra actions for integrating BCM in one struc-
ture with SP.
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Business Continuity Management: The BCM recognizes the main important part in the organiza-
tion where it is difficult to manage loses, as well as the information, stock, properties, and the personnel,
and to make plans to avoid the unpredictable crises and risks.
Business Ecosystem: A social-economic community in which peoples and organizations interacts. In
this community organization produces good and services that may have value for the ecosystem members.
The members can be suppliers, lead producers, competitors and other stakeholders.
Business Environment: Environment in which it generates demand and supply of goods and service.
When the exchange generate monetary (but not only) flows, it can generate competitive dynamics.
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Cultural Context: Culture is the concept of producing different perceptions where people understand
their knowledge and direct the activity. In addition, the culture is a directed structure of definitions and
symbols where it obtains social relations depending by the context in which this culture was acquired.
Risk Management: Is the activities, or part of more complex process, useful to identify, assess, and
prioritize of risks. These activities are followed by coordinated and economical by a professional figures
(generally called “risk manager”) with the objective of minimize, monitor, and control the probability
of occurrence of negative events or to evaluate and maximize the occurring opportunities.
Shkoder: Albanian city.
Strategic Planning: Is a method that shifts the educational organization throughout the steps about
understanding the differences in external environment, evaluating strengths and weaknesses, expanding
the vision of the desired future about the organization and several methods to attain the mission.
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78
Chapter 5
A Proposition of Strategy
Making in Global Firms:
Reflections from Strategy
as Practice (S-As-P)
Fatma Gülruh Gürbüz

Marmara University, Turkey
Hande Sinem Ergun

Seray Begum Samur-Teraman

ABSTRACT
Strategy as Practice (hereafter S-As-P) is referred as a research topic concerning with the doing of
strategy; who does it, what they do, how they do it, what they use and what implications this has for
shaping strategy. The developing field has taken the concern of “humanize management” seriously
by bringing human actors to the center of the strategy (Jarzabkowski & Spee, 2009). This study aims
to furnish insights into the S-as-P approach. In this sense, it considers extended mainstream strategy
research and focuses on light practices that have largely passed and unnoticed (Vaara & Whittington,
2012). Furthermore, its reflections on businesses operating in global economy are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Managers are dealing with complicated issues that are both regional and global in nature. Among those
issues, wider intra and/or extra organizational constituents have a role in shaping the future of the organi-
zation. This situation has also changed the way of looking at the strategy. Strategy is an important issue,
because it sets direction for an organization in line with an agreed upon vision. There is a tendency to
offer one simple definition of strategy, but Mintzberg, Ahlstrand and Lampel (1998) argue that a number
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2673-5.ch005

A Proposition of Strategy Making in Global Firms
of definitions are required to adequately capture its nature. They explain strategy within a framework
of five definitions as follows:
1. Strategy is plan, a direction, a guide and course of action into the future, a path to get from here to
there.
2. Strategy is a pattern, that is consistency in behavior over time.
3. Strategy is a position, locating of particular products in particular markets.
4. Strategy is a perspective not only looking inside the organization but also looking at the grand vi-
sion of an enterprise.
5. Strategy is a ploy that is a specific maneuver intended to outwit an opponent or competitor.
Although these definitions give us a way to visualize and understand the nature of strategy, throughout
the evolution of strategic thinking different perceptions of strategy and ways of strategy making have
been developed (Varyani and Khammar, 2010). The field of strategic management can be traced back
to 1960s with Alfred Chandler, Igor Ansoff and Kenneth Andrews’s works with their more contingent
views where organizations need to adapt to their external environment. During the 1970’s transition
began towards more realistic conceptions of process with Quinn’s “logical incrementalism”, Mintzberg
and Waters’ emergent strategy” views. Through this period, Micheal Porter made valuable contributions
to the field with his proposed framework to understand the structure of an industry. This was a useful
tool for assessing an industry’s attractiveness and facilitating competitor analysis. The main focus of
these works was on the relationship between the environment and the firm. From the 1980’s onwards,
the focus changed to the understanding of firms’ internal structure, resources and capabilities. Transac-
tion cost economics and agency theory emerged as two streams of research in the field. Transaction cost
economics mainly dealt with structural forms of organizations and their effects on performance. Agency
theory also tried to explain separation of ownership and control.
Other views that gave direction to the strategic management field were the resource-based view,
dynamic capabilities and knowledge based approach. The main proposition of these theories were that
a firm could be conceptualized as a bundle of productive resources and that these could be strength or
weakness (Furrer, Thomas and Goussevskia, 2008; Varyani and Khammar, 2010). During this transition
strategy thinking evolved mainly under the framework of two approaches: the prescriptive approach and
the emergent approach. The prescriptive approach is also named as deliberate, rational and intended way
of strategy making. Under this approach it is assumed that strategic analysis, strategic development and
strategic implementation occurs sequentially. The strategy makers first do the analysis, then develop the
strategy and then implement the strategy (Lynch, 2009). Igor Ansoff, a seminal scholar of this approach,
proposes that strategy makers should systematically analyze the external environment and develop strate-
gies that align the organization with these challenges. Michael Porter, another important contributor of
the prescriptive approach, bases his view on economics. According to his view, environmental scanning
and industry analysis are vital for strategy development.
Although the mainstream strategic management field is dominated by the prescriptive approach, in
recent years this point of view has attracted criticism from scholars, academicians and practitioners in
the field. First of all, this approach considers strategy making as a linear process (Shah et al., 2015).
However, in practice linearity is highly debatable due to the difficultly of separating the formulation
of strategy from its implementation due to environmental uncertainty (Hart, 1992). Another critique of
the prescriptive approach is the lack of “human” element in strategy making. In addition, the top down
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approach that is embedded in this approach has also lost its popularity (Shah et al., 2015). There are
several problems that this traditional view of strategic management faces. Consider, for example, the case
of small and entrepreneurial businesses, which are the result of innovative solutions, that lie outside of
the guidelines of traditional strategic management. Such companies, by their very nature, are concerned
more with what is actually done than with what has been planned. This is also true for other businesses
at other scales. In other words, rational decision making assumptions and comparing what has been done
with what actually occurs, as a common way of defining strategy making is losing its validity.
Due to the afore-mentioned fallacies and pitfalls of the traditional strategic management perspec-
tive, new alternative approaches have emerged. The emergent approach, also termed the non-rational or
realized strategy, is the opposite view of prescriptive strategy. This view argues that strategic analysis,
strategic development, and strategic implementation do not follow a sequential path. Rather, strategy
evolves during the course of its existence at the same time as it is being implemented. The main assump-
tion of the emergent view is that the environment is so uncertain and unpredictable that it is impossible
and ineffective for organizations to develop strategies (Lynch, 2009). The pioneer of emergent approach,
Mintzberg, argues that “a strategy is not a fixed plane, nor does it change systematically at a pre-arranged
time solely at the will of management” (Mintzberg, 1978).
The emergent approach focuses on strategic learning (Mintzberg and Water, 1985). Rather than plan-
ning, organizations should develop capabilities that enable them to adapt to the environment and learn
continuously. Therefore, strategy making is an experimental process rather than pre-determined steps
(Lynch, 2009). In other words, for the emergent approach strategy is a process rather than an ultimate
outcome. In this strategy making process the main actors are the organizational members. This assumption
puts the “human” element at the core of strategy and differentiates the two approaches from each other.
According to the scholars of this approach, behavioral and political processes are extremely influential
in decision-making processes of organizational spaces (Fahey, 1981; Mintzberg 1978).
Both prescriptive and emergent strategy approaches are still used by many organizations and both
of these approaches have advantages and disadvantages. Today researchers and strategists are moving
towards an emergent approach due to environmental uncertainty. A company may employ a prescribed
approach to strategy making but have an emergent process view of strategy that improves its strategy
making processes. As stated above, prescriptive models and frameworks in strategy research have created
concern especially with the way the strategy research has developed over the last three decades (Jarzab-
kwoski, Balogun and Seidl, 2007). The dominant theories of strategy assume that strategy is something
that organizations possess. However, over the last decade a shift has occurred.
This new movement focuses on “practice” approaches in strategy making and how strategy work is
actually done within organizational spaces (Varyani and Khammar, 2010). This practice view of strategy
is called Strategy as Practice (hereafter S-as-P). S-as-P refers to a process approach in the study and
understanding of organizational strategy making. S-as-P feeds on ideas of Weick and Mintzberg. It is
said to share the same skepticism about the rational accounts of strategy (Clegg, Carter, Kornberger and
Schweitzer, 2011). The term S-as-P is first used by Richard Whittington in 1996 in his article. In the
2000’s, the need for more research and focus on practice oriented strategy making was heavily empha-
sized by scholars in the field (Johnson, Melin, & Whittington, 2003). Since then, S-as-P has gathered
attention from scholars in the field. S-as-P offers an alternative way to strategizing through the lenses of
strategy praxis, practitioners, practices and strategy texts that go beyond a purely organizational agenda
(Fenton and Langley, 2008; Jarzabkowski et al. 2007; Jarzabkowski and Whittington, 2008; Whittington,
2006). It also takes into account the process which is mostly ignored while making plans for future.
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S-as-P refers to a research methodology concerned with the doing of strategy; who does it, what they
do, how they do it, what they use and what implications this has for shaping strategy. It offers a new
perspective for strategic management. From this mostly sociological perspective, strategy is defined as
something linking the interior world of the organization to the exterior worlds of the environments in
which it operates (Clegg, Carter, & Kornberger, 2004).
The field has taken seriously the call to “humanize management” by bringing human actors to the
center of the strategy (Jarzabkowski and Spee, 2009). Thus, the aim of this chapter is to introduce a
S-as-P tool for scholars and practitioners in the field which enable them to identify the emergent nature
of their strategies and the actual activities constituting strategy making (Sithole, 2011). Based on these,
this chapter tries to furnish insights into the S-as-P approach and how managers can use this approach in
their strategic decision making process. The first contribution of this chapter is to provide a conceptual
framework for understanding how strategic thinking has evolved towards S-as-P research and what kind
of innovative thinking has accompanied it. Second, introducing this research agenda and its premises
provides practitioners with a valuable tool for better understanding what they are doing and why they
are doing it (Downs, 2014).
Next, the conceptual framework with its main assumptions is provided. Managerial implications are
also discussed in order to reveal the dynamics of international business management and how to over-
come difficulties coming from an ever-changing internal and external environment.
BACKGROUND
Introducing the Strategy as Practice (S-as-P)

Perspective: What Do We Mean by S-as-P?”
This part introduces the S-as-P perspective approach and reveals the distinctive features of S-as-P from
the traditional view of strategy making.
S-as-P mainly considers the making and doing of strategy and strategic change in organizations. In
this sense, S-as-P scholars deal with the processes and practices constituting the everyday activities of
organizational life and relating to strategic outcomes (Carter, Clegg and Kornberger, 2008). S-as-P is
essentially concerned with strategy as an activity in organizations and mainly considers the strategy
as an interaction of people, rather than as the property of organizations (Johnson, Langley, Melin and
Whittington, 2007). In this sense, S-as-P is defined by Johnson and his colleagues as a concern over
what people do in relation to strategy and how this is influenced by and influences their organizational
and institutional context (Johnson, et al 2007). It is something linking the interior world of the organiza-
tion to the exterior worlds of the environments in which it operates (Clegg, Carter, Kornberger, 2004).
As for distinctive features of this approach, instead of assuming that strategy is something organi-
zations have, where strategy is conceived as a property of organizations (Johnson et al 2007), S-as-P
research is more concerned with the inside of the organization. This view primarily draws on sociologi-
cal theories of practice rather than economic theories (Vaara and Whittington, 2012). It also concerns
itself with a range of outcomes, such as the political consequences of particular strategizing episodes,
or the effects of strategy tools, or the involvement of particular types of practitioners. S-as-P adds to
conventional research in strategic management by extending the range of outcomes, particularly by
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broadening the understanding of performance to more than just economic ones. Additionally, S-as-P
is argued to significantly extend the sectorial scope of the strategic management field to not only deal
with profit seeking organizations but also not-for-profit ones. This extends the economic environments,
which were previously more narrowly defined (Vaara and Whittington, 2012).
From a practice perspective the actors of strategy are seen as a part of larger social groups. This renders
obsolete the notion that only the upper levels of management are relevant as the strategy makers. Rather,
it recognizes that people from all levels, different social environments, and newly emerged professions
form part of larger picture that play an important role in the process with implications going far beyond
particular organizations (Chia and MacKay, 2007; Scott 2000 cited in Whittington, 2006; Vaara and
Whittington, 2012). On the other hand, this research stream has created a substantial methodological shift
from preferred statistical techniques with ever increasing sample sizes to qualitative methods especially
case contexts in single organizations. Researchers adopting such a view have been trying to get closer
to their subjects (Vaara and Whittington, 2012) and tend to reflect their experiences in the field. Since
each case researcher and subjects have different interactions, this yields new research experiences for
which generalizability will become meaningless.
Based on a practice perspective, it is such common practices that become the units of analysis, and
it is their performance, rather than that of particular organizations, that needs to be explained (Whit-
tington, 2006). Strategy practice research thus becomes concerned with both the internal and external
dissemination of strategy practices and avoids the micro/macro distinction so intimately tied to the social
sciences in general and to strategy research in particular (Chia and MacKay, 2007; Scott 2000 cited in
Whittington, 2006; Vaara and Whittington, 2012). Certainly both the extra-organizational and the intra-
organizational level constituents could attain better understanding of strategy. At the broadest sense,
this means effective participation of a particular management team in strategy practice. Approaching
strategy as something people do or social practice is said to add an extra dimension to the discipline’s
traditional concern for endowing particular organizations with winning strategies or efficient processes
(Whittington, 2001; 2006). Traditional abstraction often approaches the issues of managing strategies
at only a superficial level whereas S-as-P can get to grips with concrete details.
This new post-modern approach assumes that “Strategy” is always a work in process and a piece of
social construction. Social construction because it is not the idiosyncratic product of a particular corpo-
rate culture, but part of a major societal change, with effects extending far beyond single organizations
(Whittington, 2006). Accordingly, analyzing strategy is said not to be merely reporting activity com-
paring the expectations and actual outcomes. It is not only about what it is done but also about what is
not done that is not practiced, that is not said, using external stakeholder articulations as signs of what
might be but is not (Carter et al 2008; Clegg et al., 2004). It is not enough simply to ‘make a decision’,
or even to make a decision and announce it. A decision takes its meaning from the social practice and
discourse within which it is located, and for an announcement to be effective, it must take account of
that context (Hendry, 2000).
In conclusion, this approach directs our attention towards several processes in which many actors
have a role in strategy making. It is also worth mentioning that strategy is not only a master plan or
prescription designed for achieving a mission and objectives. In other words, strategy is not a written
tool prepared for being implemented word by word. It is a process that is socially constructed by several
actors, their negotiations and micro-activities. It also offers a new path towards opening the black-box
(stated in Mintzberg et al., 1998) of strategy practicing.
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S-As- A Social Practice: “Innovation” of The S-As-P

Framework in Post-Mintzbergian Era
This part outlines the innovations that lie in premises of the S-As-P framework in a Post-Mintzbergian
era. Just as management theories have evolved in an eclectic way since the classical perspective by
building their arguments on what was missing to answer questions of their era, the S-As-P framework
has also come up with new premises to solve and satisfy today’s needs.
Old approaches and post-modern ones alike all reflect efforts to help managers manage better (Carter
et al., 2008). In this spirit, the S-as-P approach seeks to improve strategic management practice (Johnson
et al., 2007). For a long time, strategy research has been trapped by the modernist assumptions of its
birthplace, in short, of the United States in the 1960s (Whittington, 2004). However the main challenge,
posed in 1970s, was largely drawn from theoretical propositions unsuited to the understanding of the
role of human action. The logic used by strategy completely isolated the individual from the so-called
processes (Johnson et al., 2007).
According to Cartesian philosophy, mind is assumed to control matter. Adopting such orthodoxy,
management is believed to seek to control the organization; the plan is believed to determine reality, or,
strategy is believed to determine structure, form is believed to follow function. Thus this split between
mind and body is reflected in the gap between strategy and operations. The main duties of management
are analyzing, controlling, leading, thinking and planning; the other operational parts are inert and pas-
sive objects that have to be directed. Management as the ‘head’ creates visions, strategies and plans in
order to dominate and lead the organization (the ‘body’). Such a strategy grew into the gap between
setting actual, clear goals in the face of possible, unpredictable futures; the gap between planning and
specifically performing those plans; the gap between planned and instantaneous changes; the gap be-
tween means and ends; the gap between a head (management) and a body (organization) (Clegg et al.,
2004). However, anticipating future developments in a world that is ever shifting, and the ignorance of
the fundamental uncertainty characterizing every decision imply a gap between actual, clear goals and
a possible, unpredictable future.
As soon as things become more complex, the formulated plans create a complexity with the problems
of implementation thus the gap has enlarged between planning and performing (Clegg et al., 2004). Cal-
culating and predicting futures instead of accepting an uncontrollable emerging future causes another gap
between goals and unfolding but neglected opportunities. All of these could not be foreseen by sitting
just in front of the computer, making analyses, presenting at the meetings and finally writing reports of
all observations (Clegg et al., 2004). There is also a gap between seemingly stable ends and apparent
rationality. Instead of being caught in these gaps, the notion of S-as-P is proposing an analytical cue for
getting out of this dead-end (Clegg et al., 2004).
Another concern has arisen out of modernism with its enlightenment ideals. These ideals captured
strategy within an epistemological straight jacket that valued scientific detachment over practical engage-
ment, the general over the contextual, the quantitative over the qualitative. Today, though, post-modern
skepticism has broken these epistemological constraints and modernism’s monopoly is crumbling away
(Clegg et al., 2004; Whittington, 2004). Thus, in the phase of post modernism the detached, quantitative
generalizations of modernism are revealed as just one of the pathways forward for strategic management
research. After modernism, there is no longer need to detach human beings through quantitative analysis
of large and complex data sets; there is a much more intimate relationship with the subjects. As getting
closer to practice, ‘strategy ‘is regarded as not only an attribute of firms but also an activity undertaken by
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people, so this implies an activity-based view of strategy (Johnson, Melin and Whittington, 2003; Whit-
tington, 2004). In this context, Whittington argues that strategy is something people do, hence strategy
can be seen as a social practice like any other practice with a wider constituency and wider repercussions
than those of particular organizations (Carter et al, 2008; Whittington, 2004; Whittington et al., 2003).
Previously, the subject of strategy was dominated by a concern for strategy as what organizations have,
wherein, people and what they do, and the effects of their interpersonal relations and political processes
are missing. Moreover, strategy is defined as a concern for the competitive advantage and performance
of the firm by simply applying economic theory to understanding strategic phenomena. Indeed, it was
applying economic logic to choose strategies that generate superior economic performance (Barney, 2002;
Johnson et al., 2007; Whittington, 2004). Accepting strategy as a social practice thus involves a refusal to
privilege firm performance over that of either the field as a whole or its practitioners individually. From
a managerial perspective, the concern shifts through to the actual activities of strategy’s practitioners.
Here, it is the performance of the strategists that matters, in the sense of how they perform their roles.
In other words, applying the sociological sense to the strategy entails examining and assessing strategy
not only from the top management perspective but also from the perspective of wider constituents such
as the strategy consultants, gurus, leading academicians influencing the practice from outside of the
organization (Whittington et al, 2003; Whittington, 2004). As referred by Toulmin (2001), scientists and
practitioners can now be partners in putting ‘Reason to work in the realm of Practice’ (Toulmin, 2001
cited in Whittington, 2004). This is not a matter of simple post-modern rejection of the rational sciences;
rather, it is about incorporating them within a broader enterprise of reasonable practice. So to say ‘after
modernism’ is an altogether more inclusive and pragmatic formulation in which academic theory reconcile
with managerial reality than its modern and post-modern rivals (Whittington, 2004). The management
disciplines, in general, are losing their exclusive faith in modernist detachment and moving closer to the
kind of engagement with practice that is characteristically ‘after modern’ (Whittington, 2004). In this
era, the kinds of practical concerns that preoccupied the planning tradition are recovered and strategy
research tends increasingly to look for the models beyond economics towards sociology. From the so-
ciological viewpoint, strategy remains an activity that involves substantial resources and has significant
consequences for society at large, however unintended (Jarzabkowski and Fenton, 2006). A coherent
view of the firm and its activities as pluralism suggests has been mostly ignored. However, many practic-
ing managers and academics ought to consider firms not only as coherent and focused strategic entities
but also as pluralistic organizations with contradictory strategic foci (Jarzabkowski and Fenton, 2006).
TAKING STRATEGY SERIOUSLY: WHY DO WE NEED SUCH AN APPROACH?
For many years, strategic planning has been accepted as a rational approach with its diagnosing, fore-
casting, formulating and implementing motives, however it has also been criticized for not being able to
reflect the uncertainty of strategy in practice. Thus, the gap between the theory of what people do and
what people actually do has given rise to the ‘practice’ approach in the management literature (Carter
et al., 2008; Jarzabkowski, 2002). The reasons for the emergence of such approaches are compelling.
From an economic perspective, markets are becoming more open, market entry is getting easier,
resources are increasingly becoming tradable, information is more readily available, and labor is more
mobile. Under these circumstances, sustainable advantage can be achieved through the interactive
behaviors of people in organizations. The increasing pace of change in volatile markets has lead to a
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shift in strategy and decision making from being well-defined systems of episodic planning to a much
more continuous process. Eisenhardt and Brown called this “patching”, a process that is rooted in more
everyday practices and involving more people throughout organizations (Eisenhardt and Brown 1998;
Johnson et al., 2007). Since the landmark contributions by Michael Porter, strategy research has largely
been based on the microeconomics tradition. As a consequence, research has both typically remained on
the macro-level of firms and markets and reliant on the abstract categorization of activities and practices
while reducing strategy to a few causally related variables in which there is little evidence of human
action. In order to understand human agency in the construction and enactment of strategy, it is neces-
sary to re-focus research on the actions and interactions of the strategy practitioner (Jarzabkwoski et al.,
2007; Johnson et al., 2007). S-as-P may thus be seen as part of a broader concern to humanize manage-
ment and organization research. This perspective places human interaction at the center, and with this
configuration, it takes a different ontological position from mainstream strategy research (Pettigrew et
al., 2002; Weick, 1979 cited in Jarzabkwoski et al., 2007; Johnson et al., 2007). In other words, from the
mainstream point of view, human action and its contribution to strategizing has been explained from the
macro-economic level. S-as-P differs from mainstream research by placing human action and interac-
tion at the center. This view about the role of individuals with regard to strategy implies that individuals
indeed play a key role in strategy development (Johnson et al., 2007).
To summarize, the practice-based approach investigates strategy formation through focusing on
‘praxis, practitioners and practices’ (Carter, Clegg and Kornberger, 2008). The following describes these
terms along with the strategy text framework.
Praxis- Practices- Practitioner- Strategy Text Framework
Several important questions such as “What is strategy? Who is a strategist? What do strategists do?
What does an analysis of strategists and their doings explain? How can existing organization and social
theory inform an analysis of S-as-P?” have arisen in many conference tracks and workshops in the field
to develop some cohesive frameworks (Jarzabkwoski et al., 2007). Therefore, S-as-P, is concerned with
the study of strategy through the lenses of strategy praxis, practitioners, practices and the strategy text
framework (Fenton and Langley, 2008; Jarzabkowski et al., 2007; Jarzabkowski and Whittington, 2008;
Whittington, 2006). These terms and the strategy text framework are examined along with what they
denote in the S-as-P approach.
Strategy: The Concept of ‘Strategy’ From S-as-P Perspective
Traditionally, strategy has been treated as a property of organizations. This view suggests that an orga-
nization has a strategy of some kind or other (Whittington et al., 2003; Whittington, 2006). However,
the micro-strategizing view of strategy focuses on micro-activities that are often invisible to the traditi-
tional view of strategy but have significant consequences for the organization. This activity based view
(Johnson et al., 2003) assumes that strategy is not something that an organization has but something its
members/actors/people do (Whittington et al., 2003; Whittington, 2006). Mostly invisible to traditional
strategy research, micro activities are believed to have significant consequences for organizations and
those who work with them. For instance, as the economic environment becomes more competitive and
dynamic, the advantage lies in human assets with their intellectual capital (Johnson et al., 2003; Johnson
et al., 2007). Individual skills and capabilities lie not only in the periphery but also in the center thereby
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considering strategy-making (Johnson et al., 2003). For practice theory, people count because people
‘make do’ in everyday life, negotiating the constraints handed down to them through a constant stream
of tricks, stratagems and maneuvers. Thus, actors become important because their practical skills make a
difference (De Certeau, 1984 cited in Whittington, 2004; 2006). Also they may be creative agents offer-
ing novel and original solutions for daily practice, they may be artful interpreters of practices in different
contexts, and not machines operated automatically (Jarzabkoswski, 2002; Jarzabkowski et al., 2007;
Whittington, 2004; 2006). As a guiding mechanism, the discourse of strategy increasingly constitutes
peoples’ personal identities through their participation in strategic practices (Knights and Morgan, 1995).
The S-as-P approach views strategy as an activity enabling an improvement of something in which
people personally, and society in general, have a great deal at stake (Carter et al., 2008; Fenton and
Langley, 2008; Johnson et al., 2007). In this sense, an integrated understanding of strategy is regarded
as both an intra-organizational and extra-organizational phenomenon that extends outside organizations
with potential influence upon whole societies (Whittington, 2006). In the micro-phenomena, actors are
believed to be not acting in isolation but drawing upon the regular, socially defined modes of acting/
operating (customs, rules, tacit knowledge and explicit technologies) that arise from the plural social
institutions to which they belong (Jarzabkowski, 2004; Jarzabkowski et al., 2007; Whittington, 2001).
Thus strategy is conceptualized as a situated, socially accomplished activity, while strategizing comprises
those actions, interactions and negotiations of multiple actors and the situated practices that they draw
upon in accomplishing that activity (Jarzabkowski et al 2007). That’s why the strategy field is not a pas-
sive domain, but a set of interdependent actors engaging with each other to pursue a range of objectives
(Whittington et al., 2003).
Practice: The Concept of ‘Practice’ From the S-as-P Perspective
Carter and his colleagues explain the S-as-P approach from an epistemological point of view, in that
practice implies being ‘closer’ to reality and delivering a ‘more accurate’ description of the real world
(Carter, et al 2008). ‘Practice’ refers both to the situated doings of the individual human beings (micro)
and to the different socially defined practices (macro) that the individuals are drawing upon in these
doings (Jarzabkwoski et al 2007).
Practice is teleological, “an activity seeking a goal” whereas practices are the “ingrained habits or bits
of tacit knowledge” which constitute the activity. Practice implies the actual activity, events, or work of
strategy. In other words it refers the interactions and interpretations from which strategic activity emerges
over time. Apart from practice, practices are those traditions, norms, rules, and routines through which the
work of strategy is constructed. Practices could be seen as the infrastructure through which micro-strategy
and strategizing occurs, but practice is the one generating an ongoing stream of strategic activity. ‘The
term “practice” implies repetitive performance in order to become practiced; that is, to attain repeated,
habitual, or routinized accomplishments of particular actions’ (Carter et al., 2008; Jarzabkowski, 2002;
2003; 2004). Further, practice is the application and interpretation of practices (Whittington, 2001).
However, there is no agreement on the definition of practice in the field. Practice has been argued to
mean anything from routine, to event, from becoming, to structuration theory, from learning in macro-
contexts, and thus, in the process, has become a concept that can explain almost everything (Carter et al.,
2008). Notwithstanding this criticism on the wide ranging use of the term, Carter et al (2008) referred
Veyne’s view (1997), that practice ‘is not some mysterious agency, some substratum of history, some
hidden engine; it is what people do (the word says just what it means)’.
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From various interpretations of practice, three quite common features emerge. Firstly it is a concern
for people and their activities, rather than for organizations and their collective properties. Secondly, it
is a concern with the skills and learning involved as people go about their activities. Thirdly it is an as-
sertion of the fundamentally social nature of people’s activity, skills and learning (Whittington, 2001).
Strategy as a social practice explains how the practitioners of strategy really act and react, both through
their social interactions such as information transmissions, resource exchanges, power relations with
other actors and with recourse to the specific practices present within a context (Jarzabkowski, 2002;
Kenis and Knoke, 2002 Whittington, 1996; Whittington et al., 2003).
All in all, Jarzabkowski and Whittington summarize strategy practices as the social, symbolic and
material tools through which strategy work is done. These practices may include theoretically and
practically-derived tools that have become part of the everyday lexicon and activity of strategy, such as
Porter’s five forces, decision modeling and budget systems, as well as material artifacts and technologies,
such as PowerPoint, flipcharts and spreadsheets (Jarzabkowski and Whittington, 2008).
Two Key Practice Terms: Recursiveness and Adaptation
One of the enduring problems for theories of the firm is how a social system can be prone to both repeti-
tive reconstitution of practice and also have the capacity for change (Jarzabkowski, 2003). Jarzabkowski
referred Giddens to explain the routinized nature of practice by theories of social order, such as structura-
tion in which the interaction between agent and structure is recursive. In this sense, structures are the
collective systems within which human actors carry out their daily activities. Structures give direction
for human action and are also created and re-created by actors who draw upon social structure in order
to act. This reciprocity between agent (human) and structure enables the persistence of social order, and
hence institutionalized practice.
However, institutional social structures with their tacit and experience based knowledge are incorporated
in the daily practices that constitute action. The persistence of the structure provides actors “ontologi-
cal security” (Jarzabkowski, 2002). At the same time, this stability is discussed to prevent the adaptive
nature of practice and is also termed the problem of recursiveness. It means the socially accomplished
reproduction of sequences of activity and action. The problem of recursiveness comes mainly from a
paradox of stability and change. Firstly, there is a need for stable practices to secure the system, but also
change and adaptation to new ones are required in dynamic environments full of volatile interactions,
(Jarzabkowski, 2002). As social becoming theory suggest the interaction between agent and structure does
not sustain sedimented behaviors; it is ‘becoming’, not became. There is an ongoing process of social
becoming that is realized through a chain of social events, or practice. This view argues that organiza-
tions are involved in an ongoing, adaptive process of internal or within-firm social structure building,
embedded within a wider context of external or environmental social structure building. In the process
of becoming, existing frameworks take on new meanings that are highly contextual. However, firms
need both recursive and adaptive practice to capitalize on routines of success as well as developing the
capacity for reinvention (Jarzabkowski, 2002; 2004).
Apart from the mentioned social theories, there is also an activity theory in which practical activity
is regarded as the appropriate place for analyzing interaction between actors and collective structures.
As activity theory suggests in order to function as a system, different organizational constituents are
required to interact with each other sufficiently to produce strategic action (Jarzabkowski, 2003). In activ-
ity theory, tools, language, social rules and the division of labor are considered mediating mechanisms
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that transform the relationships between individuals, communities and shared endeavor. Such factors are
interwoven in a complex web of mutual interactions (Blackler, 1993). According to this view, practices
enable constituents to interact with each other in shared practical activity which generates continuity.
On the other hand, when this interaction and shared activity break down due to different interpretations,
practices serve as mediators between competing views that affect changes in practice (Jarzabkowski,
2003). Mediating effects of such practices make it easier to solve such enduring problems of continuity
and change for firms.
Praxis: The Concept of ‘Praxis’ From S-as-P Perspective
The Greek word ‘praxis’ refers to actual activity, what people do in practice. What the practitioners
actually do is strategy praxis — all the various activities involved in the deliberate formulation and
implementation of strategy. Thus, it refers to the work that comprises strategy (Jarzabkowski and Whit-
tington 2008; Whittington, 2006). In this sense, strategy praxis is the intra-organizational work required
for making strategy and getting it executed. This intra-organizational work can be seen as taking places
in episodes or flow of activities such as board meetings, calculating, form-filling, management retreats,
consulting interventions, team briefings, presentations, projects, and conversations that are situating
the routines that make up organizational life (Jarzabkowski, Spee and Smets, 2013; Jarzabkowski and
Whittington 2008; Westley 1990; Whittington, 2006). These social practices have the capacity either to
stabilize existing strategic orientations or create variations that cumulatively generate change in strategic
orientations (Jarzabkowski and Seidl, 2008). Thus, the domain of praxis is wide. It embraces the routine
and the non- routine, the formal and the informal. Praxis refers to twofold activity both at the industry
level with an exploitation focus and at the organizational periphery level with an exploration orientation
of strategy activities (Regnér, 2003; Whittington, 2006).
Practitioner: The Concept of ‘Practitioner’ From S-as-P Perspective
Strategy has long been thought the core of the senior executive task, but there has been an academy-
wide shift away from the pursuit of a natural science type of organizational theorizing towards a richer
and more complex framework including rather than excluding people and their exclusive characteristics
(Spender and Grant, 1996). From this perspective, strategy practitioners are now seen as strategy’s prime
movers, are those who do the work of making, shaping and executing strategies. These are not just the
senior executives for whom strategy is the core of their work. These could be strategic planners, middle
managers, outside strategy advisers such as strategy consultants, investment bankers, corporate lawyers
and business school gurus (Whittington, 2006). Jarzabkowski refers to strategic practitioners as skilled
actors who are engaged in knowing, some of it explicit, discursive or declarative, and some of it tacit,
practical or procedural, but all of it occurring through the social medium of practice (Jarzabkowski,
2002; Whittington, 2003).
Practitioners use the past to conjecture the present and future and being spontaneously reflexive in
expanding the repertoire in accordance with the outcomes attained. In order to understand skilled prac-
tice, there is a need to look not only at what strategy is but also at how strategy is done, thus revealing
the skill by which practitioners make use of resources. Practice is assumed to be the art of combination
(Jarzabkowski, 2002; Whittington, 2003). By making do and the artisan like inventiveness, actors produce
their own intentful activities from the artifacts that structure everyday activity (Jarzabkowski, 2002).
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This refers to bricolage, as an important skill that can occur during improvisation and it is defined as
“making do with the materials at hand” (Moorman and Miner, 1998). Practitioners are crucial mediators
between practices and praxis; any paralysis in this relation can profoundly fail the strategy. Practitioners
also have the possibility of changing the ingredients of their praxis. By reflecting on their experience,
practitioners are able to exploit existing practices, while at the same time, they are also able to taking
advantage of new practices and combine them into the whole. Each element in this cobweb of relations
has significant repercussions in itself (Whittington, 2006).
Strategy Text: The Concept of ‘Strategy Text” From S-as-P Perspective
As in many disciplines, the strategy discipline has also its own language (lingua franca) and terminology
(Clegg et al 2004). Common language using familiar terms makes the communication easier for strategists
as both know what the other means. Barry and Elmes (1997) referred to strategy as a form of “fiction”
which creates, a story about the future, that may or may not be realized (Fenton and Langley, 2011).
Accordingly, Fenton and Langley have added a further element to the praxis, practitioner and practice
framework; the “strategy text”. They argue that strategy texts often constitute an important element of
strategy practice and mediate interactions among praxis, practices and practitioners. They assert that if
strategy as practice focuses on what people do, an extended narrative perspective, with its focus on sense
making explains how and why people do what they do in organizations (Fenton and Langley, 2008).
As mentioned above strategy praxis refers to what practitioners actually do in their particular every-
day activities as they engage with strategy. According to this view, part of what they do involves telling
stories, or mobilizing narrative in various forms. In other words, narrative can be a form of praxis impli-
cated profoundly in the sense making currency of human relationships and sense giving about strategic
direction (Boje, 1991; Fenton and Langley, 2008). However, in the literature, storytelling is considered
a strategic tool or a formalized practice. A wide group of strategy practitioners are involved somehow
in the process of defining and carrying out strategy within or outside of their organizations (Fenton and
Langley, 2008; Whittington, 2006).
From micro-narratives about strategy and/or broader institutional discourses, legitimate practitioners
of strategy could be easily understood (Fenton and Langley, 2008). Strategy praxis often generates writ-
ten texts in the form of strategic plans that are the main documents of analyses. According to Fenton and
Langley, these texts mediate the interaction between praxis, practices and practitioners. That’s why the
strategic plan is assumed to be a legitimate tool for understanding the raison d’etre of the organization
and the clue for the future positioning of it. This infrastructure enables us to see strategy as practice as
a multi-actor, multi-level process of actions and interactions between actors making sense of their role
and the roles of others in relation to the carrying out of strategy (Fenton and Langley, 2008).
Elements of this framework may be summarized as follows. Practice implies the actual activity,
events, or work of strategy, while practices are ways of doing things in an organization. Praxis is what
people do in practice. Practitioners are strategy’s prime movers, those who do the work of making,
shaping and executing strategies. These skilled actors could be for example strategic planners, middle
managers, outside strategy advisers like strategy consultants, investment bankers, corporate lawyers or
business school gurus. Practitioners can change the ingredients of their praxis. Based on the elements
of this framework, strategy is not something defined by the shape of written plans, it is actively cre-
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ated by set of interdependent actors. That’s why, strategizing is comprised of actions, interactions and
negotiations of multiple actors situated in practices. This approach brings a new perspective to the field
where strategy is viewed not as a passive domain, but as a set of interdependent actors engaging with
each other to pursue a range of objectives.
As Jelenc and Raguz (2016) argues that strategy has found its own way and divorced from strategic
planning perspective since early 1990s and new perspectives has come to the front as practice, process
and multilevel views for strategy. Even they called this era “neo-strategic management” in that many
other disciplines have collaboration with strategic management. Among such disciplines, practice per-
spective and its main contribution to the understanding of strategy and management of it is the main
focus of this part.
This perspective principally extends our understanding of the role of human beings in the formation
and execution of strategy, especially argues strategy making as a socially constructed phenomenon. In
parallel with Resource Based View, as change agents, individuals are considered critical micro assets
under this approach, because they are hard to determine, impractical to trade and imitate, thus sustain-
able advantage could only exist in them (Sithole, 2011). Another important implication is that strategy
is not only a core senior executive task as perceived before. Strategy is a phenomenon created as a
result of many interactions, discussions and negotiations from all levels both inside and outside of the
organization. Hence, today’s managers are required to break hierarchy chains and more integrated into
all levels. It is also hard to say that this integration is enough. They should also be more concerned with
external players like professors from management schools, professionals from consultancy firms, non-
governmental organizations (NGOs), political actors etc.
In global economy, managers face serious problems of continuity and change. On the one side, there
is a need to have institutionalized practices and frameworks for shaping individual and organizational
behavior, but on the other side there is a need to change continuously in order to adapt emerging trends
in the economy. This situation makes pure planning useless to satisfy new needs created from global
dynamics. Under these circumstances, performance means more than economic one and evaluations
should be made considering not only the organization but also different societal environments, different
cultural contexts, different people both inside the organization and outside of it from diverse professions.
This does not mean that planning loses its validity, however this approach discusses there is more to
understand rather only detecting gaps occurred from what is projected and what has actually happened.
As getting closer to practice, beside detached, quantitative generalizations of modernism, this ap-
proach accepts there is a much more intimate relationship with subjects, so there is no longer detach
human beings from researches conducted. In other words, it refers methodology concerning with the
doing of strategy; who does it, what they do, how they do it, what they use and what implications this has
for shaping strategy. From this mostly sociological perspective, strategy is defined as something linking
the interior world of the organization to the exterior worlds of the environments in which it operates
(Clegg, Carter, Kornberger, 2004). The developing field has taken the concern of “humanize manage-
ment” seriously by bringing human actors to the center of the strategy (Jarzabkowski and Spee, 2009).
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This study’s ultimate aim is to offer new insights considering S-as-P. However, besides conceptual frame-
work, case studies would be a good opportunity to understand how strategy is practiced in and outside
the organization, which actors have part in shaping and executing strategy, what has happened in that
process, how practices are socially constructed etc. Contextual influences would be another research
avenue under this framework. Inclusion of researchers’ point of view and accepting their important
roles in conducting such researches will open new methodological orientations and philosophies that
will contribute to the literature from several aspects. Furthermore, S-as-P is argued to extend the scope
of the strategic management field beyond profit seeking organizations. This extension of application
welcomes new participants that may be target of future studies. Of particular interest, may be how such
new participants interact especially from a network perspective.
Future studies should consider the main paradox of continuity versus change and how organizations
are trying to solve this dilemma. This is especially relevant as firms become more global in an operational
sense, and must increasingly question how realistic it is to expect any continuity in practices. Even the
necessity of continuity may be questionable under rapidly changing conditions. In the literature storytell-
ing is now considered a strategic tool, even a formalized practice, thus strategy making texts are another
interesting topic in the process of defining and carrying out strategy within or outside organizations
(Fenton and Langley, 2008; Whittington, 2006).
CONCLUSION
This conceptual framework furnishes insights into the S-as-P approach. Increasingly, a key argument for
management disciplines, including strategy, has been paying close attention to what people actually do
(Whittington, 2006). As Mintzberg (1994, p. 114) stated “Strategy making is not an isolated process…it
is a process interwoven with all that it takes to manage an organization”. In keeping with this sentiment,
the S-as-P framework in the Post-Mintzbergian era tries to improve strategic management practices by
including the individual as an important actor in so-called processes (Johnson et al 2007).
S-as-P is essentially concerned with strategy as an activity in organizations and mainly considers
strategy to be an interaction of people, rather than as the property of organizations (Johnson, et al 2007).
A practice perspective on strategy principally considers how strategy “practitioners” (most often se-
nior managers, board members and consultants but also others) draw on more or less institutionalized
strategic “practices” (routines, tools or discourses at organizational and extra-organizational levels) in
idiosyncratic and creative ways in their strategy “praxis” (specific activities such as meetings, retreats,
conversations, talk, interactions, behaviors) to generate what is then conceived of as strategy (Chris et
al., 2008; Fenton and Langley, 2008; Whittington, 2006). This approach provides new answers for some
of the ongoing traditional questions of strategic management and organization theory.
One of the main outcomes of such a perspective is its capacity to change the approach of many
researchers from testing theory at a distance towards a more participative understanding (Whittington,
2003). A practice perspective reveals a previously unnoticed reality that strategy is more than just the
property of organizations. This is in sharp contrast to the mainstream strategic management view that
tends to isolate the organization from people and serves to create a superficial entity above all the people
both outside and inside the organization. (Whittington, 2006).
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Individuals’ everyday lived experiences including emotions, bodily actions and speech are reflected
in the way they make sense of their world and interact with others, so S-as-P research inform us about
these subtle processes of interaction and influence with its aim of humanizing management. The work,
workers and tools of strategy are center stage in this stream and so become the focus for research on
practice (Jarzabkowski and Whittington, 2008).
Traditional views on strategy and strategy making could cause paralysis in managerial processes. This
approach provides new answers for some of the ongoing traditional questions of strategic management
and organization theory. S-as-P studies have extended mainstream strategy research by bringing to light
practices that have largely gone unnoticed in the past, and discovering in them effects that previously were
not imagined (Vaara and Whittington, 2012). Although the definition and importance of strategy is very
well known, how strategies are actually made is still unclear for scholars and practitioners. S-as-P aims
to answer this question by examining the micro activities of strategists. The main concern for S-as-P is
not strategy at the organizational level but rather the micro-practices of strategists and how they lead to
the creation of organizational strategy. These strategists do not necessarily have to be at the top of their
organizations. They can be present at all levels of the organization. Practitioners and managers can use
S-as-P philosophy to better analyze the strategy making process within their organizations, recognize
what they are actually doing in the name of strategy, who makes strategy and the reasons for doing
it. This approach will enable practitioners to reflect on their strategy making process (Downs, 2014).
Managers have to be aware of the contextual, behavioral and political processes in their organizations
in order to understand the real nature of strategy making for their organizations. With this mindfulness
and awareness, their strategy making processes and eventually performance can improve.
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Activity Theory: a theory in that practical activity is regarded as the essential site for analyzing
interaction between actors and collective structures. Suggests in order to function as a system, different
organizational constituents are required to interact with each other sufficiently to produce strategic action.
Bricolage: making do with the materials at hand.
Recursiveness: the situated doings of the individual human beings (micro) and to the different socially
defined practices (macro) that the individuals are drawing upon in these doings.
Strategy as Social Practice: view envisages strategy as something people do.
Strategy Practice(s): the situated doings of the individual human beings (micro) and to the different
socially defined practices (macro) that the individuals are drawing upon in these doings.
Strategy Practitioner(s): intra-organizational work required for making strategy and getting it executed.
Strategy Praxis: actual activity, what people do in practice that is intra-organizational work required
for making strategy and getting it executed.
Strategy Text(s): narrative perspective focusing on sense making and explaining how and why people
do what they do in organizations.
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Chapter 6
Efficacy of Organizational
Learning and Social Capital in
Online Communities of Practice:
Dualities and Intersections
Serkan Gürsoy
Beykoz University, Turkey
Murat Yücelen
Yeditepe University, Turkey
ABSTRACT
which facilitate knowledge sharing: Organizational Learning and Social Capital. Dualities and intersec-
tions between the building blocks of these two components are investigated by discussing organizational
bonding forms. As a critical contemporary step of evolution, information and communication technolo-
gies are also elaborated in order to examine the impact of constant and instant tools on these facilita-
tors of knowledge sharing. The study aims to derive proxies among these components of organizational
learning and social capital in order to design an integrated framework that reflects the nature of online
communities of practice.
INTRODUCTION
Be it individuals or communities, all entities that constitute the contemporary business environment are
witnesses to the globalization of the world incessantly occurring everyday by means of new channels
and forms of communication, and they have become an integral part of the digitalized world by handling
the internet and other media conduits which eliminate the limitations of internal constraints posed by
boundaries. In parallel with individuals who are able to act globally, communities also have the inherent
ability to cross over boundaries. Communities are also able to comprise all related participants of the
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2673-5.ch006

Efficacy of Organizational Learning and Social Capital in Online Communities of Practice
global environment by establishing efficient channels and impelling them to be part of the evolution. As
an example, Intel Corporation, while terminating its long lasting investment and R&D research collabo-
ration in Cambridge, moved on to launch the Intel Labs Europe project which encompasses a multitude
of partnerships dispersed among EU countries, with the main intent of fostering open innovation. The
University of Cambridge, chair of Cambridge University’s School of Technology, Ian White, declared
(Sherriff, 2006) after severing the profound relationship that while the closure of the Cambridge research
lab is unfortunate, their researchers will continue to work together, even though they are dispersed across
the EU and beyond. In contemporary terms, these groups of geographically dispersed participants, in
other words groups of individuals who share their experiences and expertise within the same or similar
professional spheres, are called communities of practice (CoP). Literally, the first conceptualization of
this term was introduced by a cultural anthropologist, Jean Lave and an educational theorist and computer
scientist, Etienne Wenger in 1991. In their book, “Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation
(Learning in Doing: Social, Cognitive and Computational Perspectives)”, the subject of community of
practitioners receives much attention especially due to the evolving nature of learning, namely from ap-
prenticeship to situated forms. Their assumption “that members of the community have different interests,
make diverse contributions to activity and hold varied viewpoints” unseals new explorative opportunities
not only for the concept of situated learning but also for CoP. Even only paraphrasing a small anecdote
from the acknowledgements section of their book can be helpful here for highlighting the role of CoP
in learning. In the acknowledgements part, they are grateful both to organizers and participants for the
opportunity to discuss the idea. This discussion opportunity provides a collaborative basis not only for
personal or professional development of the individual members, but also for further elaboration of the
idea by sharing knowledge, expertise, experiences and best practices in a particular domain of common
interests (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Presently, literature has increasingly engaged in expanding the implica-
tions of such opportunities (Wenger, McDermott, & Synder, 2002) by the inclusion of knowledge sharing
activities held in online spaces. In other words, as a subject matter of the knowledge management field,
CoP are one of the critical resources creation mechanisms of contemporary organizations, especially
because they facilitate the establishment, management and access opportunities regarding unrestricted
knowledge repositories.
For the organizations (reaping the benefits of CoP), the notion underlined here is the critical impor-
tance of the optimization of resources (or trade off) between exploring and exploiting efforts for not
throwing up the sponge in a competitive environment. From the beginning of the industrial revolution to
the days of information age, knowledge based competition has pushed business organizations to become
co-located structures not only in cities but also in countries in order to fill their knowledge gaps while
struggling to turn their accumulated knowledge into value. Even though knowledge considered as the
most strategic resource generating competitive advantage (Grant, 1996) is not a new perception, rapid
evolution in such critical aspects as the means of communication, the shared content, and the diversity
in the sources of knowledge, render the issue to reconsideration. Focusing these aspects necessitates
to deal with the changes in such fundamental conceptualizations about knowledge; e.g. sources of
knowledge (where it appears) or forms of knowledge (how it appears). Not surprisingly, CoP is at the
intersection (or it is a playground) of these conceptualizations due to a well-known fact: Development
in an organization’s knowledge base is highly correlated with the development of its intangible assets
rather than physical ones. More succinctly, as an intangible asset, intellectual capital mostly based on
human resource practices plays a key role as a source of knowledge. When the issue becomes about
human resource practices which can be mostly conducted in informal ways, organizations need to find
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some ways to formalize the outputs. However, reluctant to compromise on informality, organizations
are not ready enough to build and to manage CoP formally.
Even though CoP is an old concept1, especially recent developments in information and communica-
tion technologies (ICT) (e.g., the introduction of Web 2.02) provided them freedom from location based
structures, as well as being instrumental in sobering up their organizations to overcome the managerial
paradox of formalizing informality. Instead of a paradox, it can be better to term this process as “optimi-
zation.” As a consequence of the structural specificities of these communities in which members mostly
interact informally, managing or supervising them may destroy much of their natural advantages and
spontaneous benefits. From some aspects, these phenomena may remind us of the “The Truman Show”,
a movie directed by Peter Weir in 1998, where the entire life of Truman Burbank takes place within
an arcological (artificially created ecology) dome equipped with thousands of cameras that monitor
his whole life. While in the movie, Truman is the only person not awakened about his life while being
watched and serviced for audiences, in CoP, the heart of the matter is the need for all members to be
watched. Thus, to preserve the natural atmosphere of the community, instead of cultivating and/or ruling
them, managers may need to consider harvesting the benefits of the natural atmosphere that produces
knowledge and practices formally or informally.
This chapter initially presents the progress of evolution (Evolution of CoP) of individuals’ actions and
CoP from location based to dispersed forms by considering knowledge sharing practices. In line with
this evolution, enablers of change, in other words the expansion and changing nature (Characteristics
of CoP for Knowledge Sharing) of CoP, are presented within the context of organizational learning (Ex-
plorative and Exploitative Forms of Organizational Learning in CoP) and social capital (Bridging and
Bonding Forms of Social Capital in CoP) which is regarded as a critical catalyst for knowledge creation
in communities. The Role of ICT for CoP is devoted to the role of ICT in between organizational learning
and social capital by monitoring the effect of instant and constant tools separately. The use of CoP for
knowledge sharing is herein considered as an indispensable environment for both organizational learning
and social capital. Finally, in Section 5, the role of ICT as an enabler of change is discussed and presented
with the aim of providing some strategic implications for organizations. An integrated framework of this
study is presented in Figure 1 wherein the numbers correspond to the sections of this chapter.
Figure 1. Integrated framework of the concepts used in the study
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EVOLUTION OF COP
Even though the concept of CoP was introduced more than two decades ago by Lave & Wenger (1991),
its history probably begins with cavemen meeting to discuss better ways/techniques for hunting or any
other collective actions they perform. In early human history - let us say before the medieval ages - trad-
ing (Larson, 1979) was one of the main issues for which people met frequently to discuss about their
shared interests or common issues. In Ancient Rome, the idea of collegia opificum (Walbank, Astin,
Fredriksen, & Ogilvie, 1989), associations of interested players intending to access and control resources
can be given as an example to early guild-like associations that were meeting to secure their future. As
the first knowledge based structures, these groups - confraternities of textile workers, carpenters or in-
corporations of metalworkers - were the source of art, as well as being mysterious about their crafts. By
serving some sort of social purpose (celebrating together, acting together) and business function (trading,
training, exchanging) together, these groups were operated by members in line with such dramatic values
embedded in their interactions. By acting together and helping each other, members could find various
solutions for their common problems. They shared their experiences, insights, advices and aspirations
to develop their techniques or to minimize their future risks. These early communities became platforms
for collective learning, creating or designing, and sources of personal satisfaction by developing shared
understanding and a sense of belonging to an interest group.
In the Middle Ages, guilds were serving similar values for artisans or merchants throughout Europe.
Within the grant of an authority, they were getting together around a value for professional association,
trade union, cartels and so forth. The profile of these practitioners was determined by such special
classes as lawyers, architects, physicians and others who were the bodies of practical and theoretical
knowledge in service of the elites (Larson, 1979). When the contrast between specialist elites and prac-
titioners would become more visible, these classes had turned into institutionalized centers of learning
as associations for students, teachers or guilds of learning. As a consequence of the functional process
of resource accumulation, the value of these communities had reached an unprecedented scale because
of the introduction of written documents which facilitated the spread of information by eliminating the
mandate of face-to-face communication. In those days, public resources tended to be monopolized easily
not only by monarchs, but also by a castle of scribes with unique powers vested in them. It is then easy
to derive that all unique bodies of knowledge appearing in a class society could be monopolized by their
creators and possessors. The value generated by those societies was exploited by small elites/guilds on
whom specialists depended for their existence. Even though the fall of guilds can be addressed to the
end of 15th century, they lost their influence in its entirety during the industrial revolution. Instead of
moral attachments provided by symbols, myths or rituals in guilds, utilitarian attachment began to make
people get together in modern organizations (Etzioni, 1961, cited in Kieser, 1989). Presumably, guilds
reacted to economic crises by reinforcing their cartels (Kieser, 1989), while CoP expanded themselves
to all classes and people. On the other hand, the transition of institutions from guilds to manufactories
is also closely related with the evolution of the market for production factors, labor and capital.
In a nutshell, the institutional mechanisms of communities and labor markets coevolved. While
division of labor had been implemented in the craft shops of monasteries in the early Middle Ages,
together with the Renaissance, they evolved into special workplaces for urban dwellers. Sider (2005)
claims that urban development –mostly presences with social unrest- was a large part of society during
the Renaissance. Kieser (1989) noted that the transition of craft shops of monasteries to urban work-
houses was triggered by the idea of engaging criminals and work dodgers with legally paid employment.
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This transition provided an opportunity to bring production capacities under the control of especially
merchants who constituted a larger portion of urban population. It also provided another opportunity
for the community because new organizational forms emerged due to the failure of medieval economic
thinking which acclaimed restrictive rules. The new era of economic thinking did not only legitimize
profit making but also prepared an atmosphere for more relaxed, geographically extended, technically
improved communities.
During the 18th century, improved communication and mobility together with rapid urbanization
put an end to the isolation of the large numbers of provincial practitioners and shifted them up towards
communities of professionals. When centered on shared practices, these communities which were built
upon informal and personal bases could also be regarded as the “emergence of CoP”. From the begin-
ning of the industrial revolution, communities had started to develop their unique characteristics most
importantly as the body of knowledge and practice within co-located boundaries of the office, city or
country. Together with the rise of industrialization, locally organized practicing and learning has been
gradually replaced by well-trained labor force practicing and learning in a strong societal environment.
The larger CoP reformed themselves through the formation of apprentices. However, as a means of
learning, apprenticeship began to lose its impact on learning in developing western economies and
turned to a kind of guise for using cheap and unskilled labor. Even though situated learning (learning
in situ) deals with the character of human understanding and highlights the importance of relationships
between learning and the societal institutions, it was not enough to serve an acquisition of knowhow
or abstract knowledge which are needed in an industrialized society and production processes. Lave &
Wenger (1991) conceptualize situated learners as a certain kind of co-participants of work that are helpful
for the acquisition of skills (but not abstract knowledge) by providing interactive and productive roles.
This means that learners still need to possess the ability of transforming and reapplying knowledge. At
this point, it is handy to recall Brown & Duguid’s (1991) statements: There is an opposition perceived
between working, learning and innovating. They underlined a gap between precepts and practice. While
the precepts implies formal descriptions of work (procedures) and learning (subject matter), the prac-
tice implies actual practice (including abstract knowledge). Abstract knowledge makes actual practice
meaningful not only because it increases productivity, but also in the sense of boosting creativity and
innovation. In order to understand the value of “abstract knowledge”, just remember Marx’s statements
on alienation of labor from work, process or from other labors. He contributes a famous description of
this at the beginning of Capital (1965):
A spider conducts operations that resemble those of a weaver, and a bee puts to shame many an architect
in the construction of her cells. But what distinguishes the worst architect from the best of bees is this,
that the architect raises his structure in imagination before he erects it in reality.
He explains the situation of individuals. As social beings, they have to enter into relationships with
each other regardless of their personal choices because of the necessity to work together to obtain what
they need to live (Marx, 1844). Society does not consist of individuals, it is the sum of connections
and relationships in which individuals find themselves (Marx, 1973). When society assigns a particular
value to abstract knowledge in terms of the details of the practice which are nonessential, unimportant
and detached from practice, this may distort intricacies of the practice and impedes individuals to enact
and to be inspired. To overcome this deficiency, organizations are in search of effective ways of training,
educating and supporting their members with proper techniques and technologies. However, practice is
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central to comprehend work related issues and needs to be well understood, engendered - through train-
ing - or enhanced - through innovation - (Brown & Duguid, 1991). For example, In Orr’s (1996) study,
“Talking about machines: An ethnography of a modern job”, conducted on copy machine technicians,
during meals, coffee breaks or while performing some other activities together, technicians’ informal
discussions took place in natural social interaction. The volume and nature of discussion supports knowl-
edge transfers from more experienced technicians to the new ones.
The notion of “legitimate peripheral participation” (Lave & Wenger, 1991) shifts learning process
from apprenticeship to collective and participatory learning. In order to overcome probable handicaps
in apprenticeship (e.g., individual mentoring instead of group mentoring, excessive importance of peda-
gogy and teacher, stress of traditional way of doing versus necessity to innovate), legitimate peripheral
participation offers some particular ways of learning by enabling learners engaged with others’ practices
and experts, and by distributing knowledge among co-participants. Succinctly, a community of practice
reproduces itself through the reformation of apprenticeship and situated learning.
In parallel with these structural and cognitive changes in the communities, knowledge which is
needed to survive in a competitive business environment has become an increasingly crucial asset since
the beginning of the industrial revolution. Organizations have been facing the problem of managing and
creating knowledge to become more flexible which is needed for responding effectively to changing
business forms, from local to co-located. Instead of characterizing organizations as machines, the new
metaphors tend to image organizations as organisms, brains, cultures, political systems and so forth
(Morgan, 1977) because of the changes in information and energy patterns in the environment. When
these patterns coupled with the developments in logistics and communication, sourcing of components
and raw materials has been moved to low-cost areas around the world. Expectedly, this mobility is fol-
lowed by transferring support services and other functional bodies of the company such as their call
centers to cheap areas. Mirvis (1996) expresses the situation clearly: Since all life forms are subject to
entropy, the problems of adaptation, conceptualized as the maintenance of equilibrium and “fit” of the
organism with its environment, became a central concern to theorists. Sure, it was a central concern, not
only for theorists, but also for managers in companies and organizations.
There had already been international trade activities since earlier times (e.g., East India Company in
London to develop trade with the spice island in south-east Asia in 1599 or Dutch east India Company
engaged in the same business as a rival). Their established practices on formal bases expanded by ad-
vancements in machinery and communication towards semi-formal bases due to their operations across
the world, in various cultures and conditions. Behind the transition from local to dispersed business
activities and from formal to semi-formal workforce structures, there can be found some dynamics such
as globally dispersed customers and suppliers and the necessities to work in real time and on-demand.
Factors forcing/motivating firms to operate internationally and/or globally are the subject of another
discussion, however it is helpful to know the main axes in order to comprehend the dynamics of the
transition of CoP towards dispersed forms. One of the conceptualizations was introduced by Yip, Loewe,
& Yoshino (1988) as a model reflecting the factors that drive globalization in particular industries. Ac-
cording to this model, four axes catalyze internalization and globalization: Market factors, economic
factors, environmental factors and competitive factors. These factors can be exemplified respectively as
the global customers and distribution channels, sourcing efficiencies across the world and differences in
country costs, falling transportation costs and improving communication, and finally, global moves of
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competitors and competitive interdependence among countries. In order to adapt to these new conditions,
organizations are also renovated by specifying duties, dividing work and authority and exerting control
overseas. In time, organizational roles are learned by members and role behavior becomes habituated
(Mirvis, 1996). Lower costs, faster transactions and telecommunications, make inter-firm alliances and
homogenization of work styles easier and smoother. This means that the global economy also refers to
the integration of producers and customers within a network structure. Advances in technology can also
be perceived as drivers of the new economy – knowledge economy - or global economy in the sense of
changes in the traditional meaning of workforce. The workforce of the knowledge economy is character-
ized by groups of individuals interacting and mobilizing within communities. They are also engaging
the problems of adaptation to rapid changes in the market. Within this environment, the capacity to in-
novate is the most important element in gaining and sustaining competitive advantage (Santos, Doz, &
Williamson, 2004). Thus, the process of innovation not only depends on the capacity of organizations
to use and to share knowledge (Kodama, 2005) but also requires better access to knowledge resources.
Upon this basis, organizations began to transform themselves towards becoming learning organiza-
tions. They also needed to transform the situation of learning and working, towards interrelated instead of
separated activities. Thus, their members, as lifelong learners in a learning process, make the creation and
use of knowledge meaningful and (Marsick & Watkins, 1999) facilitate knowledge sharing for perform-
ing their tasks better and more efficiently (Huysman & Wulf, 2006). Wenger (1998) discusses learning
processes in three levels as for individuals, for communities and for organizations. While learning for
individuals is an issue of engaging in and contributing to the practices of their community, it is an issue
of refining practices and ensuring generations of members for the community. Beyond these perceptions,
for organizations, learning is an issue of sustaining interconnected CoP. Thus, enabling an environment
for the members to reap the benefits of networking can be one of the effective ways to facilitate learning
for the organization. Generally, members tend to form networks of expertise naturally for their personal
and professional learning, collaborating and for problem solving.
Briefly, it can be said that the industrial revolution has also reinforced a learning revolution, at least
in Western economies since the beginning of internationalization. During the time of industry (industrial
age), companies/organizations plodded away to control natural resources. In other words, these kinds of
companies/organizations are known as resource-based organizations (Senge, 1993). It was the way, taken
up seriously, to have bigger market share or to have bigger range of influence especially on resources.
It is not difficult to say simply that the way is still valid but the perception of the resource is not. With
the rise of the information age, organizations have begun to have and to use of knowledge effectively
as if it is the most valuable resource. Practically, there can be found a tradeoff here in between tangible
resources (e.g., physical capital) and intangible resources (e.g., knowledge capital). It is a substantial
change if the knowledge era is compared with the industrial era, when tangible assets played a distinc-
tive role. Presently, organizations still try hard to control knowledge resources; because of this they are
now called as knowledge-based organizations.
Consequently, the expanding nature of trade and business operations, when coupled with industrial
development followed by improvements in communication infrastructures, render these groups of in-
dividuals in CoP interconnected and priceless in todays’ economy. The rising stress of competition and
globalization makes these business operations knowledge-based and develops greater reliance especially
on networking and practicing. As a research strand, CoP is kind of a meeting point for researchers work-
ing on organizational learning and social capital in the field of knowledge management.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF COP FOR KNOWLEDGE SHARING
CoP has been utilized by organizations as a component of their purposes or strategies in which members
come together formally or informally to discuss about recent concerns and/or to find solution to com-
mon problems. Their activities are mostly about learning, sharing knowledge and improving practices.
Within a collaborative environment, learning takes place outside formal classroom environment. Even
though CoP have various definitions, they all have common terms: collaborative environment, informal
networks of professional practitioners, shared understanding, and specific knowledge domain. Onge &
Wallace (2003) express their observations on CoP by a typology in three categories as; informal, sup-
ported, and structured. While informal CoP involve loosely organized members having common needs
for improving their practices, in supported ones, members have more purposeful focus on developing
new knowledge for their future practices. In structured CoP, members collaborate and learn within a
purposefully generated content for contributing to an organization’s development.
The fact lying behind all these attachments is shared identity (Wenger, 1998) which magnetizes mem-
bers. This fact also causes a kind of duality for reaping the learning benefits: CoP can be a place where
individuals learn from each other or CoP can be a place for collective improvement in the performance of
collective practices. The notion of this duality makes sense when focused on organizations trying to find
a balance between exploration and exploitation in organizational learning. As discussed in the previous
section, the distinction between exploration and exploitation is fed by the distinction between abstract
knowledge and actual practice. To overcome these dualities or constraints, organizational learning and
social capital are two critical components of the knowledge management field. They help organizations
not only to interact with their environment but also to preserve and develop its core competencies. How-
ever, both components have changing and dynamic natures since ICT becomes vital (not as an option)
even in our personal daily lives. These dynamics force organizations to rethink their policies in order to
sustain the functionality of these two key components.
To sum up, this section explores linkages between individual learning and organizational learning as
a central issue for overcoming the duality of exploration and exploitation at individual, organizational
and inter-organizational levels. The knowledge flow among these distinct levels (explorative way) ought
to be turned into value (exploitative way) for sustaining competitive advantage. The first section deals
with organizational learning while second section covers social capital within the frame of CoP.
Explorative and Exploitative Forms of Organizational Learning in CoP
Brown & Duguid (1991) base their research which is about the relationship between organizational
learning and CoP on two central terms introduced by Bourdieu (1973): modus operandi (the productive
activity of consciousness) and opus operatum (structured structure). Modus operandi can be simplified
as the distinct or particular way of operation while modus operatum means an unvarying or habitual
method of procedure (Allen, 1991). Bourdieu constructs his theory on an old issue involving objectivist
and subjectivist debates. In 1845, with “The Theses on Feuerbach”, Marx had criticized materialism
(objectivism) which does not perceive human activity as practice, in a subjective way for the sensible
world. On the contrary, idealism takes into account human activity in the sense of activity in an abstract
way. Briefly, this critique is about habitus and the individual as human being: The habitus not only con-
strains practices, it is also a result of the creative relationships of human beings. Bourdieu (1977) explains
habitus as invention or inventive dimension which depends on knowledgeable and creative actors. Thus,
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individuals are not the pure objects of the structures, they also have relative freedom to act (e.g., trial and
error) for being creative and self-conscious. Within this context, Bourdieu perceives a practice as valu-
able when it is a praxis3. As it can be detected easily in between the lines of this explanation, the critical
bottleneck lies here as to act freely or to act prescriptively. When organizational learning is remarked as
the social process of cultivating practitioners from individuals engaged in knowledge sharing within a
social context, the social construction of identity becomes critical.
Organizations are still in search for a balance between sharpening and blunting their individual
members’ distinctive abilities. Researchers Lave & Wenger, (1991) Brown & Duguid (1991) attempt to
work on this matter by investigating organizational learning from a community perspective. Legitimate
peripheral participation covers both individual and community learning by linking individual to community
culture (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Further investigation by Brown & Duguid (1991) refers canonical and
non-canonical practices. While the former implies an adherence to formal rules and procedures, the latter
implies the informal routines that dominate day to day procedures. Brown & Duguid (1991) suggest that
strict canonical focus inhibits problem solving capabilities of the organization. However, non-canonical
focus as unstructured dialogue, particularly through storytelling, leads to innovation and problem solv-
ing. Similarly, Levitt, & March (1988) claim knowledge externalization process as the interpretation of
events/practices. In other words, they propose a transition from tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge by
highlighting three classical observations: Behavior in an organization is based on routines, organizational
actions are history dependent and finally organizations are oriented to targets. Within the frame of these
observations, they mention that organizations are seen as learning by encoding inferences from history
into routines that guide behavior. Routines (forms, rules, procedures), independently from individuals,
can be transmitted through socialization, education, training, imitation and so forth. They can also be
recorded in a collective memory. However, the change in routines depends on interpretation of the his-
tory. Routines lead to favorable outcomes; but they are treated as fixed. A competency trap (Levitt &
March, 1988) emerges here because routines may also lead to maladaptive specialization if newer ones
are better than the older. Therefore, interpretations of experience need to be supervised by organiza-
tions for benefiting from individual learners. Organizations need to develop collective understanding
to interpret history or experiences. They also need to focus on keeping these interpretations inside the
collective or organizational memory. Levitt & March (1988) suggest to record all (rules, procedures,
beliefs and cultures) in documents, accounts, files and rule books. The process of transforming experience
into routines may have been a costly process almost three decades ago and it was sensitive to the cost of
information technology. Even though today’s technology provides giant advances when compared with
the situation of those times, the amount of transfer cost still depends on the amount of tacit portion. The
gap is still existent between individual learning and collective memory. Nonaka (1991) states this gap
by setting a bridge between individual learning and organizational learning; the well-known knowledge
conversion process from tacit to explicit. In the model (Nonaka, 1994), knowledge can be distributed with
the help of information technologies once it goes through externalization processes. When information
is interpreted by an individual, it turns into knowledge (Schoenhoff, 1993).
By considering knowledge as a dynamic human process of justifying personal belief toward the truth,
Nonaka & Teece (2001) deal with two types of knowledge as explicit and tacit. They state that explicit
knowledge can be expressed in formal and systematic language and shared in the forms of data, scien-
tific formulas, specifications, manuals and such. On the other hand tacit knowledge emerges together
with some cognitive barriers which makes the expression difficult (Hinds & Pfeffer, 2003). Because it
is learned through experience and held at unconsciousness or semi-consciousness level (Polanyi, 1966
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cited in Hinds & Pfeffer, 2003). Knowledge creation as the result of a complementary process of interac-
tions between tacit form and explicit form transcends the boundary between individual and individual
or between individual and community. This process can be observed in two directions from community
to individual (macro level) or from individual to community (micro level). In order to comprehend the
process of knowledge creation for the organization, one of the best choices is to focus on three elements
introduced by Nonaka (1991) and constructed by Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995) and finally elaborated by
Nonaka et al. (2001). These elements are known as the SECI process, ba and knowledge assets.
The SECI process involves four steps as socialization (tacit to tacit), externalization (tacit to explicit),
combination (explicit to explicit) and internalization (explicit to tacit). These four steps of knowledge
conversion helps an organization to create its own knowledge repository and to diffuse knowledge among
its members. Briefly, it is a process that can be reiterated as the interpretation of an individual’s mind
by the organization to locate articulated knowledge and the interpretation of an organization’s mind by
an individual. With more emphatic words, it resembles the process of raining circle: Knowledge drops
that are condensed from the individuals’ lands vaporize towards the organizations’ atmosphere and fall
back again onto individuals’ lands in drops.
The authors (Nonaka & Teece, 2001), describe socialization process as the conversion process of
new tacit forms through shared experiences. They exemplify this process by mentioning traditional ap-
prenticeship in which learners are guided and educated by experts (not by written documents). Moreover,
socialization process refers to the process of interacting, spending time with other members, observing,
imitating and practicing with others in a collective environment. CoP are particularly effective environ-
ments for running the socialization process thanks to experience-based characteristics. Saint-Onge &
Wallace (2012) clearly spot CoP as a place where tacit knowledge will surface naturally and be shared
with the people who really need to know it. As we touched upon previously, in the community of Xe-
rox technicians as CoP, exchange of tacit knowledge took place within the context of storytelling. For
organizations, storytelling not only helps to develop shared understanding but also to convert tacit form
to explicit knowledge if and when the owner can codify what she knows.
The process of articulation of tacit knowledge, externalization, means translation of justified true
beliefs to symbols, images, letters or written documents. Unavoidably, when tacit knowledge is exter-
nalized (is made explicit), a risk of losing some portions of it may emerge. However, for the rest of it,
knowledge becomes available for articulation and can be shared by others even across the world’s dispersed
members. The success in externalization mostly depends on the sequential use of metaphors (Nonaka
et al., 2001). All these solidifying efforts help tacit knowledge to permeate its cognitive barriers. This
is also closely linked to Levitt and March’s arguments about history dependent learning by interpreting
previous experiences. This interpretation might be verbal, written or symbolized in such various ways:
drawing, modelling or prototyping.
Combination process deals with knowledge transformation from an explicit form to another explicit
form by converting, editing or processing it towards more systemic and complicated sets of new knowl-
edge. It is a matter of synthesizing derived knowledge of an explicit form, from tacit forms with various
sources, and making it ready to disseminate among the members of the organization. The use of database
and IT networks help to facilitate this conversion by sorting, categorizing or linking acquired explicit
knowledge with previous sources. This process also implies an integration (Yeh, Huang, & Yeh, 2011)
or embodiment (Nonaka, 1991) of fragmented knowledge bodies into organizations’ knowledge systems.
Finally, the last step of knowledge conversion, internalization is described as a process of embody-
ing knowledge into tacit form. Because of the critical position of the role of the individual, it is closely
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related to learning by doing (Nonaka, 1994). When individuals combine or reconfigure explicit knowl-
edge databases in action or practice, they link the circle by gaining their own new tacit knowledge.
Internalization can also be perceived as an assimilation process of explicit knowledge by interpreting
and then applying it in practice. Internalization also implies a process of recirculating organizations’ set
of combined knowledge repository by adding new insights.
The process of this conversion from one form to another - from tacit form to explicit and finally tacit
again - helps organizations mostly to create new knowledge. On the other hand, each step may have
some missing links: For instance; socialization process which needs to be supported by new knowledge
keepers (e.g., individual having new/distinct stories) and the limits of conversion process from tacit to
tacit is confronted with absorptive capacities of individuals. The risk of knowledge inertia may emerge
unless the members meet other members from the outside of boundaries, and their absorptive capacity is
supported by adequate amounts of explicit knowledge (observing, imitating, listening may not be enough
to have abstract knowledge). As previously alluded to, externalization process of conversion may have
been limited by the amount of symbols or methods used/known by people. Codification/solidification
of tacit knowledge also has some risks concerning the translation which may be unintentionally far from
the truth. We might learn just the documented history and old stories. However, this may probably not
be the whole truth or all the history. They are merely a collection of someone’s interpretations. One
more example can be given about the combination process which needs to use an important dose of tacit
knowledge (Adler, 1995). Not only the combination process, but all other processes of conversion need
almost the same amount of tacit knowledge, as well. This approach makes SECI model seem as if it is
blocked by some other knowledge type required for running knowledge conversion processes.
The other elements of the process between individual and organization is filled by ba and knowledge
assets. Since knowledge has a context specific character which means, it may differ as to how, where or
when it is used, and the character of participants have critical importance to trigger a knowledge creation
process. According to Nonaka & Takeuchi (1995), ba refers to a shared context in which knowledge is
shared, created and utilized. They also cite Suchman (1987) who proposes knowledge which cannot be
understood without situated cognition and action.
Social, cultural and historical contexts are important for individuals (Vygotsky, 1986) because such
contexts give the basis for one to interpret information to create meanings. As Friedrich Nietzsche ar-
gued, `there are no facts, only interpretations’. Ba is a place where information is interpreted to become
knowledge (Nonaka et al, 2001).
Ba refers to a platform (physical or not) where interactions emerge between participants who are
motivated around similar driving forces such as shared problems, shared practices, or shared benefits
and so on. Ba is also a complicated and ever-changing platform without boundaries. However, the term
of duality we used in previous sections, reappears here with respect to crucial importance of shared
language, shared understanding and shared cognition for enabling ba. At the first glance, ba and CoP
have similar meanings. However, Nonaka et al., (2001) state some differences between these two terms:
…community of practice is a place where the members learn knowledge that is embedded in the commu-
nity, ba is a place where new knowledge is created. While learning occurs in any community of practice,
ba needs energy to become an active ba where knowledge is created. The boundary of a community of
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practice is firmly set by the task, culture and history of the community. Consistency and continuity are
important for a community of practice, because it needs an identity.
As may be well remembered, the concept of “shared identity” was at the core of all these discus-
sions. Because the boundary of ba is not constant, it is quickly and easily reformed by participants, it is
not constrained by history or experiences, and shared identity does not exist in ba. It can be expressed
that no shared identity means no limits caused by shared identity. Moreover, authors (Nonaka et al.,
2001) underlined the level of change in CoP as mainly micro (change in individual composition – new
participants are becoming full participants) while ba changes at both levels: micro and macro where the
new members not only change the composition, but also change ba itself. They propose four types of
interaction as (1) originating ba; face to face interaction between individuals, (2) dialoguing ba; a col-
lective face to face interaction, (3) systemizing ba; collective virtual interaction and finally (4) exercising
ba; face to face interaction between individuals. When these types of interactions overlap with the four
steps of new knowledge creation (SECI), it makes sense. For instance, within the platform of originating
ba, individuals can be socialized by sharing their experiences, stories, ideas or mental models. Then, in
dialoguing ba, they can convert their shared contexts to models derived by common terms. This platform
works for externalization and it makes face-to-face meetings necessary. Later, in systemizing ba, virtual
interactions can be used for combining externalized knowledge with other various open sources. Virtually,
on electronic networks, documentation and articulation have critical meaning here in the sense of not
being limited by a boundary. Finally, in exercising ba; individuals have a chance to interpret articulated
knowledge over the network by exercising on it in order to use it in action.
Consequently, the last element of the process is knowledge assets which means factors enabling “the
knowledge creation process” to work properly. These are inputs, outputs and moderators (Nonaka et. al,
2001). The authors give trust as an example for enabling the process to function. As a last step of knowl-
edge conversion process between individual and organization, they offer four types of knowledge which
make organizations overcome the duality of learning or acting. These knowledge types are; experiential,
conceptual, systemic and routine. While the first; experiential knowledge assets are composed of hands-
on experiences among the individuals within the organization, the second; conceptual knowledge assets,
are about the knowledge that can be articulated by symbols or images or written language. Systemic
knowledge assets also refer to explicit knowledge formed in manuals, models, design, specifications and
so forth. Finally, routine knowledge assets imply the knowledge routinized in actions or practices in the
form of certain patterns or exercises used by organizational members.
Bridging and Bonding Forms of Social Capital in CoP
While the concept of social capital has been revisited by a multitude of researchers originating from
various fields in the last century, it still does not have one single definition that embraces all facets of
the intrinsic and applied implications that it encompasses (e.g., Hanifan, 1916; Jacobs 1965; Bourdieu,
1983; Coleman, 1988; Fountain, 1998; Nahapiet & Ghoshal, 1998; Woolcock, 1998; Putnam, 2000;
Cohen & Prusak, 2001).
It has by now been widely articulated that social capital is a catalyst for developing knowledge
capital between people by fostering the exchange of information and knowledge sharing. Nahapiet and
Goshal (1998) presented social capital in three distinct dimensions: A series of connections between
people (the structural dimension); trust and reciprocity (the relational dimension); and common context
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and understanding (the cognitive dimension). Similarly, two distinct categories of social capital have
been pinpointed by Daniel, Schwier, & McCalla, (2003), namely a structural dimension referring “to
the fundamentals of the network such as types of ties and connections and the social organization of the
community”, where the second dimension is the content dimension of social capital which “includes the
types of norms, trust, shared understanding and those variables that hold people together.”
As eloquently stated by Lesser & Prusak (2000), CoP play an indispensable role in managing and
transferring knowledge. The authors attribute value to CoP because “they foster the development of so-
cial capital, which in turn is a necessary condition for knowledge creation, sharing and usage.” In turn,
Lesser & Storck’s (2001) definition of a CoP in an organizational setting encompasses the structural
and cognitive dimensions of social capital: “a group whose members regularly engage in sharing and
learning, based on their common interests.” The authors argue that while a lot of attention has been
given to face-to-face interaction between people in analyzing social capital in CoP, there is no reason
why distributed CoP whose participants utilize ICT tools should not be considered as part of the general
definition of classical CoP. In fact their analysis of seven CoP reveals that the usage of ICT tools such
as knowledge repositories, discussion databases and e-mail systems provided a boost to the structural
dimension of social capital by giving community members the opportunity to “reveal” their expertise
to others, and to obtain knowledge both internally and from external sources. This opportunity should
remind us Wenger’s words in his acknowledgement section expressing gratitude to all the participants for
providing an opportunity. At this point, it is easier to understand why he thanks them and how this oppor-
tunity boosts knowledge sharing. Robert, Dennis & Ahuja (2008), propose that the structural dimension
of social capital is particularly helpful when the face-to-face communication channel is not an option.
ICT usage also contributed to the relational dimension (obligations, norms, trust and identification)
of social capital because community members could actively manage shared spaces, and begin evaluat-
ing and judging the trustworthiness and reciprocity of others based on members’ contributions in the
form of shared knowledge artifacts. In addition, Lesser & Storck (2001) observed taxonomies being
developed in the knowledge repositories, by means of establishing common mechanisms for structuring
and storing the collective memory of the community members. This observation can also be considered
as positively influencing the cognitive dimension of social capital which is characterized by a shared
context, meaning and understanding. Based on these propositions, it can be assumed that distributed or
online CoP provide a suitable environment for developing social capital.
The working definition for social capital in virtual learning communities suggested by Daniel et al.
(2003) supports this viewpoint by comprising all three proposed dimensions:
… common social resource that facilitates information exchange, knowledge sharing, and knowledge
construction through continuous interaction, built on trust and maintained through shared understanding.
When analyzing how online CoP (oCoP) contribute to social capital development, another categori-
cal approach proposed by Woolcock (1998) can also be helpful. Accordingly, social capital has three
forms: bridging, bonding and linking. Putnam (2000) relates the first two of these to Granovetter’s
(1973) classification of weak ties and strong ties, respectively. Bridging social capital has an external
connotation, in the sense that it suggests building weak ties with people who can be assumed to be dif-
ferent and who did not know each other before establishing a relationship. This results in information
being transferred/shared by otherwise distinct external sources/communities, without having intimate
relations. Bonding social capital, on the other hand, works inwards (has an internal orientation) based
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on strong ties established among people who know each other and focus on the same interests. Though
the potential lack of diversity implies less new/different information being exchanged, bonding social
capital also indicates “thick trust”, solidarity, emotional support, and stronger interpersonal relationships/
connections (Kavanaugh, Reese, Carroll, & Rosson, 2005). It may be suggested that it is more common
to see bonding social capital in highly cohesive communities where knowledge flows relatively more
fluidly among members who trust each other.
There exist some researchers in the literature who investigated how the structural, cognitive and rela-
tional mechanisms trigger sustainable interactions in CoP. For instance, Inkpen & Tsang (2005) researched
direct ties among individuals in order to realize the effect of interaction by focusing on relational and
cognitive dimensions. According to the authors, these dimensions are mediators of knowledge exchange
among members of a community. Therefore, it can be stated that weak ties provide a setting which al-
lows more search for, and better access to, new information and resources (Granovetter, 1973). On the
other hand, strong ties lead to more search for, and better access to, redundant or familiar information
and resources (Hansen, 1999). This conceptualization leads us to set up a link between dimensions and
forms of social capital, as well as organizational learning activities. In a nutshell, structural dimension
can be perceived as an opportunity to develop relational and/or cognitive social capital if the participants
continue to meet frequently. Thus, it can be derived that developing relational social capital provides
grounds for nourishing bridging ties. These are highly eligible for explorative activities in organizational
learning. On the other hand, cognitive social capital provides grounds for nourishing bonding ties. These
ties are helpful to organizations for exploitative activities. Bonding and bridging ties can be effectively
utilized by organizations to overcome the potential struggle posed by the duality between learning and
acting or in other words, exploration and exploitation of knowledge. The distinction between exploration
and exploitation can be clarified as the process of exploitation entails the deepening of a firm’s core
knowledge, while exploration implies a process broadening into non-core areas. Both for the explora-
tion and exploitation process, networks and clusters offer opportunities and mechanisms by representing
social capital (Burt, 2000).
While bonding social capital maintains the combination of trust and social cohesion in the community
(Coleman, 1988) and enables members to receive social support from other members, it may limit the
access to new connections overtime by making the members too dependent to the group (Woolcock &
Narayan, 2001). On the other hand, bridging social capital provides access to new connections across
the organizational boundaries. With the help of weak ties, bridging social capital provides trust and
cohesion among members in different communities (Granovetter, 1973). Moreover, bonding social
capital provides strong ties between members, facilitating forms of intergroup interaction and collective
action, while bridging social capital provides ties between groups and other actors and organizations
(Woolcock & Narayan, 2000). Briefly, bonding social capital refers to a trusting relationship between
members in a single community (e.g., social capital in criminal gangs), bridging social capital refers a
trusting network of relationships between members of different communities and between communities
(e.g., social capital between sport clubs). At this point there is a need to revisit Granovetter (1973), who
stresses that bonding and bridging social capital are correlated with strong and weak ties by maintaining
existing relations (bonding) and extending networks or facilitating mobility (bridging). In this context
it can be supposed that ICT may have a positive effect on the creation of bridging social capital while
maintaining or reducing bonding social capital.
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A countless amount of information is being produced by the minute in the virtual environment. The
speed, volume and quality (trustworthiness) of the knowledge being shared are key especially in profes-
sional work related issues, specifically in planning and strategic decision making processes in organiza-
tions which may be fast or slow learners. Due to strong ties which imply intense emotional ties over a
long period of time with high frequency contact and reciprocity (Wellman, 1982, cited in Kavanaugh
et al., 2005), it can be suggested that bonding social capital embedded in oCoP will be a facilitator in
the sharing of high quality and trustable knowledge among community members, although the content
may lack diverse viewpoints. On the other hand, weak ties provide the opportunity to obtain new and
diverse knowledge from external sources that may not be as trustworthy because of the short term na-
ture of the relationship which by definition lacks emotional attachment and mutuality. Norris (2002)
reports that the results a survey conducted among internet users, overall contact with different types of
online groups like unions, community associations, and sports clubs, served both bridging and bonding
functions, where the experience for reinforcing bonding was slightly higher overall. It is interesting to
note that %50 percent of respondents had at one time or another used the internet to contact a trade or
professional association – that can be considered in the realm of oCoP – and the same online group was
reported by %24 of the respondents as the most frequently contacted among all other types of online
groups investigated (Norris, 2002).
It can thus be proposed that oCoP provide a virtual environment which fosters the development of
strong networking ties, consequently strengthening bonding social capital, and creating a learning en-
vironment where effective knowledge sharing and mutual learning can be nurtured among participants
based on feelings of trust and reciprocity. It should still be recognized that trust will build over time and
its strength will depend on the frequency and quality of the information being shared. Lesser & Storck’s
(2001) analyses suggest that distributed online communities are also instrumental in fostering bridging
social capital, in the sense that they more often than not transpire organizational boundaries in the search
for external knowledge by improving external linkages.
THE ROLE OF ICT FOR COP
Especially in the last two decades, the skills and capabilities of individuals have been increasingly noticed
in terms of their ICT competencies. The ability to use ICT is no longer just important for practitioners
in the ICT sector, but has become fundamental for everyday working practices. ICT have blended into
the rhythms and routines of everyday working life. The skills needed here are not only technical, but
more importantly, informational: skills that enable individuals to access, to process and to interpret
information in useful ways. Within this frame, ICT can be considered as an important enabler in knowl-
edge management (Davenport, 1997; Ruggles, 1998; O’Dell & Grayson, 1998). In other words, ICT
facilitates knowledge transfer not only through the exchange of data but also the exchange of knowledge.
Nonetheless, this requires a double transformation process from knowledge to information and then to
data, and back from data to information, and finally, to knowledge. Bolisani & Scarso (1999) claim that
the transfer of knowledge (especially in the tacit form) often requires proximity between the transmitter
and the receiver. For example, videoconferencing and virtual chat rooms may aid the transfer of tacit
knowledge by enabling virtual proximity between players, while the transfer of information (especially
the codified form) can be distributed worldwide with the touch of a button.
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The close relationship between knowledge sharing and social capital within the context of organizational
learning directs a growing attention to the fundamental impacts of ICT on social capital (Blanchard &
Horan, 2000; Wellman, 1997; Franzen, 2003; Uslaner, 2000; DiMaggio, Hargittai, Neuman, & Robinson,
2001; Hampton & Wellman, 2003; Quan-Haase & Wellman, 2004; Huysman & Wulf, 2006; Ellison,
Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007). This attention to the impact of ICT on knowledge creation and skill diffu-
sion makes clear that the ability to create, share and utilize knowledge is continuously upgraded by the
advancement of ICT. While research communities are engaging in the clarification of blurred issues,
fields of business have emerged to provide ICT services with a variety of solutions for organizational
processes. ICT provides solutions for interaction, collaboration, learning and/or exploration as well as
exploitation (Andersen 2004; Gilsing & Nooteboom, 2004; Nooteboom, 2004). In parallel with these
advancements in organization, ICT introduces some other opportunities for organizations in the sense
of possessing and managing their social assets (Millen & Patterson, 2003). Use of ICT in a virtual en-
vironment, including online communities, builds social norms and assets in geographically dispersed
communities as well as location-based communities. With regard to CoP, online communities can be
framed as a community which uses networked technology, especially the Internet, to establish collabo-
ration across geographical barriers and time zones. An online community’s main goal is to serve as a
common ground for individuals who share the same interests as one another. Online communities exist
according to the identification of an idea or task, rather than physical proximity. Members are organized
around an activity, and they are formed when need arises (Squire & Johnson, 2000). Because the mem-
bers cannot see each other, group norms are not dominant as much as in traditional communities, thus
allowing for greater individual control. Therefore, researchers pointed out that online communities do not
appear to be intimate social groups (Wellman, 1997; Cummings, Butler, & Kraut, 2002) and this causes
a decrease in social capital (Putnam, 2000). On the other hand, analyses indicate that understanding an
individual’s full set of social behavior is crucial to examining her network relations, and building more
effective software to support communication and social capital (Cummings et al., 2002; Preece, 2002).
The value of the concept of social capital is to identify certain aspects of social structure by their func-
tion (Coleman 1988). Similarly, identifying certain functions of online social structure may be helpful
to understanding the social phenomena.
Online communities can either be location-based, in which the electronic group is centered on
the geographic locale, or dispersed, in which the electronic group is not (Blanchard & Horan, 2000).
Location-based communities can also be defined as the individuals assembled around a central location
who mostly communicate via intranet-based networks, while the members of a dispersed community
mostly refer to a group of individuals from the outside of an organization, such as partners and third
party players (Blanchard, 2004). Members of location-based communities mostly have a chance to meet
face-to-face when they need to or in a regular fashion, and they mostly know each other directly or indi-
rectly. Nonetheless, members of a dispersed community meet mostly online and they don’t know each
other in the real-world. Blanchard (2004) stresses that most members of location-based communities
mostly indulge in both ways of interaction (face-to-face and online), and these communities are denser
than dispersed communities. A higher level of social capital can be found in location-based communities
when compared with dispersed ones, in terms of the easy flow of norms and trust in densely connected
networks (Coleman, 1988). Similarly, Blanchard & Horan (2000) state that dispersed communities may
decrease the social capital in location-based communities because they may decrease the density of the
social networks of relationships in that community. With regard to the isolation effect of online commu-
nities on individuals (Putnam, 1995), members of dispersed communities may develop their own social
111

capital in their online communities instead of developing it in their location-based communities if they
sustain their online relationships within the existence of socio-emotional rewards (Blanchard, 2004).
On the other hand, Wellman, Hasse, Witte, & Hampton (2001) found a positive correlation between
the participation in online communities and the participation in traditional communities. According
to the authors, participation in a dispersed community may not decrease some forms of social capital.
In particular, increased Internet use is associated with an increase in civic group participation and it is
significant because it may be a sign of increased activity in location-based networks of relationships.
Although it has been argued that dispersed communities can decrease social capital and location based
communities can increase it, this is not an accepted fact because of the fuzziness about the individuals
who are developing a sense of community by interacting online (Blanchard, 2004).
With regard to the dimensional approaches to social capital, Pigg & Crank (2004) consider the
functions of ICT supporting communication in various forms as well as information storage, retrieval,
analysis and sharing. Each of these elements can be operationalized by means of software in a variety
of forms with applications currently available in online communities. Considering ICT in two forms as
information tools and communication tools may become necessary especially because of the fact that
social capital is built upon “instrumental” and “expressive” information forms (Pigg & Crank, 2004).
Beyond the information function, communication includes both cognitive and affective contents. There-
fore, the written message itself is meaningless without considering both content and context (Raber &
Budd, 2003). Along with these matters, ICT tools need to be formulated in line with their formats and
content that communicate both the affective and cognitive elements (Pigg & Crank, 2004). Researchers
attempted to classify ICT applications in line with the relationships facilitated among users (Pigg &
Crank, 2004). They think it is the format of ICT that structures social ties between persons and connects
them to activities. Altheide (1994) illustrates the relevance of organizational IT and formats for societal
activities in which IT formats and an organizational context create an effective environment for problem
solving which, in turn, creates a format and organizational solution appropriate to the societal context and
activities of the entire process. According to the author, different formats, but the same information and
communication technologies brought together allow “doing it” and “reporting it.” On this basis, internet
usage has created different formats for information technology that enables a flow of communication
that isn’t passive, but is a two-way transaction such as: e-mail, chatting and the use of social software.
With regard to this classification DiMaggio et al. (2001) express that online communities interacting via
the Internet have some differences when compared to earlier technologies. The internet offers different
modes of communication (broadcasting, individual searching and group discussion) and different kinds
of content (text, audio, visual images) in a single medium. Within this context, Quan-Haase & Wellman
(2004) propose the use of social capital in two complementary meanings as social contact and civic
engagement. They mention that social contact reflects interpersonal communication patterns, including
visits, encounters, phone calls and social events, while civic engagement reflects the degree to which
people become involved in their community, both actively and passively, including such political and
organizational activities as political rallies or book and sports clubs. Pigg & Crank, (2004) differentiate
between the information and communication functions. They propose that the communication function
is multi-faceted and interactive, including text, audio and video, and it may as well be in real-time (as in
VOIP) or asynchronous or archival/historical. According to them, the communication function refers to
the acts of transmitting information of different types, e.g., ideas and feelings, from one person to another.
The information function is complex because Internet-based information transfer can take place using
a variety of features of the network (Pigg & Crank, 2004). The information transfer can be “active” in
112

that people share information using various communication features of the Internet including e-mail and
video conferencing, or it can be passive, based on one person’s search for resources on the Internet and
using, for example, its archiving or knowledge management capabilities. Based on these challenges for
classifying ICT in sense of its format and the role in users’ relations, Yuan, Zhao, Liao, & Chi (2013)
consider the role of ICT tools for knowledge sharing. They gather ICT in three groups; communication
tools, social media and long standing tools4 . While communication tools means functioning simply as
a channel, social media tools generate knowledge sharing between users. Web 2.0 is one of the critical
advancements for empowering ICT to generate two-way/interactive/mutual knowledge sharing within
a community. Together with the introduction of this interactive environment, new possibilities such as
distribution lists, photo directories, and advanced search engines, wikis, forums and more platforms
can support online linkages with others to build new forms of social capital (Resnick, 2001). Kaplan &
Haenlein (2010) define social media as “a group of Internet-based applications that build on the ideologi-
cal and technological foundations of Web 2.0 and that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated
content.” Some of the important properties5 of social media that make these platforms different than
traditional media can be listed here as quality, space, frequency, accessibility, usability, immediacy and
permanence. Beyond these properties, Vossen (2009) defines Web 2.0 in four dimensions. These are
the social dimension, infrastructure dimension, functionality dimension and the data dimension. These
dimensions technically are related with the Nonaka’s (1994) process of knowledge sharing as socializa-
tion, externalization, combination and internalization.
With regard to Nonaka’s (1994) statement about socialization – the process of creating tacit knowledge
through shared experience - social dimension, is described as the software for sharing user-generated
content or collaborative use of it (Vossen, 2009). This description of social media tools -Social Network-
ing Sites (SNS) - refers to the applications for the interactions among users in which they create, share,
and exchange information and ideas in online communities and networks. Another process of knowledge
sharing is externalization -the conversion of tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge - (Nonaka, 1994),
makes Wikis a conversational technology within the frame of meaningful dialogues (Andreano, 2008)
externalizing practitioners experiences for submitting it to the Web 2.0 platforms (McAfee, 2006).
According to Andreano (2008), wiki technology allows users to directly interact with the content they
encounter. If a user using a best practices manual, for example, comes across a problematic or inaccurate
piece of information, she can immediately edit the wiki to reflect her own recent experience. If another
user finds something wrong with this edit, this other user can similarly change what appears on the wiki.
The process of combination -the reconfiguration of existing information for having new knowledge by
sorting, adding, re-categorizing, and re-contextualizing - (Nonaka, 1994), appears as forums in Web
2.0 technology (McAfee, 2006). Forums allow the users of the organization to arrange information and
describe it in a way that makes sense to them and will aid them in their future discovery of relevant
knowledge artifacts. It also serves better search functionality and the use of user-created tags (Andreano,
2008). The final process defined by Nonaka (1994) is internalization -conversion of explicit knowledge
into tacit knowledge. For this process, Web 2.0 serves as blogs allowing users to express themselves
through storytelling and narrative (Du & Wagner, 2006). The authors state that the process of expressing
knowledge via blogs actually helps a content owner to construct knowledge because the conversation
serves to refine and clarify knowledge of which the knower might have been unaware.
113

Consequently, the emergence of the Internet opens a new era of interaction by offering not only com-
munication technologies but also new social aspects for daily life and business environment. Together
with the various communication and social media tools, the Internet has extended the way of interaction
among people to the era of interaction among users in such communities. With the rapid development
in technologies and tools, it initially became a mediator of real world relations, but later it defined these
relations with its own dynamics. Recent findings about the impact of ICT on social capital tend to sup-
port positive relationships between the constructs by underlining the sense of community in virtual
spaces and enhancing its offline relations (Hampton & Wellman, 2003). Along with these findings, it
can be derived that the impact of ICT on social capital depends on the type of technology selected by
individuals and tools for interaction.
In order to reap the benefits of knowledge sharing in CoP more effectively, exploration and exploitation
activities facilitated by organizations might be designed in accordance with the knowledge types created
and articulated in the community. For example, experiential knowledge which derives from hands on
experiences of an individual could be targeted by organizations as part of explorative activities, while
conceptual, systemic and routinized knowledge created by individuals could be aligned with exploitative
activities. The substance for future research in this field lies within the dynamics of knowledge conver-
sion occurring in oCoP. Thus, other dualities embedded in these dynamics need to be visited.
Some unanswered questions:
• Which types of knowledge are served by bridging form of social capital in oCoP?
• Which types of knowledge are served by bonding form of social capital in oCoP?
• How do ICTs boost the cognitive dimension for facilitating bonding forms within the existing dif-
ferences in identities between oCoP and CoP?
In the context of rapid and mostly unpredictable developments regarding CoP and ICT infrastructure,
various dimensions branch out from the components of social capital, organizational learning and ICT.
For instance, the form of social capital emerging in online communities needs to be reworked continu-
ously by incorporating upcoming trends and technologies in ICT. As it has been presented in this study,
oCoP may be emerge in both location based and dispersed forms. Regardless of the form of social capital,
individuals interacting in the community mostly represent themselves as virtual identities. This means
that there is no distinction on the basis of demographics, instead the diversity of the members may be
reflected by their experiences and tenures. This example provides clues for future research directions,
such as the undiscovered dualities in the identity representation of the members in oCoP. In addition,
emerging types of knowledge need to be considered especially for oCoP. This new knowledge form is
codified and be articulated as well as representing the cognitive characteristics of the creator. Finally,
further dualities between knowledge types (i.e., tacit knowledge in CoP versus synthetic knowledge in
oCoP) need to be dwelled upon in the future.
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CONCLUSION
CoP is a well-known concept for the knowledge management field. The popularity of the concept is
mostly fed by the changing dynamics and composition of institutions and conditions. The evolution of
CoP has been presented inappropriate detail to represent the changes in these dynamics. While CoP
meant location based formations at the beginning, the concept turned into dispersed formations over
time. This transition can be perceived as a breakthrough due to the changes of purposes, domains,
identities and so forth. As time passes and different dynamics evolve, defining CoP is going to become
more difficult. There is a need for reconceptualization of CoP in line with their changing nature. For
example, availability of ICT not only for business operations but also our personal operations redefine
our environment in terms of concept and context. At a micro level, most of us reserve much of our time
for accessing knowledge what we need. At the macro level, organizations reserve a good portion of their
resources for accessing our personal knowledge repositories. When organizational learning is perceived
within the context of exploration and exploitation activities, organizational knowledge sharing dynamics
necessitate such socio-organizational settings (i.e., social capital) as norms, culture, meanings, trust, com-
mon understandings and so forth. From this viewpoint, building and sharing social capital among CoP
primarily help organizations to utilize internalized knowledge more effectively and productively together
with the support of externalization efforts for diffusing, storing or sharing it. However, organizations are
confronted with a duality of exploration and exploitation. In this study, the attempt to balance these two
components of organizational learning was one of the central issues for elaborating the changing nature
of CoP and social capital. In order to overcome the struggle between learning and acting, organizations
follow particular models to harmonize explorative and exploitative activities in a contextual sphere to
generate organizational learning. SECI, ba, and knowledge assets are some of the well-known models
to convert individual knowledge into organizational knowledge and vice-versa. Moreover, in order to
sustain competitive advantage, organizations use ba for setting effective networking especially in online
spaces. As presented in this study, these two models, together with knowledge assets, make CoP and
Social Capital highly important for the competitiveness of business firms.
Today’s business models (e.g., geographically dispersed workplace formations) and advanced ICT
infrastructures offer various opportunities for exploration and exploitation, as well as opportunities for
internalization and externalization of knowledge. For instance, recent advancements in ICT engaged
by oCOP provide some ways to reduce uncertainties and information asymmetries in transactions by
handling and serving accessible data over networks. Sensors can collect and store various routines,
procedures, acts, conversations and so on, thus serving users/organizations when needed. Online spaces
make it possible to share these vital resources globally and make them available for the accession of
every organizational member. However, the contrast between technological advancements and the orga-
nizational setting become clearer, especially because of the relatively slower responses of organizations
to their rapidly changing environment. Besides the new opportunities of ICT supported cooperation for
the generation of new knowledge and content sharing, organizations may need to realize and solidify
some unresolved issues about organizational learning and their knowledge management processes. In
order to make individuals knowledge (including tacit forms) in oCoP accessible for all the community or
to codify transferred knowledge for reaping the benefits of its tacit aspects, organizations need to know
how to set and serve social capital among all their agents.
115

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Bonding Social Capital: A form of social capital enabling its owners to utilize their existing re-
sources by serving them a collaborative sphere (tight environment, synergy, trust, ability, opportunity,
collaborative sphere, etc.).
Bridging Social Capital: A form of social capital enabling its owners to access new resources by
serving them new ties mostly from outside (the boundaries).
Communities of Practice (CoP): Groups of individuals coming together and interacting around a
common interest in order to improve their interrelated practices.
Constant ICT: information and communication technologies helping individuals to transfer their
coded knowledge asynchronously.
Dispersed Communities of Practice: Groups of individuals who are geographically dispersed and
interact online with relation to their shared interests in order to improve their interrelated practices.
Exploitative Form of Organizational Learning: Process of creating and utilizing new knowledge
within the organization as a whole.
Explorative Form of Organizational Learning: Process of accessing new knowledge which exists
in the environment.
ICT: Information and communication technologies helping individuals to transfer or store their
coded knowledge.
Instant ICT: information and communication technologies helping individuals to transfer their coded
knowledge synchronously.
Location-Based Communities of Practice: Groups of individuals who are geographically together
using ICT to interact with relation to their shared interests in order to improve their relevant/interrelated
practices.
Online Communities of Practice (oCoP): Groups of individuals using ICT to interact in relation
to their shared interests in order to improve their relevant/interrelated practices.
Organizational Learning: Process of gathering and diffusing new knowledge within the organiza-
tion as a whole.
Social Capital: A form of intangible capital emerging within a group of individuals interacting for
their shared purposes.
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ENDNOTES
1
e.g., Academie Francaise (1635), Royal Society of London (1660), Academie des Sciences (1666)
and Accademia dei Dissonanti di Modena (1683)
2
The term Web 2.0 was coined in 1999 to describe web sites that use technology beyond the static
pages of earlier web sites.
3
The process by which a theory, lesson, or skill is enacted, embodied, or realized. “Praxis” may also
refer to the act of engaging, applying, exercising, realizing, or practicing ideas.
4
The authors also consider long-standing tools such as databases and digital archives that allow
searching or communicating with document contributors; hence, their value for developing aware-
ness of expertise distribution and social capital is limited. They report that more than half of their
interviewees who use long-standing tools reported that their contributions to these databases were
mandated by managers and hence may not contain as many details as when the contributions were
more voluntary. According to authors, the lack of contextual information of knowledge stored in
such databases calls for the integration of other ICT tools (Yuan et al., 2013).
5
Quality: In industrial (traditional) publishing—mediated by a publisher—the typical range of
quality is substantially narrower than in niche, unmediated markets. The main challenge posed by
content in social media sites is the fact that the distribution of quality has high variance: from very
high-quality items to low-quality, sometimes abusive content. Space: both industrial and social
media technologies provide scale and are capable of reaching a global audience. Industrial media,
however, typically use a centralized framework for organization, production, and dissemination,
whereas social media are by their very nature more decentralized, less hierarchical, and distinguished
by multiple points of production and utility. Frequency: the number of times an advertisement is
displayed on social media platforms. Accessibility: the means of production for industrial media are
typically government and/or corporate (privately owned); social media tools are generally available
to the public at little or no cost. Usability: industrial media production typically requires specialized
skills and training. Conversely, most social media production requires only modest reinterpretation
of existing skills; in theory, anyone with access can operate the means of social media production.
Immediacy: the time lag between communications produced by industrial media can be long (days,
weeks, or even months) compared to social media (which can be capable of virtually instantaneous
responses). Permanence: industrial media, once created, cannot be altered (once a magazine article
is printed and distributed, changes cannot be made to that same article) whereas social media can
be altered almost instantaneously by comments or editing (Morgan et al., 2012).
122
123
Chapter 7
Social Innovation in the
For-Profit Organization:
The Case of Banca Prossima
Tindara Abbate
University of Messina, Italy
Angelo Presenza
Lorn Sheehan
ABSTRACT
practitioners, as well as academics. They represent different ways of thinking and addressing social
issues often overlooked by public/private organizations and also provide a viable means of responding
case followed by a more generalized discussion. The case of “Banca Prossima” illustrates engagement in
social problems and trying to find and apply new solutions that simultaneously meet a social need while
also leading to new or improved capabilities and relationships and a better use of assets and resources.
INTRODUCTION
Social entrepreneurship has fast become a global phenomenon (Zietlow, 2002; Robinson et al., 2009),
receiving increased attention from researchers (Doherty et al., 2014; Dees, 2012; Defourny and Nyssens,
2008; Haugh, 2007; Hockerts, 2006; Mair and Martí, 2006; Short et al., 2009), including identifying its
relevant societal effects (Austin, 2006; Martin and Osberg, 2007) and moving towards the definition of
innovative approaches and activities to solve certain social problems (Robinson et al., 2009).
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2673-5.ch007

Social Innovation in the For-Profit Organization
Globalization of the social entrepreneurship phenomenon is strictly associated with the following key
factors: wealth disparity at the global level; market, institutional and state failures; spread of the corporate
social responsibility movement; technological developments and recognition of shared responsibilities
(Zahra et al., 2008). Two additional reasons may further explain why social entrepreneurship has emerged
so strongly in society. First, social entrepreneurship can help non-profit organizations define and work
in innovative ways, improving efficiency in products/services and serving their communities better
(Reis and Clohesy, 1999). Second, certain conditions are best served by alliances between corporate
and non-profit organizations where cooperation can clearly produce a better quality of life (Jiao, 2011).
Intrinsically linked with social entrepreneurship is the concept of social innovation which refers to
exploring and finding new products/services, new ways to meet social needs which are not satisfactorily
met by the market or the public sector, or tackling societal challenges, empowering people and creat-
ing new social relationships and models of collaboration (European Union and The Young Foundation,
2010). These are contemplated as a major issue for the European Commission, and also considered an
important opportunity to connect with citizens and to stimulate a better quality of life (Altuna et al.,
2015). Consequently, the European Commission has committed to keep, define and develop the Euro-
pean Union social model (under a sustainable and inclusive growth agenda) to address major societal
challenges through social innovation with the involvement and the collaboration of all social actors, in-
cluding the public sector, large enterprises, small-medium enterprises, social economies, etc. (European
Commission, 2010), utilizing the open innovation approach highlighted recently by Chesbrough (2003).
Beyond the role played by the European Union in social innovation and the emblematic cases of
non-profit organizations and foundations created on an ad hoc basis, there is limited contribution from
other actors, such as private sector firms. Additionally, in recent years the concept of social innovation is
increasingly of interest to academics seeking to structure and to develop the field of social innovation in
an appropriate way (i.e., Rüede and Lurtz, 2012; Howaldt and Schwarz, 2010; Zahra et al., 2009; Phills
et al., 2008; Pol and Ville, 2009; Alvord, et al., 2004). But, the resultant empirical studies have mainly
referred to cases dealing with not-for-profit organizations (Altuna et al., 2015). Relatively unexplored are
other sectors and other actors involved in social innovation activities, which, better understood through
empirical investigation, might lead to a better understanding of how they create, develop and launch
social innovations.
To address this gap, the chapter presents and discusses a case study of Banca Prossima, a firm that is
mainly involved in social innovation projects and initiatives. Banca Prossima is a for-profit independent
bank within the Intesa Sanpaolo group which provides products and services to non-profit customer
segments (such as social businesses, associations, foundations and religious organizations). The con-
tinuous commitment to, and focus on, social innovation activities makes this for-profit organization an
ideal case for the exploratory purpose of this research. Additionally, this case represents an interesting
example of a bank that has evolved its activities to ever more advanced financial services (Formisano
et al., 2016), in response to the profound changes that have taken place in the last few years, such as
globalization, technological innovation and increasingly demanding customers. In particular, banks are
putting strategies in place to respond to increased competition and more sophisticated customer’s needs
(Formisano and Russo, 2011) and in doing so have begun to transition from a product orientation to a
customer orientation, with the aim of better understanding and satisfying heterogeneous client needs.
In light of these trends, the chapter is structured into three sections. First, a brief review of the lit-
erature on social entrepreneurship and social innovation. Second, an analysis of the “Banca Prossima”
case study, emphasizing the application of new solutions to social problems that simultaneously meet
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a social need while also leading to new or improved organizational capabilities and relationships and
better use of assets and resources. Finally, conclusions with managerial implications and suggestions
for future research.
BACKGROUND
The Concept of Social Entrepreneurship
Although social entrepreneurship appears an inevitable response to complex societal needs and problems,
a decade ago Roberts and Woods (2005, p. 45) observed that social entrepreneurship was at an “exciting
stage of infancy, short on theory and definition but high on motivation and passion. The challenge for
academia is to turn an inherently practitioner-led pursuit into a more rigorous and objective discipline”.
In this regard, various definitions of social entrepreneurship have been developed (Christie and Honig,
2006; Nicholls, 2006; Certo and Miller, 2008; Thompson, 2008), with some focusing mainly on its mis-
sion (Dees, 2001), its multiple dimensions (Mort et al., 2003) and its processes or mechanisms (Chell,
2007; Robert and Woods, 2005). However, a number of “conflicting tensions” regarding the definitional
boundaries still remain (see table 1), such as the content and the dimensions of social enterprises (Dacin
et al., 2011; Santos, 2012; Zahra et al., 2009), which fuel a relevant debate involving both academics
and policy makers (Leadbeater, 2007).
Accordingly to Zahra et al. (2009, p. 522), social entrepreneurship “encompasses the activities and
processes undertaken to discover, define, and exploit opportunities in order to enhance social wealth
by creating new ventures or managing existing organizations in an innovative manner”. Another useful
conceptualization is offered by Peredo and McLean (2006, p. 64) who, after an examination of social
entrepreneurship in its common use, suggest the following comprehensive definition: social entrepreneur-
ship is exercised where some person (or group) (1) aims at creating social value, either exclusively or
at least in some prominent way; (2) shows a capacity to recognize and take advantage of opportunities
Table 1. The main tensions regarding the notion of Social Entrepreneurship
Is social entrepreneurship an individual or a collective It appears that social entrepreneurship can be both an individual
phenomenon? and a collective phenomenon.
Is social entrepreneurship shaped by social value rather than The creation of social value is the essential feature of the
economic value? initiatives, for the social entrepreneur’s principal aim is to produce
social change.
Is social entrepreneurship located only in the non-profit sector, While many social entrepreneurship initiatives can be found in the
or can it also be found in the for-profit and public sectors? non-profit sector, some social entrepreneurship “attitudes” also
concern other sectors.
Does social entrepreneurship aim to achieve incremental social It seems that if social entrepreneurship is a way to improve the
impacts, or is it meant to produce radical social transformations quality of life of individuals and communities through social
only? value creation and innovative paths, it is not essential to establish
whether its impact has to be incremental or radical.
Is social entrepreneurship a local phenomenon or a global one? While many initiatives happen at the local level, the impact and
the repercussions that flow from that impact cannot be isolated, as
there are ultimately global links.
Source: (European Commission, 2010)
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to create that value (‘envision’); (3) employs innovation, ranging from outright invention to adapting
someone else’s novelty, in creating and/or distributing social value; (4) is willing to accept an above-
average degree of risk in creating and disseminating social value; and, (5) is unusually resourceful in
being relatively undaunted by scarce assets in pursuing their social venture. From this perspective, social
entrepreneurship seems to be one of the most deliberate, and potentially most effective, ways for social
innovation to offer solutions to pressing social problems. This means that social enterprises seek to serve
the community’s interest (social, societal, and environmental objectives) rather than profit maximization.
This point is reinforced by Phills et al. (2008) who suggest that social entrepreneurs see new patterns
and possibilities for innovation and are willing to bring these new ways of doing things to fruition even
when established organizations are unwilling to try them. And enterprises are important because they
deliver innovation. But ultimately, innovation is what creates social value. Innovation can emerge in
places and from people outside of the scope of social entrepreneurship and social enterprise. In particu-
lar, large, established nonprofits, businesses, and even governments are producing social innovations.
As Phills et al. (2008) noted, the underlying objective of social entrepreneurs and social enterprises
is mainly to create social value which entails the creation of benefits or reductions of costs for soci-
ety – through efforts that address social needs and problems – in ways that go beyond the widely-held
convictions of private gains and general benefits from market activity. In this respect, the European
Commission perceives social enterprises as often having an innovative nature, through the goods or
services they provide, and also through the operational or organizational methods they utilize, often
employing society’s most fragile (socially excluded) individuals (Pisano et al., 2015). In addition, Dees
(2006) emphasizes that social entrepreneurs discover or create novel opportunities through processes
of exploration, innovation, experimentation and resource mobilization, revealing an active, confused
and highly decentralized learning process that is necessary if social innovations are to be practically
discovered and implemented to solve social problems.
Social Innovation
The novelty of the concept and the heterogeneity of disciplines involved have led to the proliferation of
various definitions of social innovation (Zapf, 1991; Alvord et al., 2004; Moulaert et al., 2005; Pol and
Ville; 2009; Rüede and Lurtz, 2012), in an attempt to explain its different forms and practices (Howaldt
and Schwarz, 2010). Phills et al. (2008) state that social innovation can be considered as follows: “a novel
solution to a social problem that is more effective, efficient, sustainable or just than existing solutions,
and for which the value created accrues primarily to society as a whole rather than private individuals.
Alvord et al. (2004, p. 262) underline that social innovation can be defined as “innovative solutions to
immediate social problems that mobilize ideas, capacities, resources, and social arrangements required
for sustainable social transformations”. Additionally, the Innovation Union Flagship describes social
innovation as finding new ways of meeting social needs which are not adequately met by the market or
the public sector or to tackle societal challenges, empowering people and creating new social relation-
ships and models of collaboration (European Commission, 2010). Although, the project and initiatives
of social innovation are generally encouraged by non-profit organizations and foundations, the European
Commission (2012) states that social innovation can and must take place in all four sectors or as com-
bination of them: (1) the non-profit sector; (2) the public sector (both in terms of policies and service
models); (3) the private sector; and, (4) the informal sector.
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As outlined by the European Commission, all actors and all regions should be involved in social in-
novation and there is actually an interesting sign that social innovations can increasingly be defined and
developed by firms (European Commission, 2012, p. 29). In fact, the for-profit sector is increasingly
showing concrete levels of social responsibility, a high level of social value creation and certain social
entrepreneurship “attitudes” (OECD, 2010, p. 190) to develop and manage social innovation projects.
Emblematic cases in this direction are the big companies like Apple, Siemens, Dell and others that may
have created an environment of entrepreneurship or ancillary industries or processes to satisfy some
social needs/problems of China (Salim Saji and Ellingstad, 2015).
Following a review of the literature, Caurlier-Grice et al. (2012) propose several common features
and core elements of social innovation (see Figure 1). The core elements appear mainly necessary to
define a social innovation, speaking to: novelty, where social innovation needs to be new in some way
or applied in a new way; practical application, where social innovation has to address the practical ap-
plication or implementation of a new idea financially sustainable in the medium- to long-term; meets a
social need, explicitly considered as something that can cause serious harm or socially suffering when
not met; effectiveness, implying that social innovation should be more effective by creating a measur-
able improvement in terms of outcomes from existing solutions; enhancement of society’s capacity to
act, determining new roles and relationships, developing assets and capabilities and/or better use of as-
sets and resources. The main common features of social innovation are: cross-sectoral; grassroots and
bottom-up; pro-sumption and co-production; mutualism; creation of new roles and relationships; better
use of resources and assets; and development of assets and capabilities; and open and collaborative.
Regarding this last feature, it is interesting to note that social innovation seems to naturally reflect the
open innovation principles (Chesbrough, 2003) because the development of successful social innovation
projects/activities inevitably requires the involvement of different external actors, strongly committed to
the social mission and social goals. In addition, social innovation activities need generally to create new
social relationships or social collaborations (Murray et al., 2010). Similarly, open innovation is strongly
focused on collaboration (Chesbrough et al., 2008), stressing opportunities to attract innovative ideas,
Figure 1. Common features and core elements of social innovation
127

exchange knowledge among different actors, and work together through open and collaborative networks
in order to develop products/services (Chesbrough, 2003) or to solve problems. In fact, according to
the principles of open innovation, an organization does not innovate in isolation, but rather by engag-
ing with different types of partners and acquiring ideas and resources from the external environment
(Chesbrough, 2003).
With these definitional elements in mind, the chapter presents a case study that provides exploratory
insights into the main characteristics and activities through which a for-profit organization can successfully
define and develop social innovation involving particular segments of society (usually disadvantaged,
marginalized or poor) and allowing all or part of the benefits derived by the innovation activity to accrue
to that same segments of the society (Tan et al., 2005).
CASE STUDY
Banca Prossima: Overview
In 2007 Intesa SanPaolo emerged from the merger of Banca Intesa and Sanpaolo IMI. It has Italian
leadership with context and a significant international presence focused on Central-Eastern European,
Middle Eastern and North African Countries with approximately 1,200 branches and 8.1 million cus-
tomers belonging to the Group’s subsidiaries working in commercial banking in 12 countries (Intesa
Sanpaolo, 2017). The bank is characterized by the Head Office Departments that consist of both the
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) Department and the Bank and Society Laboratory (defined eas-
ily as “Laboratory”), which reflects the organizational structure oriented mainly to the definition and
the development of social innovation projects and activities. Additionally, Banca dei Territori (the do-
mestic commercial banking unit) is dedicated to retail customers, private customers and small-medium
enterprises (SMEs). Within this division, there are different branches: Mediocredito (the bank oriented
to SMEs activities), Banca Prossima (the independent bank dedicated completely to non-profit organiza-
tions) and other banks committed to specific client segments.
This chapter intends to focus on the case of Banca Prossima, which represents an emblematic expe-
rience of social entrepreneurship, operating in the not-for-profit sector, and of strong commitment and
effort to generate new ideas and initiatives capable of transforming the economic, social and political
context of marginalized groups and affect social change.
The mission of Banca Prossima is to meet and satisfy the needs and requirements of non-profit orga-
nizations (i.e., foundations, social businesses, associations and the religious world), by offering excellent
products targeted to improving the quality of banking services and participating in the creation of social
value. In this regard, it intends effectively “to support the best not-for-profit initiatives to spread culture
diffusion and education, enjoyment and protection of the environment and art and to facilitate access
to credit and to work” (Banca Prossima, 2017). In fact, as underlined by the CEO of Banca Prossima:
“the decision to create a specialized bank to better serve the third sector is the result of the experience
gained by the Laboratory in four years of collaboration with the non-profit. This is a project that affects
the way we do business with a clientele usually neglected by banks, but that could soon take charge of
many services no more supplied directly by the system of public welfare” (Altuna et al., 2015, p. 266).
Therefore, since its foundation, Banca Prossima has sought to ensure the highest level of service
and ability to support the growth of the best initiatives, which are often limited and penalized by the
128

conventional criteria of banking evaluation. To further this goal, it has revised the process of risk analy-
sis by defining and adopting an innovative social enterprise rating model that integrates the traditional
methods of banking with specific metrics to evaluate the sustainability of clients that present peculiari-
ties different from those of “privates” or “companies”. In fact, this new ad hoc rating is not in contrast
with the bank’s traditional analytical methods, but it also contemplates some qualitative elements, such
as fund raising abilities, critical success factors related to projects funded by the Public Administration
and Foundations, and the percentage of orders derived from individual benefactors. Specifically, this
model enables Banca Prossima to take the peculiarities of the non-profit organizations into account when
evaluating its clients on matters of debt sustainability and social projects. Additionally, Banca Prossima
has developed a special risk fund (Fund for the Development of the Social Enterprise) from the com-
pany’s profits. As specified in the statute, 50 per cent of these profits (100 per cent for the first ten years
since its foundation in 2007) have to be devoted to this fund, which intends to intervene in particularly
risky areas, considered highly relevant in terms of the social value generated. This fund is not considered
as part of the bank equity and it would be given to charity in the event of dissolution of the company.
For these reasons, Banca Prossima has been placed among the organizations and institutions which
primarily serve the specific needs of social enterprises and businesses with social and environmental
objectives within “The Open Book of Social Innovation”.
Banca Prossima: Initiatives and Projects
As noted above, Banca Prossima works partially on its own and partially in collaboration with Intesa
Sanpaolo on numerous projects (Table 2), fostering socially innovative activities through the involve-
ment and participation of external partners making innovative use of their capabilities and competences.
It stimulates the creation of inter-organizational relationships and strategic alliances, explores new op-
portunities to better use existing resources (i.e., knowledge and capital), and also aims to improve or to
solve social problems (i.e., health-related problems).
In fact, the definition and the development of these innovative initiatives demonstrate the profound
belief and the relevant work of Banca Prossima in support of social projects that are pursued for their
social impact, independent of the profits they can generate, and in support of disadvantaged social groups
in terms of resolutions of their problems Such projects and the groups they serve are usually excluded
from receiving credit. In contrast to commercial entrepreneurs, these groups have several difficulties in
accessing or finding financial resources for innovation, as well as in attracting potential investors, such
Table 2. Examples of social innovation projects
A scheme for advancing payments from the Campania Region to a consortium of non-profits that won a regional auction for provision of
healthcare services to old and disadvantaged people. This can be considered one of the first such schemes in the South of Italy.
A nursery centre project run jointly with a consortium of “social co-operatives” that would train the childcare workers, guaranteeing
quality standards. Banca Prossima grants loans with no personal guarantee required. The resulting network is currently one of the
country’s largest, servicing over 8 000 3-year-olds and employing over 2000 women
A project for setting up residences to host mentally disabled people who have outlived their parents.
A project to finance volunteer organizations, whereby Banca Prossima provides loans guaranteed up to 20% by means of a fund set up by
local centres servicing volunteer organizations in Lombardy and a Foundation.
Source: (OECD, 2010)
129

as venture capitalists, to support social innovation because they are legally restricted from distributing
profits and, consequently, are unable to offer financial returns (Austin et al., 2006).
In this regard, a significant initiative developed by Banca Prossima is “Terzo Valore”, a free web-based
platform which provides new resources to the Third Sector and, at the same time, permits any private
citizen to select and fund a non-profit project, amongst those pre-screened by Banca Prossima, either
through specific donations or loans without intermediation. This crowdfunding initiative is particularly
innovative in Italy because citizens’ loans between peers (as is the case for non-profit institutions) were
previously problematic to implement from a legal viewpoint. In fact, P2P platforms emerged, but most
shut down, so “Terzo Valore” created a viable way to serve the market. The “Terzo Valore” loans are
capital-guaranteed by Banca Prossima (this was not standard in previous cases) and Banca Prossima
supplies at least a third, and up to 100%, of the financing. Through “Terzo Valore”, 23 projects have
been financed in education, religion, social welfare and cultural areas, for a total of 4.21 million euros,
at an average interest rate of less than 3% (Banca Prossima, 2017).
Another important initiative of Banca Prossima is the “Foundation for Innovation in the Third Sector”
(Fondazione Fits2014, 2017). It is proposed as “an enterprise venture established by Banca Prossima in
2011 with the aim of creating social value, starting with the voluntary sector and with our sights set on
the entire community” (Fondazione Fits2014, 2017). This foundation does not intend to offer subsidies
but exists to “monitor new social needs, develop flexible service models to meet rapidly evolving social
demands, disseminate best practice across the region to generate efficiency and economies of scale, and
attract interest from new social investors for public and private entities” (Fondazione Fits2014, 2017).
This is because the social system intensely supports defining and developing different innovative models
able to support the sustainability of organisations by improving efficiency and using diverse financial
tools to facilitate and strengthen links with private, public and social enterprise supporters. Therefore,
the roles of researching, monitoring and “its accompanying social planning, promotion and develop-
ment of network systems among third-sector players, synergy with commercial entities and government
agencies, and innovative welfare models are the modus operandi for FITS!” (Fondazione Fits2014,
2017). From this perspective, it is clear that the foundation assumes a critical role of an “aggregator”
in terms of suitable experience and a “catalyst” for skills and competencies. The main achievements of
the Foundation are principally developed around the following important areas: energy, Europe, social
project financing, skills workshops and corporate social responsibility (see Table 3). These activities
are the result of intense and qualified research that identifies social needs by digging into different
information sources. This preliminary and relevant phase is followed by the so-called design activities
(Altuna et al., 2015, p. 266), during which the intervention model is concretely defined because, once
the main objective is defined, it is necessary to determine where and how to change and innovate the
process of credit provision. Finally, the process concludes with the identification of the project partners
that should be engaged. In effect, all the activities are developed in collaboration with on average two
or three partners with specific competences important to the social project; with the majority (around
80 per cent of them) coming from the third sector.
Similar to these innovative social initiatives, it is useful to consider other two different areas of ac-
tivities. Firstly, Banca Prossima has developed a stakeholder communication strategy for the Third Sec-
tor, identifying and defining appropriate mechanisms, such as collaboration with a national non-profit
association named Vobis (Volunteer Bank for Social Initiatives), to put its expertise service through
mentoring at the disposal of citizen and non-profit applicants. Secondly, within its organization Banca
Prossima has introduced the so-called “Head of Relationship” program in recognition of managers who
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Table 3. The principal activities of FITS!
Areas Needs Analysis Model of Intervention Partners
Energy Revising energy installations to reduce the Analysis of energy efficiency needs for estates FITS!
waste associated with these activities and (i.e., offices, schools, sports facilities, etc.); Banca Prossima
the cost savings; to support the development Planning for installations required; E.ON Connecting Energies
of renewable energy and to reduce the Creation of Social Energy Service Companies; (ECT)
effects of pollution from fossil fuels. The Use of financial mechanisms of the FITS! and
need for access to qualified professionals Banca Prossima energy-efficiency programme.
to examine production systems and energy
usage with low investment.
Europe There are 14.5 million people employed in Participation in European tenders; FITS!
the social economy in Europe (6.5% of the Establishment of social enterprise networks, Banca Prossima
European Union population), but in relation exploring market opportunities for social
to the major European economies, Italy enterprises and/or members of these networks;
has the highest number of employees as a Fostering synergies between companies and
percentage of the total economy (9.7%). enterprises to generate economies of scale.
The “Made in Italy” motto and the quality
of life are rooted in the infrastructure of
relationships and ties with the community.
It is the share capital of the Italian territory
that supplies production chains today,
and without this it would be impossible
to generate value. The presence and the
widespread dissemination of non-profit
organisations and social enterprises, even
outside the national borders, therefore,
becomes a major indicator of competition.
Social Project The current state of public finance in Italy, Public-initiative financing and private- FITS! provides access to its
Financing the demands from Europe and, in the case of initiative financing. planning facilities and performs
municipalities, the obligations imposed by The public-initiative model of project an advisory function.
the Stability Pact, have induced legislators financing requires a private institution (the Banca Prossima: financial
to introduce tools and mechanisms to promoter) to propose construction of a public partner
engage private capital more effectively in utility work to the authorising government Companies and public
the development of public works and public agency, where it is already included in its institutions
utilities. three-year schedule of work. Where it is Private companies
not already included, but the authorising Joint stock companies with
agency acknowledges the public utility of the majority public holding
scheme proposed by the private institution Joint stock companies with
(the applicant), project financing is by private majority private holding
initiative.
Skills Workshop Non-profit organisations have invested in Focus groups to identify training needs to FITS!
training to strengthen the skills of their inform training programmes that will be made Intesa Sanpaolo Formazione
workforce and management. available to organisations and institutions in
Priority training objectives: development of the voluntary sector.
vocational skills for workers and managerial
skills of corporate heads
Corporate Social Company focus on corporate social Implementation of initiatives in support of FITS!
Responsibility responsibility has increased significantly community welfare to selected corporate Companies: Vodafone
in Italy. clients, to enhance their CSR policies. Foundation,
Social responsibility plays an important Peppino Vismara Foundation,
role in internal and external business L’Oreal,
communications and in positioning the E.ON Connecting Energies Srl
company image, especially in the context Intesa SanPaolo Banca
of the territory and the sector in which it Prossima
operates.
The need arises to devise models of
intervention that are oriented towards a
new way of promoting company policies
and increasing their social impact on the
territory and on the community.
Source: (Fondazione Fits2014, 2017).
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distinguish themselves through their professional skills in managing relationships, not only with Third
Sector clients but in their private life through their engagement in volunteer-related activities. These
managers receive refresher courses and training to help them identify core decision making needed to
understand both the process and areas of inter-organizational conflicts, and ultimately to pinpoint the
most suitable solution for even the most complex problems.
As highlighted by the literature review and the case study ‘Banca Prossima’, the term “social entrepre-
neurship” is used to refer to the rapidly growing number of organizations that have created models for
efficiently catering to basic human needs that existing markets and institutions have failed to satisfy.
Social entrepreneurs solve several societal issues because they combine the resourcefulness of traditional
entrepreneurship with a mission to change society. A few recommendations are key to support the grow-
ing number of social innovation initiatives across the globe. The most important concerns improving
the capacity of social entrepreneurs to effectively apply open innovation principles (Chesbrough, 2003).
Additionally, social innovation projects or activities inevitably require the involvement of different ex-
ternal actors, strongly committed to the social mission and social goals being pursued. This means that
social entrepreneurs must be also comfortable and adept with concepts such as informal organization,
trust, culture, social support, social exchange, social resources, embeddedness, relational contracts, social
networks, and interfirm networks. All of these fall under the “umbrella concept” of social capital (Hirsch
and Levin, 1999). This means that social entrepreneurs should take care to develop interpersonal trust
and meet social expectations. The ultimate goal is to create value in their social innovation network by
bonding similar people and bridging diverse perspectives.
Future research could include gathering additional empirical evidence, beyond this case study, on social
innovation in for-profit organizations. Other sectors, beyond banking and financial services, with their
own set of specific dynamics might also be investigated. It would be useful to understand the main
motivations that stimulate these organizations to develop social innovation projects and the existence of
any contextual factors that can affect the success of this kind of innovation.
CONCLUSION
This chapter contributes a focus on how for-profit organizations can develop, organize and deliver suc-
cessful social innovation projects and initiatives. At the broadest level, it adds new insights to scholarly
research focused on a relevant, although underdeveloped topic, namely the definition and implementation
of social innovation in for-profit organizations. More specifically, the case study emphasizes that these
organizations need to develop a set of resources and specific competencies to facilitate social innova-
tion projects, such as the knowledge of societal needs of particular disadvantaged groups as well as the
competences needed to define an appropriate model of intervention. For-profit organizations can help
132

to solve social problems using their business competencies and resources, and through partnerships
with government, create and maintain suitable relationships and collaborations with them in order to
effectively solve community problems and social issues. Intrinsically linked with this, is the opportunity
and necessity for these organizations to develop and implement an open business model (Chesbrough,
2003) that clearly fosters the involvement and participation of external stakeholders in their internal
activities and processes.
The case study presented here provides some interesting suggestions to managers working in firms
that are willing to develop products or services motivated by the goal of meeting a social need. They
are shown to be able to solve social problems with innovative solutions that contribute to the creation
of social value while also creating firm level profits. With the notion of a social mission, they have to
select and adopt an appropriate approach to explore social value-opportunities and to administer their
social innovation projects, in a way that overcomes organizational rigidities while acquiring the critical
competencies for social innovation that for-profit organizations typically lack. These implications are
highly relevant to achieving positive societal effects. Although social innovation is usually considered
the principal domain of non-profit organizations, encouraging a superior engagement of for-profit or-
ganizations in this type of innovation activity represents a key opportunity for the generation of several
benefits for society.
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Banca Prossima: It represents a relevant example of social entrepreneurship, whereby a for-profit

organization (in this case a bank) also operates in the not-for-profit sector. It has a strong commitment
to generating ideas and initiatives capable of improving the economic, social and political situation of
marginalized groups and affect social change.
Open Innovation: Is a paradigm that assumes that firms can access and absorb external ideas as well
as internal ideas, and internal and external paths to market, as they seek to advance their technology.
More recently it has been described as distributed innovation process based on purposively managed
knowledge flows across organizational boundaries.
Social Capital: Broadly refers to the resources accumulated through the relationships among people.
Social Entrepreneurship: Encompasses the activities and processes undertaken to discover, define,
develop, and exploit opportunities in order to improve social wealth by creating new ventures or manag-
ing existing organizations in an innovative manner.
Social Innovation: New ways of meeting social needs which are not adequately met by the market or
the public sector or to tackle societal challenges, empowering people and creating new social relation-
ships and models of collaboration.
136
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Chapter 8
Managing Business Ethics
in a Global Environment:
The Impact of Cultural Diversities
Rossella Canestrino
Parthenope University of Naples, Italy
Pierpaolo Magliocca
University of Foggia, Italy
ABSTRACT
The aim of this chapter is to explore the how international players, acting at global level, may overcome a
“moral gap” when it arises. In doing this, the linkage between culture and Business Ethics was examined
in order to highlight the way values and believes differently affect a) the assumption about what is right
or wrong, b) the individual/organizational moral reasoning, and c) the consistency between individual/
organizational behaviour and the moral standards that prevail in a given context. Relevant issues were
investigated referring to all the levels – individual, corporate and systemic – within which a “moral
gap” may arise. Accordingly, “Bridging” diversities was identified as a good solution to solve a “moral
gap” at all the mentioned levels. Cross-cultural sensitivity and cross-cultural negotiation were finally
claimed as necessary to look for a trade-off between universal norms and local particularism, as well
as to finally identify new common standards respectful of the opposite positions.
INTRODUCTION
Both globalization and the growing of international competition have affected the complexity of academic
inquiry about Business Ethic and firms’ Social Responsibility. The interest of academics for the under-
lined subjects is, particularly, supported by the wide range of studies actually available about the topic.
In spite of this, further researches seem to be still necessary, mainly because of the complexity of the
issues and the establishment of a wider global competitive environment.
The field of Business Ethic deals with questions about whether specific business practices are ac-
ceptable. It mainly relates to rules, standards, and moral principles regarding what is right or wrong in
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2673-5.ch008

Managing Business Ethics in a Global Environment
specific situations (Ferrell and Fraedrich, 2015; De George, 1993). It also means that Business Ethics
comprises the principles, values, and standards that guide both individual and organizational behavior
in the world of business.
Many Scholars (Ferrell and Fraedrich, 2015; Alas et al., 2015; Donaldson and Dunfee, 1999, 1994;
Robertson, 2002; De George, 1993) recognize the deep linkage between culture and the establishment
of the mentioned (moral) standards, as well as between culture and individual/organizational ethical
behavior (Vitell et al., 2013; Husted, 2000; Cohen et al., 1996; Wines and Napier, 1992).
Particularly, culture may influence Business Ethic, by
1. Shaping the assumption about what is right or wrong;

2. Influencing the individuals’ moral reasoning (even within organizations) and, finally, by
3. Affecting the consistency between individual/organizational behavior and the moral standards that
prevail in a given context.
Due to the globalization of markets and production processes, an increasing number of individual
players and business organizations deals with ethical issues in cross-cultural settings.
Since countries differ in their cultures, socio-economic, political, and legal systems, as well as in their
level of economic development, international players have to deal with ethical issues much more than
before: they are exposed to different values and ethical norms, and are often criticized for their ethical
misconduct (Armstrong et al., 1990).
When acting at global level, therefore, international players (be them individuals or organizations)
keep in contact with different cultural contexts: from a cultural perspective, host contexts may be very
different from the domestic ones. In such circumstances, moral standards may also differ, and a so-called
“moral gap” may arise.
The above situations pose deep challenges for both individuals and organizations: every time a “moral
gap” establishes, international players are claimed to manage it in order to avoid the negative consequences
of national or international boycott initiatives and the failure of the whole business, at least. In order to
prevent failures, organizations should identify the set of rules to respect in each situations, as well as what
may be do or not in the undertaking business. In doing this, they need to get a deep knowledge of local
culture, as well as of the way culture shapes the local “moral free space” (Donaldson and Dunfee, 1999).
According to the above considerations, the traditional approach to Business Ethic may be extended
by the theoretical contributions coming out from Cross-Cultural Management studies, in order to widen
the actual understanding about the way Business Ethic may be managed in a global environment.
Depending on the above consideration, the chapter aims to explain:
1. How cultural diversities may affect the establishment of moral standards, as well the hierarchy of
values that prevail in given societies;
2. How international players (acting in a global environment) define the set of standards they choose
to respect in each situation;
3. How international players may manage a moral gap when it arises.
The chapter is organized as follow: the next section proposes a literary review about the principles and
the theories belonging to the field of Business Ethics, focusing on individual, organizational (Corporate
Social Responsibility) and systemic level. A discussion about the linkage between culture and ethic is
138

then developed, in order to explore the existing tie between cultural values, morality and firms’ ethical
behavior. In seeking to gain the chapter’s goals, some advices about the way Hofstede’ cultural dimensions
may be used to understand cultural diversities, and to manage ethical conflicts, are also provided. Some
suggestions to overcome the challenges arising by the international ethical conflicts are finally proposed.
LITERARY REVIEW: DEFINING BUSINESS ETHICS ‒ FROM INDIVIDUAL’S

MORAL CONDUCT TO CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
The study of ethic is an ancient tradition, rooted in religious, cultural, and philosophical beliefs (Can-
estrino, 2008, 2007). By the contrast, Business Ethics has attracted the attention of scholars only for
more recent years. In the 1970s it began to develop as a field of study: at that time, both theologians
and philosophers began to suggest that certain moral principles could be applied to business activities,
laying the groundwork for the future development of the discipline. Time by time, they increased their
involvement, building up the actual shape of the topic.
In general, Business Ethics concerns with what may be do or not in undertaking business (Ferrell and
Fraedrich, 2015; Velasquez, 2012; De George, 1993), involving the rules that govern business activi-
ties and the values embedded in the business practice, as well. It deals with the basic philosophy and
priorities of an organization in concrete terms (French, 1979) and contains the prohibitory actions at the
workplace (Collier and Esteban, 2007).
From this perspective, Business Ethics equates with a kind of applied ethics (Broni, 2010) aiming at
examining the ethical problems that arise in a business environment (Solomon, 1991) and that evaluates
the moral principles to be applied in all the aspects of business conduct (Ferell and Fraedrich, 1997).
In accordance with the mentioned perspective Business Ethics does not only include the analysis of
moral norms and moral standards, but it also try to apply the results of the mentioned analysis to the
institutions, to the organizations and to all the business-oriented activities (Velasquez, 2012). In doing
this, Business Ethics focus on three main issues – individual issues, corporate issues and systemic issues
– in order to find the best solution for dealing with each of them. It means also that kinds of solutions
that are appropriate for a given issue, may be not appropriate for another one (see table 1).
Particularly, Individual issues in business ethics mainly refer to the ethical dilemma1 raised about
individuals – as well as about their behaviors and decisions – acting in a company. Corporate issues refer
to those ethical questions that arise and that need to be managed in a given organization, the last one
considered as a whole. These may include the morality of corporate strategies, policies and practices.
Finally, Systemic issues mainly refer to those ethical problems that may arise with reference to the eco-
nomic, legal and institutional framework within which businesses act. The debate about the morality of
capitalism or of the laws, of the worldwide distribution of wealth or of the industrial structure belong
to this topic (Velasquez, 2012).
The distinction among Individual, Corporate and Systemic issues fits with the different (even overlap-
ping) theoretical backgrounds within which ethical issues and the ethical dilemma are usually discussed.
It’s a matter of fact, that, at its first stage, Business Ethics always deals with individuals’ morality, as well
as with their perception of what is right or wrong, good and evil. At this level, people are claimed to solve
ethical dilemmas through a reasoning process by which moral standards are applied to the situations and
to the issues to face. Several decision making models have been developed using concepts, theories and
evidences largely derived from social psychology, to picture the way people engage in moral behavior
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Table 1. The issues of Business Ethics (our elaboration)
ISSUES CORE TOPICS RELATED THEORETHICAL FRAMEWORK

INDIVIDUAL Individuals’ moral reasoning and behavior Cognitive Moral Development Theory (Kohlberg, 1976,
1969)
Psychological Theory and Women’s Development
(Gilligan, 1982)
Person-Situation Interactionist Model (Trevino, 1986)
Issue-Contingent Model (Jones, 1991)
CORPORATE Organization’s social responsibility (strategies Pyramid of CSR (Carroll, 1991)
and policies)
SYSTEMIC Morality of laws; distribution of wealth; political Theory of Moral Sentiment (Smith, 1759)
and institutional decisions Criticism to Capitalism (Marx, 1978)
Institutional Framework for the Ethical Wealth of
Nations (Jennings and Velasquez, 2015)
in their everyday life, as well as within business organizations (Jones, 1991; Dubinski and Loken, 1989;
Trevino, 1986; Hunt and Vitell, 1986; Rest, 1986; Kohlberg, 1969).
At Corporate level, organizations have to face their own ethical dilemmas – that may be even very
different from the individual ones – the last referring to the corporate’s responsibility toward society.
At a wider level, Business Ethics finally deals with the morality of laws, norms, political and economic
conditions that regulate firm’s behavior within a given context.
Ethical dilemmas may particularly arise at each of the mentioned levels – individual, corporate and
systemic – and need to be managed according to a reasoning process that always starts at individual level
(in the writers view). Like a learning process, ethical decision making may be regarded as a moving up
process through different levels - from the individual to the organization till communities and the larger
networks. Since individuals are usually embedded in the organizational field, their moral reasoning is
affected, not only by their own values and beliefs (that shape individual moral standards), but also by
the other organizational players, as well as by the firm’s own culture and policies. Moreover business
organizations, in turn, are affected by the characteristics of the context within which they act, that means
by the norms, rules and culture prevailing in the environment. In such circumstances, solving an ethical
dilemma, applying moral concepts to organizations, became even more complex.
Not surprising, a strong struggles still remain in the field of Business Ethics among who – both schol-
ars and practitioners – try to identify the drivers of ethical behavior and the way they may be managed
in order to solve ethical problems at both corporate and systemic levels.
The Individual Level: The Ethical Decision Making

Process Within the Organizations
As already noted, any ethical decision begins with the individual claimed at solving a given ethical
dilemma. In general, people face ethical dilemmas every day, that is to say they apply their own moral
standards to the situations and to the issues they ought to solve. In doing this, people usually refer to
the values and beliefs they have learned, since they were children and that they have developed over the
time, thanks to the experience.
Values and beliefs, as well as norms about the kinds of actions considered morally right or wrong
belong to the set of moral standards or moral norms (Crane, 2000; Parker, 1998). The last ones distin-
140

guish from ethics by providing for the set rules according to which a given behavior is evaluated (as
ethical or not) (Canestrino, 2008).
All individuals and communities have some kinds of moral standards, a basic sense of right or wrong
in relation to particular activities. At first, they are typically absorbed within family, friends and societal
influences like schools, church and associations. Later personal experience, learning and intellectual
improvement allow individuals to evaluate and revise their own moral standards, as well as to develop
new ones (Velasquez, 2012; Trevino and Nelson, 2011).
A lot of authors (Jones, 1991; Dubinski and Loken, 1989; Trevino, 1986; Hunt and Vitell, 1986;
Rest, 1986; Kohlberg, 1976, 1969) examined the reasoning process by which individuals apply their own
moral standards to the ethical dilemma they have to face, finally engaging in a given behavior. Among
them, an important explanation comes from the moral reasoning research by Lawrence Kohlberg (1976),
namely by his theory for Cognitive Moral Development2.
Kohlberg’s cognitive moral development model proposes that moral reasoning develops sequentially
through three broad levels - Pre-conventional, Conventional and Post-conventional levels - each com-
posed of two different stages (see table 2). By moving from the first level to the third one, individuals
are aware of the reasons lying below their own, but they cannot comprehend reasoning more than one
stage above their own.
At the pre-conventional level, individuals are very self-centered and view ethical rules as imposed
from outside the self. Both the 1th and the 2nd stages seem to re-call the moral reasoning developed by
children in their first age, when avoiding the punishment or gaining what they want (children’s needs
satisfaction) suggest for the right thing to do. In such circumstances, the individual is concerned with
the concrete consequences of his actions, trying to avoid the penalties or to achieve personal interests.
Concern for personal rewards and satisfaction become into particular consideration in the stage 2. As
Trevino and Nelson (2011) note a small percentage of adults never advance beyond this stage.
At conventional level (including stage 3 and 4), the individual is still externally focused on others,
but he is less self-centered than before. This is the case of the older children or younger adolescents
living up by adhering to what is expected by their family, peer groups and society. Conformity to roles
and the expectations of relevant others is significant in the stage 3, since peoples want firstly to be liked,
though well of and approved by those close to them. The perspective broadens at stage 4 when right
Table 2. Kohlberg’s Cognitive Moral Development
LEVELS DRIVERS OF THE INDIVIDUAL’S MORAL DEVELOPMENT

LEVEL I - PRE-CONVENTIONAL
Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation Punishment Avoidance
Stage 2: Instrumental Purpose and Exchange Getting Self-interest Rewards
LEVEL II – CONVENTIONAL
Stage 3: Interpersonal Concordance Orientation Getting Social Approval
Stage 4: Instrumental and Relative Orientation Conforming to social order and authority (societal legitimization)
LEVEL III – POST-CONVENTIONAL
Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation Pursuing balance between societal good and individual rights
Stage 6: Universal Moral Principles Orientation Following inner moral principle of right and justice
Our adaptation by Kohlberg (1969)
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and wrong are based on loyalty to one’s nation or society. At this stage persons recognize that rules and
laws often exist for good reasons, and that following and respecting them is necessary for the wealth of
the whole societal system.
At the post-conventional level (stage 5 and 6) people finally no longer accept values and norms of
their group of reference in a simple way – be it family, peer group or society. They develop beyond the
identification with others’ expectations, rules, and laws to make decisions more autonomously. At stage
5 people become aware that all moral standards may be relative and are willing to question the law and
to consider changing it for socially useful purposes. At stage 6 individuals, finally, look at the ethical
principles of right and justice as criteria for evaluating the existing socially accepted norms and values.
The Cognitive Moral Development is useful to understand how individuals’ moral capacity may
develop, even in the field of business, that means even when ethical dilemmas concern business issues
(Trevino, 1986). Kohlberg’s theory of moral development has been extended by Trevino (1986) and
by Jones (1991) to explain and predict the ethical decision making in organizations. Particularly, in her
Person-Situation Interactionist Model, Trevino (1986) posits that the ethical decision making of the
individuals within the organizations is explained by the interaction of individual variables (ego strength,
field dependence and locus of control) and situational components (arising from the immediate job con-
text and from the broaden organizational culture). More particularly, while individuals’ decision, about
what is right and what is wrong, depends on the stage of his own moral development (as it has been
defined by Kohlberg), ethical behavior is affected by additional individual and situational moderators.
Following Trevino (1986), individuals’ ethical decision making may be pictured as a multiple steps
process aiming at solving a given ethical dilemma. In the first step (cognition), people advance a moral
judgment according to their stage of moral development; after this they directly engage in a given be-
havior, that may be ethical or un-ethical (see figure 1).
Both individual and situational moderating factors, therefore, affect the consistency between the moral
behavior and the moral judgment, that means between action and thought. At this step, moderators play
a very important role causing un-ethical (or ethical) behavior, despite the previous moral evaluation3.
Since moral actions always take place in a given social environment, they are the output, not only of
the individuals’ characteristics, but also of the interaction between individuals and environment (Higgins
et al., 1984). According to the underlined point of views, Situational Moderating Factors – job context,
organizational culture and characteristic of work – reasonably influence the individuals’ ethical behav-
ior, with the managers at Kohlberg’s conventional level influenced to a greater extent (Trevino, 1986).
For the purpose of the writers, Organizational Culture4 plays, among the others, a very important role.
Organizational Culture does not only moderate the cognition/behavior relationship (as it is showed
in figure 1), but it also affects the cognitive moral development by providing for the collective norms
about what is right or wrong. Even if Trevino (1986) has chatted the point somewhere in her paper, she
never explicitly exploited the way organizational values and beliefs affect the individuals moral reason-
ing. At this step (according to the opinion of the writers), organizational culture moves individuals’
orientation towards legitimization and approval by the other members belonging to the same organiza-
tion: conforming to organizational goals and purposes may inspire, therefore, both the moral judgment
and the undertaken actions.
Trevino’s model was extended by Jones in 1991. The author particularly examined the impact that
the characteristics of the ethical issue itself (labelled as moral intensity) have on the ethical decision
making of the individuals within the organizations.
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Figure 1. Interactionist model of ethical decision making in organizations (Trevino, 1986)
Figure 2 depicts Jones’ model for ethical decision making. Individual Moderators and Situational
Moderators (as they have been defined by Trevino) were added to the original model in order to get a
wider understanding of the process.
Recognizing the moral issue is the starting point of the whole process. In order to identify it, individu-
als should, at first, recognize that they are moral agents and, secondly, that their actions affect the others.
It doesn’t mean, nevertheless, that people who fail in recognizing a moral issue do not make a decision,
but that they do it by employing a different mental reasoning, like, for example, economic rationality.
After having recognized the existence of a moral issue, people develop their own moral judgment. Jones
explicitly incudes an additional step (between 2 and 4) whereby the decision maker establishes a moral
intent before engaging in behavior. But central to the issue-contingent model is the notion of Moral
Intensity, the last one never examined in the previous contributions about the topic.
Moral Intensity5 is a construct able to capture the extent of issue-related moral imperative in a given
situation. It is likely to vary substantially from issue to issue, with a few issues achieving high levels and
many issues achieving low levels. Jones (1991) supports the idea that Moral Intensity positively relates
to the moral decision making and behavior: the higher it is, the more sophisticated is the people’s moral
reasoning and the more frequent is their engagement in ethical behavior. The reason is quite simple:
moral reasoning usually takes time and energy - to gather facts, to apply moral principles and to develop
a moral judgment – thus moral agents economize their efforts and make use of external cues when per-
ceiving a low stake for the issue they are dealing with (Taylor, 1975).
Depending on the above, Moral Intensity may be considered as a new moderating variable that adds
to the Individual and Situational Moderating Factors introduced by Trevino (1986). Compared to these
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Figure 2. The Issue- Contingent Model (our adaptation by Jones, 1991)
last ones, however, Moral Intensity is supposed to shape the recognition of the ethical issue, as well as
the development of the moral judgment, thus suggesting for a revision of Kohlberg’s theory. Even if
discussing the effectiveness of the cognitive theory within the field of contingency model is not the aim
of this paper, opportunities for future investigation may be underlined mainly referring to the develop-
ment of a more comprehensive framework about the issue.
The Corporate Level: Understanding CSR
At corporate level Business Ethics deals with what a given organization may do or not, thus belonging
to the field of the so-called Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR).
Carroll (1991) portrayed four components of CSR in his “Pyramid of CSR”. The basic building block
begins with firm’s economic performance; then business is expected to respect the law, and after that,
there is the business’ responsibility to be ethical. At its most fundamental level, there is firm’ obligation
to do what is right, just, and fair, and to avoid or minimize harm to stakeholders (employees, consum-
ers, the environment, and others). Finally, business is expected to be a good corporate citizen. This is
captured in the philanthropic responsibility, according to which business is likely to support the social
community and to improve the quality of life.
In summary, adopting a social responsible behavior means that firm should strive to make profits, obey
the law, be ethical, and be a good corporate citizen. Similarly, according to the stakeholder perspective
(Freeman and Evan, 1990; Freeman and Gilbert, 1988; Freeman 1984;), firms should go beyond profits’
maximization and the shareholders’ returns.
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The proposed perspectives contrasted the classical economic argument - mainly sustained by Milton
Friedman - that management has the only responsibility to maximize the profits of its owners or share-
holders. Against the classical economic perspective, many scholars highlight the advantages of CSR. The
adoption of CSR practices allows firms to achieve success by means of new products and technologies
(Hedstrom et al., 1998); costs may be reduced and risks diminished (Hart and Milstein, 2003); firm’s im-
age improves with positive effects on firm’s reputation and its market position (Jenkins, 2006). Within the
same field of research, Lopez-Perez M.V. et al. (2009) identified the existence of a positive relationship
between the adoption of social responsible practices and firms’ R&D expenditures: the development of
CSR practices may particularly affect investment decisions, and especially those related to R&D, lastly
shaping firm’ propensity to innovate.
Depending on the emerging changes, commitments to CSR has been soon interpreted as a global
trend, as it is also supported by the growing number of international standards, such as ISO, GRI and
the UN Global Compact, or, by the global span of company rating agencies such as the Dow Jones
Sustainability Index.
Yet working against the trend toward global standardization is the fact that CSR depends on socio-
political, national, cultural and other contextual factors (Halme, et al. 2009).
Matten and Moon (2004) were among the first scholars to theorize about the relationship between
CSR and the wider national contexts. In their paper about “implicit” and “explicit” CSR, the authors
conceptualize the differences between CSR in the United States and Europe, by referring to their insti-
tutional systems - that means to political, financial, educational and cultural systems (Matten and Moon,
2008)6. The context-dependency of CSR, therefore, is not surprising. It belongs to the wider discussion
about the interplay between the contextual factors of a given environment and firms’ ethical behavior.
In line with this perspective and following the leitmotiv of the proposed paper, the writers support
the idea that, even at corporate level, both the notion of “good – or even bad – doing” and the propensity
of firms to adhere to social responsible practices are culturally determined.
The Systematic Level: Utilitarianism vs. Deontology
At a wider level, Business Ethics deals with the morality of laws and norms, of economic and social
systems, as well as of the governments’ decisions and actions.
Business ethicists routinely deal with issues that have very broad economic and political significance,
especially given the controversies that continue to rage over the appropriate role that the market should
play in a democratic society, the power exercised by corporations within the public sphere, and the way
that the vicissitudes of the labor market affects the life chances of individuals (Heath et al., 2010). Within
this field, business ethicists are used to adopt tools and concepts developed within political philosophy in
the attempt to answer to questions about the justifiability of the capitalist system or the national economic
prosperity (Jennings and Velasquez, 2015; Donaldson, 2001): Locke’s defense of private property as a
natural right; Smith’s Theory of Moral Sentiments7; Hume’s and Mill’s ideas about the morality of the
developing free-enterprise economic system, but also Marx’s8 attack to the capitalism provide for the
theoretical background of discussion.
In more recent years, Jennings and Velasquez (2015) examined how ethical values contribute to national
economic prosperity, by widening the concept of “ethical wealth of nation” introduced by Donaldson in
2001. According to the authors, national economic performance increases every time political economy
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and institutions inspire to some ethical factors, namely fairer access to opportunities, better executed
government, internalized aspirational morality and respect for civil society.
Even without neglecting the relevance of the mentioned contribution, the writers’ opinion is that it
lacks in providing any suggestions about the way institutions may act in an ethical manner at a more
practical level.
What does happen, for example, when institutions or governments have to decide between conflict-
ing moral standards? How do institutions or governments decide in such circumstance? Which kind of
interests do prevail when individual or organizational interests contrast with economic or social ones?
When business ethics moves outside the individual or outside the organizational level, a lot of political
actions find their own justification in the principle of economic survival, sounding morally repugnant
for many. The reality is that there is no quick way to find solution to an ethical dilemma mainly when it
involves the society to its larger extent. One example of the ethical dilemma that institutions had been
- and are still - called to solve is provided by the experience of ILVA in Italy.
The ILVA case clearly reveals that the fair balance between the right to health and the protection of
environment, on the one hand, and the right to work and production needs, on the other one, is very dif-
ficult to achieve (for a focus, see Table 3). From an ethical perspective, therefore, the Italian government’s
decision to allow ILVA to resume its steel production (Law Decree No. 207 of 3th December 2012) in
spite of magistracy prohibition could be questioned about its inner “morality”.
Table 3. ILVA’s ethical dilemma
ILVA is the biggest steel production plant in Italy employing about 12,000 people and accounting for 75 per cent of the economic
production in Taranto province.
Since 1997 the ILVA steel plant in Taranto was considered as “area at high risk of environmental crisis”; in the following years,
the emergency situation in the territory of Taranto has become more and more evident, with serious consequences for health and
environment. Surveys commissioned by the Court of Taranto, as well as studies carried out by public bodies and NGOs have shown
heavy pollution of air, soil, surface and ground waters in the neighboring areas of the steel plant.
In June 2010, the Mayor of Taranto issued an ordinance stating that children should not play in Tamburu public gardens because of the
presence of dioxin traces and other pollution particles. In 2012 the judicial authority ordered the closure of the plant’s blast furnaces. But
on the 3th of December 2012 the Italian Government issued the Law Decree No. 207 (the so called “Save ILVA Decree”, then converted
into Law No. 231), on “urgent measures to protect public health, the environment and employment levels in the event of a crisis in
industrial establishments of strategic national interest”, which allowed ILVA to continue the production activity and, at the same time,
imposed to upgrade, within 36 months, the plant according to the requirements set out in the review of the Integrated Environmental
Authorization (IEA).
The judge for preliminary investigations at the Court of Taranto and the Court of Taranto raised questions of constitutionality of Articles
1 and 3 of the “Save ILVA Decree”; however, the Constitutional Court ruled against both complaints.
ILVA employs thousands of people in Italy and the consequences of the potential closure or liquidation of steel plants would be dramatic.
Moreover, the reduction of the steel production would also have significant effects on the whole Italian industry system. In this sense,
State plays an essential role in order to guarantee national strategic capabilities and jobs, as well as the protection of fundamental rights
enshrined in the Constitutions and in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.
In spite of this, a critical issue belongs to the impact that ILVA’s production for the environment and public health, as well as for
agriculture and tourism.
ILVA is one of the European’s biggest responsible in terms of greenhouse gas emissions. According to the Report of the European
Agency for the Environment (2011), ILVA is the second most air polluting industrial facility in Italy. The presence of an un-healthy
environment finds also support in the growing number of mortality rates and cancer diseases for both women and men. Agriculture was
also affected in a negative way: emissions of dioxins (benzoapyrene and other cancer-causing chemicals) have poisoned fishing and
farmland for miles around, with serious damages to export activities. As a consequence, the cultivation of mussels in the Mar Piccolo
Bay of Taranto was banned in 2011 due to the pollution by dioxin. For the same reason, breeding and free pasture were prohibited in
uncultivated areas within a radius of 20 kilometers from the industrial area. The impact on the tourism sector should also be taken into
account. Taranto is a city with a great potential to attract tourists. However, the news in the international and national press on water
pollution, soil contamination and air pollution caused by the ILVA’s emissions have hampered, together with other reasons, the local
tourism development.
Source: Lucifora, A., Bianco, F. & Vagliasindi G.M. (2015). Environmental crime and corporate mis-compliance: A case study on the
ILVA steel plant in Italy. Study in the framework of the EFFACE research project. Catania: University of Catania
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ILVA case involves the relationship between judiciary, administrative and legislative powers, in
order to establish the authority to be responsible in determining the balance between the protection of
health and the environment on the one hand, and the public interest to the continuity of production and
to employment on the other one. This balance is extremely difficult to achieve.
Within this field, philosophers have been wrestling with ethical dilemmas and moral decision mak-
ing for centuries. As result, some important theories and principles have been identified to guide the
individuals’ choices, as well as organizations’ and institutions’ decisions. One set of theories were cat-
egorized as consequentialist and, among them, Utilitarianism (Bentham 1789; Mill, 1910) is probably
the best-known theory. According to Utilitarianism actions and policies should be evaluated on the basis
of the benefits and costs they produce for everyone in the society, that means that an ethical decision
should maximize benefits to society and minimize harms.
In the empirical evidence of ILVA, the safeguard of the actual level of employment was evaluated
as the best solution for everyone in the society (basing on the government’s costs-benefits analysis). It
is worth to mention that over the last twenty-five years, Italy already experienced the crisis of the large
factory model and that the actual economic emergence (that has affected not only Italy, but all the Eu-
rope) requires for new actions, defensive of national competitiveness. By the contrast, environmental and
health damages claim for a new way to evaluate both the costs and the benefits of alternative decisions,
by taking into account, for the first time, the value of people’s life and of their well-being.
Opposite to the Utilitarianism there is the Deontological Approach.
Rather than focusing on consequences, deontologists base their decisions on broad, abstract universal
ethical principles or values such as honesty, fairness, loyalty, rights, justice, responsibility, compassion,
and respect for human beings (Trevino and Nelson, 2011) According to some deontological approaches,
certain moral principles are binding, regardless of the consequences: it means, therefore, that some ac-
tions would be considered wrong even if the consequences of the actions are good; by the contrast some
actions would be considered right in spite of their negative consequences. It is like to say that certain
rules or principles are morally right per se.
But how does a deontologist determine what rule, principle, or right to follow?
The most satisfactory foundation of moral rights is provided by Immanuel Kant (1785) in his Ground-
work of the Metaphysics of Morals.
According to Kant good will is exercised by acting according to moral duty/law. The moral law
consists of a set of moral maxims which are categorical in nature. A maxim is simply the reason that
a people has to do something in a certain situation. This maxim becomes a universal law only if every
person chooses to do the same thing, for the same reason, in the same situation.
Take the example of taking away the sand form the Pink Beach, in Italy. The Pink Beach is located in
Budelli, a very small island of the La Maddalena Archipelago, in the northern of Sardina Region (Italy).
Budelli has an area of just 1.6 km2. Although its real name is “Cala di Roto”, the popular name “spiag-
gia rosa” (Pink Beach) is given by the particular sand composition, thanks to a lot of skeletal remains
of small, pink foraminifera, called Miniacina miniacea.
This sand is very pretty, so one immediately wants to take away a little bit of it to home, as a souvenir.
Using the formula of the universal law (categorical imperative), let’s imagine the scenario if everyone
were to adopt the maxim of taking away the pink sand from the beach, whenever he wishes. Do any
irrationalities/contradictions arise from the adoption of such a maxim as universal law? Certainly, if
everyone were to do this the beach would be damaged in a very short time, contrasting with the original
reason for which you desire the sand (its beauty and uniqueness).
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Unfortunately not all the people have equal moral rights or show as much respect for the protected
interests of the others as they want others show for their own. In the example of the Pink Beach, Kant’s
categorical imperative failed in shaping individuals’ behavior, so that in the 90s, thousand people came
to this beach during summer, taking away the sand for souvenirs.
At a wider level, nevertheless, Kant’s imperative seems to have well guided the institutions. These
last ones decided to protect the beach from the theft of sand, by closing it to swimming and walking. The
Pink Beach is nowadays the most protected zone and the flag of the National Park of La Maddalena: no
one can reach anymore the beach due to the fact that the tourists were taking away the sands.
By this, the right of all human beings to enjoy a natural resource of unique beauty has been saved.
BUSINESS ETHICS AND CULTURE: UNDERSTANDING THE LINKAGE

BETWEEN CULTURAL VALUES, MORALITY AND ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR
As already noted, many scholars recognize the deep linkage between culture and the establishment of
the moral standards, as well as between culture and individual/organizational ethical behavior (Vitell et
al., 2013; Husted, 2000; Cohen et al., 1996; Wines and Napier, 1992).
Culture may be considered as the set of driving-rules and core believes that develop in a society over
time and that drive both individuals and firms’ choices (Hofstede, 1980; Schein, 2004)9.
As Resick et al. (2011) report, in business world when members of different cultures are faced with
ethical dilemmas, individuals will frequently use their own cultural value systems to make ethical deci-
sions. Moreover, cultural differences were found to impact individuals’ ethical reasoning skills, with
national culture recognized as having impact on various stages of the process (Rausch et al., 2014).
According to the above, culture may particularly influence Business Ethics, by
1. Shaping the assumption about what is right or wrong;

2. Influencing the individuals’ moral reasoning (even within organizations) and, finally, by
3. Affecting the consistency between individual/organizational behavior and the moral standards that
prevail in a given context.
Shaping the Assumption About What Is Right or Wrong
Right and wrong, just and unjust derive their meaning and true value from the attitudes of a given culture:
some ethical standards are culture-embedded, and one should not be surprised to find that a given act,
considered quite ethical in one culture, may be looked upon with disregard in another, nor that culture is
also responsible for the hierarchy of values prevailing in each area (Canestrino et al., 2016; Canestrino,
2008).
Not surprising, some practices, like for example, software piracy, are differently perceived at global
level, thus resulting in a different size from country to country.
It doesn’t mean, however, that economic factors, like per capita income, unemployment’s rate or the
presence of foreign direct investments do not affect users’ propensity for illegally copying and down-
loading software. As Marron and Steel (2000) pointed out, developed economies have more protection
on intellectual property rights, with high-income countries showing lower piracy rates. Similarly, using
cross-sectional dataset to investigate the relationship between income inequality and software piracy
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rates, Andres (2006) also found that efficiency of judicial system is a major factor when explaining the
cross-national variations in software piracy rates. In 2007, Yang and Sonmenz found, not only that some
culture variables, such as education expenditure, religions, and individualism could explain the most
cross-national variations of software piracy rates, but also that a negative relationship between the gross
national income (GNI) and software piracy rates exists.
Following researches’ results a lot of drivers seem able to affect software piracy rates: nevertheless
culture plays an important role in shaping the perception that users’ have about of the morality of the
mentioned practice, as it is showed in Table 4.
Influencing the Individuals’ Moral Reasoning
After moral standards have established in a given context (be it a social or an organizational one), behaving
ethically depends on the individuals’ ability to recognize that ethical dilemma, or an ethical issue, exists.
Marta and Singhapakdi (2005) found systematic differences in the perception of ethic between groups
of people from the U.S. and Thailand, since American managers were more likely to perceive unethical
marketing behavior as a serious issue, than the Thai counterparts. From a cultural perspective, Thais are
more collectivist than Americans and more accepting of enduring power differentials. This is the reason
why “Thai managers do not perceive themselves as independent moral agents in work situations” (Jones,
1991, p. 390) and are less likely to discern the moral intensity in a given ethical scenario. This would,
in turn, explain their lower perception of moral intensity.
The cultural dimension Masculinity vs Femininity also impact on the key issue of Business Ethics
(Vitell et al., 2013). Societies that are characterized as masculine support individuals in getting success
and ambitious goals, thus fostering the adoption of competitive behaviour. By the contrast, in feminine
culture inter-personal relationship, quality of life and concern for the weak are evaluated to a great extent
(Hofstede, 1991, 1980). The mentioned diversities significantly contribute to one’s engagement in unethi-
cal behavior, simply because decision-makers coming from some cultures (as it is the case of masculine
cultures) do not “perceive” certain ethical problems, that are not defined by their culture as involving
ethics. As a consequence, businesspeople coming from countries characterised by a high masculinity
score, like Austria or Italy, seem to be less influenced by ethical problems than businesspeople coming
from feminine countries, like Netherlands and Sweden (Roxas and Stoneback, 2004; Robertson, 2002).
In field of CSR, Arslan (2001) sustained the existence of a strong relationship between the perception
that individuals have of social responsibility and their Achievement Orientation10. The author compared
the perception of social responsibility by English, Irish and Turkish managers, finding that a high level
in the Achievement Orientation (that mainly characterizes Anglo-Saxon culture) encourages short terms
and opportunistic behaviour, thus limiting the individuals’ social responsibility concerns. Conversely,
a low level of Power Orientation, that characterise, for example, some of Muslim Turkish culture, may
lead to a greater sensitivity towards ethical achievements and CSR.
In more recent years, Rausch et al. (2014) investigated the relationship between cultural dimensions
and the ethical decision making process in two groups of students form U.S. and German universities,
by focusing on the perception that people have about moral intensity (as it has been defined by Jones
in 1991) and its constituent parts. According to the research’s results, the more individualistic nationals
result in a superior ability to detect some components of moral intensity, namely probability of effect,
temporary immediacy and concentration of effect. It means, therefore, that people from U.S. pay close
attention to how many parts may be harmed, the probability of the damage and the amount of time until
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Table 4. Software piracy around the world: A cultural perspective
Gophal and Sanders (2000) define software piracy as the mechanism by which individuals purchase a copy of the software at the market
price and make copies in order to distribute them to the other group members.
Statistics on software piracy developed by the Business Software Alliance (BSA) provide international estimates on the size of the
phenomenon. The BSA has been studying global trends in PC software piracy for more than ten years.
According to the collected information, reported into the ninth edition of the annual global piracy study, the global piracy rate for PC
software hovered 42% in 2011. The commercial value of this shadow market of pirated software climbed from $58.8 billion in 2010 to
$63.4 billion in 2011, a new record, propelled by PC shipments to emerging economies where piracy rates are highest.
The reason for the underlined growth lies into the expansion of PC market into higher piracy countries that has been faster than that into
the lower piracy ones. The gap in spending on legal software in emerging and mature economies is stubbornly persistent. China, for
example, spends less than a quarter of the amount that Russia, India, and Brazil spend on a per-PC basis, and just 7% of the total amount
that the United States spends. The data below shows the software piracy rates recorded for the different geographical areas at worldwide
level.
Within North America, the United States rate for software piracy is 19% of the total market, with Puerto Rico showing the highest level
in the area (42%); it increases to 32% in Western Europe where the rate runs from the 20% of Luxembourg to the 61% of Greece; both
Central and Eastern Europe and Latin America score surpasses 60% with the highest percentages reached by Georgia and Moldova (91%
and 90% respectively) and by Venezuela (88%).
From a cultural perspective, many authors (Yoo et al., 2014; Swinyard et al., 2013; Shin et al., 2004; Moores, 2003; Lu, 2001) agree
with the idea that software piracy is affected by cultural issues, since people coming from different countries consider copyright and the
intellectual property in a very different way.
In the former Soviet Union, for example, Capitalism has substituted the State as the authority that tries to impose norms and regulations
on intellectual property. Therefore the Soviets have developed a growing fear toward the control on the spread of knowledge, thus
considering free transfer of ideas as an important value.
In Africa, where the society developed thanks to un-written culture for centuries and where artistic expression was mainly based on
religion, copyright is considered a colonial concept, too abstract and contradictory. Any control over information is seen as an attempt by
the richer areas to maintain the old colonial system.
In China and other Asian countries intellectual property is, finally, interwoven with the cultural make-up, which for two thousand years
has considered imitation as the necessary basis for learning and transferring knowledge from generation to generation. In this context
Confucianism inspires collective ideals in which individuals are asked to share their know-how (Canestrino, 2008).
In the attempt to understand the linkage between software piracy and cultural values prevailing in a given society, Yoo et al., (2014)
explored the way differences on Hofstede’s cultural indexes (Hofstede, 1980) can affect behaviors by comparing two countries –
Vietnam and Korea – with similar level of COLL and masculinity but different levels of PD and UA. The importance of this study is in
its revelation of these two factors as the most influential indexes in determining attitudes to piracy in the examined countries. Moores
(2003) reported that more individualist and richer a society became, less software piracy rate develops; according to Donaldson (1996),
Confucianism leads people to share their own knowledge with society, thus prompting some Chinese, or other Asian firms, to consider
intellectual property as a symbol of Western countries technological monopoly; according to Shin et al. (2004) in collectivistic cultures
software is naturally considered a resource to share with community in order to increase the overall group welfare. Not surprising,
high-tech, high-collectivistic countries such as Indonesia (86% piracy rate), China (77%), and Thailand (72%) are extensively involved in
piracy activities.
All the mentioned countries report for low level of IND, respectively 20 for both China and Thailand (lower than the Asian rank of
23) and 14 for Indonesia (lowest world score for IND). It means, therefore, that all the referred countries characterize for high levels of
COLL.
COLL is often assimilated to utilitarianism, the last one strives for the greatest good to the greatest number of people, thus more
utilitarian people are, more they are involved in software piracy (Gophal and Sanders, 1998).
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a given impact is felt. Despite its limits, the mentioned work provides for a widening of the existing
literature about the topic, suggesting a new explanation that takes into account, for the first time, the
complex links between culture, moral intensity and individual’s awareness about ethical dilemmas.
Affecting the Consistency Between Individual/Organizational Behavior

and the Moral Standards That Prevail in a Given Context
After an ethical dilemma has been perceived, individuals usually develop their moral judgment (ac-
cording to the moral reasoning process that has been previously described) in order to finally engage
in an ethical behavior. At this step, Organizational Culture has been already considered an important
moderating factor in Trevino’s model (1986), even if the author never exploited the way culture affects
peoples’ final decision to act.
Particularly, the cultural dimension IND vs COLL seems to affect the individuals’ ethical behavior to
a great extent. As Husted (2000) noted, in individualistic cultures, like U.S., individuals see themselves as
independent from the collective group within which they are embedded and are used to pursue their own
interests. Moral standards develop in accordance with the prevailing values, reducing the gap between
the personal interests (private self) and the collective ones (public self): autonomy and self-realization
rise to moral principles, thus people are more likely to behave in accordance with judgments previously
formulated. Following the above, a greater consistency between behavior and moral judgement exists
in individualistic cultures rather than in collectivistic ones.
In exploring the importance of gender across cultures in ethical decision-making, Roxas and Stone-
back (2004) highlighted that individuals - both men and women – embedded in masculine environments
are more likely to break the rules. By the contrast feminine cultures inspire the respect of rules, thanks
to peoples’ tendency to emphasize the establishment of harmonious relationships and to do things well.
Following the authors’ considerations, therefore, it may be reasonably suggested that a greater consis-
tency establishes between individuals’ behavior and moral norms in feminine cultures than in masculine
societies. The propensity of a given moral player to act consistently with previously defined standards
has been also widely investigated at organizational level, in the field of CSR.
Researches in CSR have identified remarkable differences between the companies from different
countries. In a comparative understanding of CSR, Matten and Moon (2008) pointed out that U.S.
corporations usually made explicit their attachment to CSR, whereas European business responsibility
tends to be more implicit. The mentioned differences are, even partially, due to the diversities between
U.S. and European cultural systems, which generate different assumptions about society, business and
government.
In U.S., CSR has been embedded in a system that leaves more incentives and opportunities for cor-
porations to take comparatively explicit responsibility, than in the European one. As a consequence, U.S.
firms usually adhere to voluntary corporate programs and strategies as a response to the stakeholders
pressure; they often engage alliances with other corporations, with governmental and non-governmental
organizations.
By the contrast, European firms do not explicit devote to CSR, mainly because of the embedded-
ness of the corporations role within the wider formal and informal institutions for society’s interests
and concerns. The cultural dimension IND also plays an important role in shaping explicit CSR. As the
authors themselves noted, “Institutions encouraging individualism and providing discretion to private
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economic actors in liberal markets would be considered national systems in which one would expect to
find strong elements of explicit CSR” (Matten and Moon, 2008, p. 410).
Referring to the linkage between Hofstede’s cultural dimensions11 and CSR, the researches’ findings
often contrast, mainly because of the differences in the adopted methodology, as well as in the sample
(ex.: firms’ characteristics, multinational dimension, etc.) used to develop the studies.
Peng et al. (2014), for example, suggest that all the four Hofstede’s dimensions can predict firm’s
CSR engagement. Their particularly find that IND and UA positively relate with firm’s CSR commit-
ment, while PD and MAS negatively influence it.
UA particularly refers to the extent to which people feel threatened by uncertain or ambiguous situ-
ations (Hofstede, 1994). Strong uncertainty avoidance countries usually have more extensive written
codes of conduct and laws that exactly stats what is allowed and what is not. For example, environmen-
tal legislation is much more extensive in countries high on this dimension (Katz, et al., 2001). In low
uncertainty avoidance cultures, the ethical decision-making process and criteria are likely to be based
on the interpretation of rules. As Peng et al. (2014) themselves noted:
In cultures stressing high uncertainty avoidance, people place great importance on keeping everything
accountable or certain. As a business strategy that helps firms to develop long term sustainable relation-
ship with its stakeholders, engaging CSR can be one of the effective ways to reduce the environmental
uncertainties of the firms (p. 4).
BUSINESS ETHICS IN A GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT:

WHEN DOES “MORAL GAP” ARISE?
All the referred literary contributions show the relevant influence that national culture has on the defini-
tion of moral standards, on the perception of business ethic issues, as well as on the consistency between
moral judgment and ethical behavior, at both individual and organizational standpoint.
Since values and beliefs differ at worldwide level, new practical issues get up in response to both
globalization and the growing international competition, thus affecting the complexity of academic
inquiry about Business Ethics.
Ethical dilemmas may particularly arise every time firms must comply with multiple and sometimes
conflicting moral standards, as in the case they internationalize countries with varying practices (Can-
estrino, 2008). In such circumstance, a so-called “moral gap” establishes, impelling the international
players to choose which rules, “domestic” instead of “host”, sometimes conflicting, they ought follow.
To illustrate, United States law forbids companies from paying bribes either domestically or overseas;
however, in other parts of the world, bribery is a customary, accepted way of doing business (Jennings,
2000). Similar problems can occur with regard to child labor, employee safety, work hours, wages, dis-
crimination, and environmental protection laws.
What does it happen, therefore, when international firms invest in those countries where moral stan-
dards significantly differ?
Figure 3 shows the two circumstances under which a “moral gap”12 establishes: the larger the cultural
distance among the partners is, the more evident is the “moral gap” when it occurs.
In general, a “moral gap” forms every time:
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Figure 3. Moral gap in global environment (our elaboration)
1. What is considered right into the firm’s domestic country, is considered wrong into the host one;
or
2. What is considered wrong into the firm’s domestic country, is considered right into the host one
(Canestrino, 2007),
impelling international players to make a choice about the set of moral standards they will conform to.
“Moral gap” may establish at individual, corporate, as well as at systemic level, every time domestic
and host countries (of a given internationalization process) characterize for different and conflicting
moral standards.
At individual level, personal moral standards provide for the background upon which the individuals
face an ethical dilemma, when it occurs, finally engaging in a given behavior.
Imagine, for example, to be an American human resource management. You were chosen to manage
a corporate division, located in a poor country where child labor is allowed, in order to execute the cor-
porate firing program. Appalled to find that the subsidiary is using child labor in direct violation of the
company’s own ethical code, your American boss instructs you to replace the children with adults. By
this the company would solve the “moral gap” emerging by the different evaluation of the practice in the
home and in the host countries. But you also know that, far to be inspired by real moral principles, the
corporate is trying to avoid the damages arising from international activists’ protests organized against
the company. You finds that a 12-yearold girl work in factory floor: she is an orphan, who is the only
breadwinner for herself and her 6-year-old brother, and she would be unable to find another job. If you
replace her, probably she should be forced to turns to prostitution (children prostitution – of both of males
and females – is a dramatic social problem in the country where the company division locates). What do
you decide to do? The moral standards prevailing in the country where you come from suggest you to
replace the little girl, but in accordance to the your personal hierarchy of values you feel that refusing to
fire the little girl is the only “right” thing to do. It could be damaging for you and your career advance-
ments and the final decision is very difficult to be engaged anyway because of organizational pressures.
Even at organizational level a “moral gap” may easily arise every time organizations move from
national markets to foreign ones, as well as every time MNCs have to manage multicultural units.
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What does it happen, for example, when an expatriate manager13 is sent to a very different cultural
context for an international assignment, replacing the local manager? How do employees perceive this
change? Does the decision imply ethical concerns? For every expatriates, moving to a new country
requires adjusting to local customs, languages and politics. But what happens when certain facets of a
culture affect ones’ moral or ethical assumptions?
Take as example the practice of “wasta”. “Wasta” is the Arabic word used to define the clout, the
connections, the influence, pull or favoritism. It is a practice morally accepted in many Middle Eastern
countries where peoples with “wasta” acquire prestige, honor, and permits, get jobs, obtain favorable rul-
ings from agencies, get government contracts and benefit from government rules that limit competition.
Within the companies, family relationships and social networks can take priority in business decisions,
including who gets hired or promoted. In other words, “wasta” is regarded as an intrinsic part of the
culture and a way of conducting business across the Arab World (Hooker, 2008), but it is not the same in
western countries. Here employers hire, promote and fire the workers on the bases of individual’s skills,
thus Westerners usually look at “wasta”, at best, as favoritism, and at worse, as nepotism.
An American manager sent to a middle eastern division to manage human resources would face the
moral gap arising by the contrast between his personal moral standards and the local ones. In such cir-
cumstance, in fact, “wasta” would evaluated as wrong by the expatriate even if it is an accepted practice
(right) in the host country. In any case, “wasta” should be taken into consideration.
What about the American expatriate manager?
On one case, he could adapt to local “customs”. Otherwise, the expatriate could decide to respect his
own values by improving the management of employee performance, given that the tight-knit nature of
many Middle Eastern business communities makes social or familial relationships very hard to avoid. In
making such dramatic changes within a corporation, it is wise to use local trainers who understand the
culture and can make the most effective case for the change. Employees may be reluctant to change if
they view the effort as simply a way to ‘comply’ with the corporation’s standards. Instead, they may be
more receptive if they understand how the new practices are important to their careers and to the overall
competitiveness or business mission of the company, without violating local customs or traditions.
At wider level, a “moral gap” may also deal with the morality of laws and norms, of economic and
social systems, and with governments’ decisions and actions (see ILVA case study).
Even at systematic level, different moral standards establish according to the prevailing values and
beliefs, translating, not only into a different regulation of “questionable” practices, but also to a different
evaluation (from a moral perspective) of the same. Take as example, the so-called Reproductive Tourism
(RT) and its diffusion at European level.
RT is refers to a practice according to which people travel across national borders, in order to access
to reproductive technologies and services, such as in vitro fertilization (IVF), gamete (sperm and egg)
donation, sex selection, surrogacy, and embryonic diagnosis (Martin, 2009).
As Canestrino et al. (2016) reported the phenomenon is not restricted to U.S. or Australia, but it
also occurs in Europe, where patients come from France, Germany or Italy travel to Belgium to gain
treatments not available at home, like, for example, in vitro fertilization treatments (IVF) with oocyte
or sperm donation or fertilization treatments for homosexuals, lesbians, or singles (not allowed in Italy,
France and Germany).
Even if belonging to the same sovra-national context (namely EU), diversities in national and local
standards allowed the flourish of - sometimes very different - national normative frameworks, fostering
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a huge debate about the morality of some practices like, for example: gamete donors, surrogacy and fer-
tilization treatments for homosexuals. Within the mentioned debate, the emergence of a dual healthcare
system (one for poor and one for rich) represents a key corner.
How do we evaluate the phenomenon and the lack of a uniform system of norms within UE? Is it
right to impel people to look for a foreign country to receive medical treatments not allowed at home?
What about the individuals who cannot go abroad for treatments, because of the high costs of travel
and accommodation expenses? To what extent UE is responsible to grant the same healthcare rights to
all European citizens? On the contrary, it would be right imposing to the single nations the adoption of
uniform norms in contrast with the local accepted moral standards?
Obviously no “right formula” really exists. International players, be them individuals, organizations
or institution, respond to “moral gap” in different ways, with different outcomes, and in doing this they
may, alternatively, adopt an absolutist or a relativist approach.
Overcoming “Moral Gaps”: The Relevance of Cross-Cultural

Sensitivity and Cross-Cultural Negotiating Ability
Referring to the issue, an important premise needs to be pointed out (in the writers’ opinion). Adopting
an absolutist or e relativistic approach helps international players to make a decision about the rules to
be applied every time that a “moral gap” establishes (home country or host country norms). It doesn’t
mean, therefore, that the “moral gap” reduces, since it mainly depends on the existing diversities among
the prevailing values at global level.
Ethical absolutism, which has also been referred to as universalism, dictates that an omnipresent set
of standards should be universally applied, being equally valid in all places and times (Qizilbash, 1997).
Ethical absolutism inspires to the deontology, directing that behavior should be evaluated by the
same rules regardless of its consequences. Without neglecting the existence of multiple moral standards
employed around the world, absolutists strongly believe that all moral principles and actions could be
rooted in common universal norms, mainly based on the human beings’ requirement of long-term sur-
vival (Harmon, 1984).
Cross-cultural ethical researches have provided some support for ethical absolutism. Comparisons
about the ethical beliefs prevailing in American and Israeli business managers (Izraeli, 1988), Greek
and American business students (Tsalikis and Nwachukwu, 1988), and South African and Australian
managers (Abratt et al., 1992) all found that, despite differences in socio-cultural and political factors,
ethical beliefs based on moral standards varied very little from culture to culture.
In spite of this, however, neglecting the relevance of cultural diversities may lead to negative conse-
quences for business activities, mainly when international players try to apply norms that contrast with
the embedded moral standards and local behavior (Canestrino, 2008). Referring to this issue, a useful
example is provided by the “Italian Tax Mores” case study developed by Arthur Kelly in 1983 (See
Table 5).
In spite of the reported case study, it has to be noted that adopting an absolutistic approach does not
always imply negative consequences for firm. In some occasions, it is the right thing to do in the right
moment for do it, as it is clearly showed by the experience of General Motors (GM), in South Africa
(Table 6).
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Table 5. The risks of Absolutism: Evidence from the Italian tax system
The Italian corporate tax system is very different from the American one, with only very few exceptions. Italian corporations are
particular expected to underestimate their real income and profit to get tax facilities. This is the reason why Italian authorities are used to
check for corporates’ tax declaration and real income, about six months after the annual deadline, arranging a personal meeting with the
corporate’s representatives, in order to discuss about the discrepancies between the “expected” and “declared” profit.
It has to be noted that the tax amount established by the Italian Tax Department is several times higher than th amount resulted by the
corporate’s evaluation, since it bases on the assumption that firms always declare less profits than they have really gained. Moreover, the
amount of tax paid by the corporate for a given year is supposed to be the starting point for future negotiations, that means the minimum
level of taxes that the firm have to pay in the future.
Given the above background, consider the following example: A leading American bank opened a bank subsidiary in a major Italian
city. At the end of the first-year activities, the bank was advised by its local lawyers and tax accountants, both from branches of U.S.
companies, to fill in its tax declaration according to the “Italian-style” that means to underestimate its profits, before negotiation with
local tax authorities.
Despite this, however, the American manager of the subsidiary (at first overseas assignment), refused to do it, mainly because the
inconsistency between the Italian and the American practices (the last considered as the best one).
About six months after filling its “American-style” tax declaration, the bank received an “invitation to discuss” notice from the Italian
Tax Department. About sixty days after, a tax assessment notice was sent to the bank, requesting a tax amount of approximately
three times that shown on the bank’s corporate tax declaration. After having refused to accept any kind of suggestion to manage the
negotiation, the bank general manager was forced to pay the amount established by the original tax assessment and was soon recalled to
the USA in order to be replaced.
Source: Kelly A. (1983). “Case Study – Italian Tax mores”. In: Donaldson and Werhane (Eds.), Ethical Issues in Business: A
Philosophical Approach (2nd Ed.). Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall Inc.
Table 6. Adopting Absolutism against human rights violation
Between the late 1970s and 1980s GM developed significant activities in South Africa, where apartheid still existed, denying the basic
political rights to the majority of the non-white population, in contrast with the most universally accepted human rights granted in
developed nations (eg.: freedom of association, of speech, of assembly, etc.). At that time, GM adopted what has been called the Sullivan
principles, named after Leon Sullivan, a black Baptist minister and a member of GM’s board of directors. Sullivan argued that it was
ethically justified for GM to operate in South Africa so long as two conditions were fulfilled: first, that the company should not obey the
apartheid laws in its own South African operations (a form of passive resistance), and second, that the company should do everything
within its power to actively promote the abolition of apartheid laws.
Sullivan’s principles were widely adopted by U.S. firms operating in South Africa and their violation of the apartheid laws was ignored
by South African government, which clearly did not want to antagonize important foreign investors.
Source: Fisher, C.M., & Lovell, A. (2009). Business Ethics and values: Individual, corporate and international perspectives. Harlow:
Pearson Education
Opposite to absolutism, ethical relativism emphasizes the idea that no principles are better than oth-
ers, refusing the chance to define any universal norm (De George, 1993). Ethical relativists particularly
claim that all values are relative to particular cultural contexts and that no ultimate universal ethical
principles exist.
From a managerial perspective, therefore, international players, which inspire to relativism, are usu-
ally to adhere and to act in accordance with the host countries rules - almost like performing a “duty”
(Beauchamp and Bowie, 2001) - agreeing with the guiding slogan of “When in Rome, do as the Romans
do” (Larrison, 1998).
Like absolutism, ethical relativism is also subjected to criticism, to the extent to which it could lead
to the acceptance of every practice, whatever a-moral it is: at its extreme, for example, ethical relativ-
ism could suggest that using slave labor, in a country, is right if slavery doesn’t contrast with the local
sense of justice.
Sometimes, far to be inspired by a moral reasoning model, multinationals seems to adhere to the host
country moral standards more to get economic advantages, than to respect local culture.
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In such circumstances, nevertheless, boycott activities may be arranged against organizations, with
negative consequence at both local and global level: a lot of protests and boycott activities have been
arranged, for example, against Coca Cola (see Table 7).
Taking into account the mentioned considerations, as well as the negative impacts that may come
out by the adoption of both absolutist and relativist approaches for the business, an important premise
to successfully act at global level is to not neglect the existence of multiple rules employed around the
world, keeping always in mind, however, that these kinds of variables, culture-embedded, must be rooted
in a common universal moral standard, the last one inspiring to the basic requirements of human being
and of his environment’s survival.
But how do international players overcome a “moral gap” when it arises?
Trevino and Nelson (2010) propose a sequence of eight steps to follow when solving an ethical dilemma
(Gather the facts; define the ethical issue; identify the affected parties, that means identify the stakehold-
ers; identify the consequences of the decision; identify the obligations; consider one’s own character and
integrity; think creatively about potential actions; check the gut)14 that could be applied also to moral
gaps resolution. In spite of its inner limits (the eight steps suggest a linear decision-making process, while
the ethical decision making is often not linear), the sequence provides for useful suggestions helping to
look for alternative solutions that “stay in the middle” between absolutistic and relativistic approaches.
Referring to the “moral gap” of the American manager sent to a subsidiary to replace children from
the factories, for example, identify the consequences of the corporate decision could be useful to look
for a solution that “save the corporate image” without compromising children rights, at the same time.
In the mentioned example, corporation could sign up an ethical code of conduct to regulate and limit
child labor in societies where the lack of social safety net forces children to find a way to make a living to
support themselves and/or their families. The code would stipulate that children should not be employed
in physically taxing work - such as heavy lifting - should work fewer hours than adults, and receive pay
commensurate with the work they are doing and not be seen as a cheap alternative to adult labor.
From a moral perspective, the proposed solution would mean “to bridge” between two contrasting
moral standards (“respect individual freedom” in the developed American country vs “support the group
Table 7. Does Relativism pursue “Moral Values”? The boycott activities against Coca-Cola
Coca-Cola is charged to control water resources in a lot of under-developed countries, especially in India. New researches carried
out in the Indian states of Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh show that Coca-Cola’s activities negatively impact water resource levels and
environmental pollution. In the small and poor village of Kaladera in Rajasthan, water levels have seriously declined since Coca-Cola’s
arrival in 1999.
Other communities in India that live and work around Coca-Cola’s bottling plants are experiencing severe water shortages as well as
environmental damage.
Farmers are increasingly unable to irrigate their lands and sustain their crops, putting whole families at risk of losing their livelihoods,
and Coca-Cola was unable to retrieve the negative consequences of its activities.
Several groups support Coca-Cola boycott, including the Service Employees International Union (SEIU), UNISON, the largest public
service union in Great Britain, and Veterans for Peace. A lot of Universities in Europe and in the United States are now voting to ban
Coca-Cola from operating on their campuses because of the company’s abuses around the world. In December 2005 the University of
Michigan stopped its contract with Coca-Cola because of Company’s labor practices in Colombia and environmental impact in India.
In the same month, a similar decision was taken by New York University, which accounts for more than 50,000 students. Student
activists in the UK are also campaigning to ban Coca-Cola products sales in their campuses and student unions have already voted to end
commercial relations at many universities in the U.K.
In Plachimada in the southern state of Kerala (India), Coca-Cola’s plant was forced to close down in Mach 2004 after the village council
refused to renew the company’s license, because of the indiscriminate extraction, use, and contamination of the common groundwater.
Source: Canestrino and Calvelli (2010)
157

necessity” in many under-developed and collectivistic countries) by identifying a “new” common stan-
dard, respectful of the opposite positions. This new standard – labelled as “granting children survival”
should be up-graded in the hierarchy of moral standards of both domestic and host countries, posing at
a higher level.
“Bridging” diversities may be also a good solution (in the opinion of the writers) to solve “moral
gap” at both organizational and systematic level.
With reference to the practice of “wasta” in Middle East countries, managers who want to introduce
Western business models to the Middle East, cannot simply decree a “no nepotism” policy, in order to
avoid the risk to be regarded as naïve or arrogant, and in either case, culturally insensitive. Even when
an “alternative solution” to the available options cannot be found, it is important not to make implied
value judgments about the practices of other cultures. In such situation could be useful, for example, to
sponsor the making changes through a training program for employees that stresses job performance,
while factoring in “wasta” or other local customs and practices. Meanwhile, Middle East employers could
educate employees from different cultures on how their society values the importance of relationships,
including trust and loyalty.
Similarly, at systematic level, managing moral gaps requires a global governance able to develop
norms and rules respectful of all citizens’ rights, even if the chance to find the right solution for all seems
to be more a theoretical exercise than a really feasible option.
Taking into account the above discussion, therefore, cross-cultural sensitivity (Rodrigues, 1997;
Schein, 1981) and cross-cultural negotiating abilities are, therefore, necessary to overcome the conflicts
every time that values and believes collide and that different moral principles establish at worldwide
level. Cross-cultural sensitivity particularly refers to ones’ ability to decipher others’ values (Rodrigues,
1997; Schein, 1981) and to understand a new environment using the situated and contextual knowledge
(Shapiro, et al., 2008). The awareness of and knowledge about cultural differences also belong to the
concept, as well as the ability to create trust and commitment among actors coming from in different
cultural settings (Canestrino and Magliocca, 2016). Following Salacuse’s studies about the ways that
culture affects negotiating style (Salucuse, 1998), the cultural negotiating abilities may be reasonably
defined as the international player’s capacity to better understand and to interpret his counterpart be-
havior, finding the way to overcome cultural diversities.
Within the field of business ethics, cross-cultural sensitivity and cross-cultural negotiating abilities
could support the international players to keenly understand the business environment in which they oper-
ate; to recognize cultural expectations and ethical dilemmas; to avoid conflict when possible; to balance
the interests of various stakeholders in an ethical way; and to develop strategies for influencing partners.
Starting from the literary contributions about Business Ethics, on one hand and cultural studies, on
the other hand, the chapter proposes a wide understanding of the way cultural dimensions may define
different moral standards at worldwide level, affecting also individual, organizational and institutional
propensity to adhere them. Despite this, It has been argued that the proposed suggestions do not provide
for any simply solution to the ethical dilemmas that arise at global level. Business Ethics remains a very
158

complex issue and this paper aims also to provide for a widen cultural-based picture of the phenomenon.
Many questions are still un-answered, requiring for future investigations. Among them, it should not to
be neglected the fact that even cross-cultural sensitivity and cross-cultural negotiation style themselves
affected by culture (Canestrino and Magliocca, 2016; Salacuse, 1998). It means, therefore, that even
individuals’ ability to prevent and to manage moral gaps is itself cultural-embedded. Accordingly, new
researches are necessary in this direction.
CONCLUSION
Both globalization and the growth of international competition have intensified the complexity of
academic debate about the topic, mainly because the existing cultural diversities between and among
countries. When acting in the global environment, therefore, international players keep in contact with
different cultural contexts: every time it happens a “moral gap” may arises, the last one depending on
the differences between the moral standards that prevail, respectively in the home and in the host coun-
tries. A “moral gap” may particularly arise every time cultural diversities shape the sense of morality
of individuals, organizations and institutions as well, that means it may refers to all the three issues
investigated within the field of business ethics, requiring for solution.
Managing a “moral gap” is not easy: in doing this, the international players, be them individuals,
organizations or institutions - may adopt, alternatively an absolutist, or a relativist approach. According
to the first one, they act in accordance with the rules and norms prevailing in their home country. By
the contrast, the adoption of a relativistic approach lead the players to observe local rules, so the host
countries’ moral standards usually prevail in this situation.
As empirical evidences show, however, negative consequences for business may be determined by
both absolutist and relativist approaches. Adopting an absolutist perspective usually imply a “cultural
insensitiveness” usually followed by negative judgments of both rules and practices that prevail the host
countries: home country norms are evaluated right and applied everywhere, regardless the diversities.
In such circumstances, conflicts may easily arise mainly because of people reluctance to comply with
“foreign” standards and negative consequences for business activities may be determined by the under-
evaluation of the local traditions. By the contrast, the adoption of host countries norms, that characterizes
the relativist approach, is usually perceived as a way for multinationals to get profits in many under-
developing and rising economies, rather than the attempt to solve an emerging ethical dilemma. When
it happens, boycott initiatives may be undertaken at global level, even mining the success of business
activities.
Taking into account the negative consequences deriving from the adoption of both absolutist and
relativist approaches, the chapter finally focus on the way international players may overcome the moral
gaps that result from the individual, organizational and systematic level of business ethics.
It’s a matter of fact that “moral gaps” cannot be reduced or avoided since, they are deeply rooted in a
given culture. In spite of this, multiple actions may be undertaken to find novel and alternative solutions
to the available options. These last ones act as “bridge” between contrasting moral norms by identifying
“new” common standards, respectful of the opposite positions.
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Looking for a trade-off between universal norms, and local particularisms, however, is not easy. In
doing this, knowing culture and cultural diversities is a fundamental premise to prevent cultural conflicts
(ex-ante), as well as to overcome them (ex post). Cross-cultural sensitivity is, therefore, necessary every
time that values and believes collide and different moral principles establish at worldwide level. But being
aware of diversities isn’t the only premise to effectively manage a mora gap. Cross-cultural negotiating
ability, belonging to the player’s capacity to understand and to interpret his counterpart behavior is also
fundamental for the development of a “new space” of cooperation within which common moral standards
may be negotiated among the parties. When established, these standards up-grade in the hierarchy of
moral standards that prevail in both domestic and host countries, posing at a higher level, as the output
of a common share of ideas.
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Business Ethics: A specialized study of moral right and wrong that concentrates on moral standards
as they apply to business institutions, organizations, and behavior.
Cognitive Moral Development: Theory of moral reasoning proposed by Kholberg in 1976 to explain
the way people think and decide to act about what they perceive ethically right.
Corporate Social Responsibility: Business practices aiming, not only, to get profits, but also to obey
the law, to be ethical, and to be a good corporate citizen.
Cross-Cultural Sensitivity: One’s ability to decipher others’ values.
Cultural Negotiating Ability: One’s capacity to better understand and to interpret his counterpart
behavior, finding the way to overcome cultural diversities.
Culture: Programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of
people from others.
Ethical Dilemma: Condition that involves a conflict between moral imperatives, in which to obey
one means to break another. In an ethical dilemma two or more ‘‘right’’ values are in conflict.
Moral Gap: Condition according to which what is considered right in one context, is considered
wrong in another context.
Moral Standards: Set of principles according to which actions (ethic or un-ethic) are evaluated;
they arise from local traditions and are deeply rooted in a context.
Organizational Culture: Common set of assumptions, values and beliefs shared by organizational
members and manifests itself in norms, rituals, legends and organization’s choice for heroes and heroines.
166

ENDNOTES
1
An ethical dilemma arises every time a decision (to solve a given problem) involves a conflict
between moral imperatives, in which to obey one means to break another. In an ethical dilemma
two or more ‘‘right’’ values are in conflict (Trevino and Nelson, 2011).
2
Kohlberg (1976) focused on the way people think and decide to act about what they perceive as
ethically right. He interviewed 58 American boys – all aged between 10 and 16. Responses were
analyzed and resulted in new understanding of how moral reasoning in human beings, gradually
develops over time through brain development and life experience.
3
Within the Individual Moderating Factors, individuals high on Ego Strength are expected to respect
their own moral conventions more than individuals with low ego strength, thus resulting in high
consistency between action and thought in the organizational field. Field Dependence depicts the
individual tendency to make use of external referents to reduce the ambiguity of a given ethical
dilemma. In accordance, as Trevino noted, people (and managers) high on Field Dependence show
a less consistency between moral action and moral judgment, mainly because they lack for au-
tonomy and are easily to look for external source of information. Locus of Control finally describes
to what extent people perceive themselves able to control external events. People with “internal”
Locus of Control believes that outcomes depend on their own efforts, otherwise they are beyond
control and depend on the fate, luck and destiny. As consequence, people whose Locus of Control
is internal are more likely to act in coherence with their moral judgment than people characterized
by “external” Locus of Control.
4
Organizational Culture may be defined as “a pattern of shared basic assumptions that a group has
learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked
well enough to be considered valid and therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way
to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems” (Schein, 2004, p. 17). It mainly refers to
the common set of assumptions, values and beliefs shared by organizational members and manifests
itself in norms, rituals, legends and organization’s choice for heroes and heroines.
5
The construct of Moral Intensity includes six components: Magnitude of consequences, social
consensus, probability of effects, temporal immediacy, proximity, and concentration of effects.
The magnitude of consequences of the moral issue is defined as the sum of the harms, or benefits,
done to victims, or beneficiaries, of the moral act in question; the social consensus refers to the
evaluation of a moral action (right or wrong) by the social group within which people are embed-
ded; the probability of effects is a joint function of the probability that a give action will cause the
predicted harms; temporal immediacy is the length of time between the present and the onset of
consequences of the moral act (shorter length of time implies greater immediacy); the proximity
is the feeling of nearness (social, cultural, psychological, or physical) that the moral agent has for
victims or for the beneficiaries of the evil act in question; the concentration of effects finally is an
inverse function of the number of people affected by an act of given magnitude.
6
Similarly, Gjølberg (2009) developed two indexes: one measuring CSR practices and one measuring
CSR performance in 20 different OECD nations. The indexes reveal striking differences among 20
nations, suggesting for a better investigation of CSR at national level.
7
Smith (1759) wrote is “Theory of Moral Sentiment” before the “Wealth of the Nation”. The work
is an essay towards an analysis of the principles by which men naturally judge concerning the
conduct and character, first of their neighbors, and afterwards of themselves.
167

8
For Marx (1978) the problem with capitalism was that most of the benefits were reaped by the few,
when there was enough to better the lot of all. His critique has still followers today.
9
Hofstede et al. (1990) highlights that there is a significant difference between national and orga-
nizational culture. But organizations are embedded into societies, which can be defined by certain
national values; moreover they consist of individuals who introduce their own beliefs (arising at
societal level) into the organization. In view of the above, national culture may reasonably provide
for indications about both organizational and individual culture.
10
Trompenaars (1996) defines the Achieved/Ascribed Orientation by identifying the way by which
people reach power positions; by obtaining “a result” or by recognition for something with success
being naturally attributed.
11
Hofstede (1980) clustered more than 70 countries, by analyzing IBM respondents between 1967
and 1973. Since 2001, scores have been listed for 74 countries and regions, partly based on repli-
cations and extensions of the original IBM. Hofstede clustered the different countries according
to some cultural dimensions, namely, Power Distance; Individualism vs collectivism, Masculinity
vs Femininity and Uncertainty Avoidance. A fifth dimension, Long-term Orientation, was added
to the original model, after conducting an additional international study with a survey instrument
developed with Chinese employees and managers. Hofstede’s Power Distance (PD) index measures
the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family)
accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. Individualism vs Collectivism (IND vs
COLL) refers to the degree to which individuals are embedded into their own social group. While
individualistic people are self-oriented and take primarily care of themselves, collectivistic people
are deeply embedded into their social group. Collective interests prevail over the individual ones;
extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) protect them in exchange for unquestioning
loyalty. The Masculinity (MAS) vs Femininity dimension describes how cultures differentiate on
not between gender roles. Masculine cultures tend to be ambitious and need to excel. In workplaces
employees emphasize their work to a great extent (live in order to work) and they admire achiev-
ers who accomplished their tasks. Feminine cultures consider quality of life and helping others to
be very important. Working is basically to earn money which is necessary for living. In business
as well as in private life they strive for consensus and develop sympathy for people who are in
trouble. Uncertainty Avoidance (UA) deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambigu-
ity. If Uncertainty Avoidance is strong, changes are felt as dangerous, and “what is already known”
is preferred to changes: both individuals and organizations adopt procedures for predicting and
reducing the uncertainty of future events. Long-term Orientation (LTO) exists when individuals
focus more on the future, than on the present. Long term oriented people delay short-term mate-
rial or social success or even shot-term emotional gratification in order to prepare for the future.
They value persistence, perseverance, saving and being able to adapt. The scale for each dimension
runs from 0 - 100 with 50 as a midlevel. The rule of thumb is that if a score is under 50 the culture
scores relatively low on that scale and if any score is over 50 the culture scores high on that scale
(Hofstede, 1980).
12
It has to be noted that even if “moral gap” depends on cultural diversities, it does not overlap with the
so-called “intercultural gap”. The “moral gap” always refers to the ethical evaluation of the actions
that international players put, or are willing to put, into practice, in accordance to the set of moral
standards prevailing in a given context (home vs host country). By the opposite the “intercultural
gap” may establish every time values and beliefs significantly differ, even without referring to any
168

moral standard. When partners come from different countries differences in language, communica-
tion style (both verbal and non-verbal), organizational routines and propensity to cooperate increase
the risk of a cultural collision: in such circumstances, international players may feel frustrated,
shaping the conditions for a cultural shock (Buono et al., 1989), conflicts misunderstandings and
low performances, as well (Shenkar and Zeira, 1992). In spite of no moral judgment is developed
under the mentioned circumstances. No one could evaluate, for example, as wrong using the red
color, instead of white, for weddings, neither the Japanese physical exercises before working: these
are cultural embedded-practices, even if they cannot be connected to any moral standard.
13
Expatriation is the process by which an employee is sent abroad for an international assignment and
it a quite common practice employed in the MNCs to transfer useful knowledge to the geographi-
cally dispersed units (Canestrino and Magliocca, 2010).
14
For a full examination of the eight-step process, see Trevino, L. K., & Nelson, K. A. (2010). Man-
aging business ethics. John Wiley & Sons.
169
170
Chapter 9
Project and Risk Management
in a Global Context:
The Importance of Cultural Risk
Mirko Perano
Reald University of Vlore (ASAR), Albania
Bice Della Piana

University of Salerno, Italy
Gian Luca Casali

Queensland University of Technology, Australia
ABSTRACT
Project management is one of the possible ways to improve the organizational reputation and create value.
The control achievable on each project’ constrains (time, cost and quality) and the actions consequent by
assessment process can represent in theory a guarantee for the success of a project. In practical, there
are many risks capable of upsetting the project dynamics leading to failures. Risk management, or the
specific area of knowledge of Project Risk Management, are useful to prevent this possible occurrence.
The global dimension of organizations’ networks that use PM, moves this quality to the project that this
organizations do. A definition of global project is provided as well as also the consequent considerations
about the cross-cultural aspect within the peoples involved in this type of project. It is framed and pro-
posed a new category of risk related to management of global project: cultural risk analysis.
INTRODUCTION
Project management is a useful discipline that among other things can reduce the project complexity
and, maximize the knowledge and control on each activities. What makes the process complex is the fact
that each activity is under the constraints of three important variables: costs, time and quality. Through
the evolution of project management (PM), knowledge and models have moved continuously between
conceptual and empirical research. Under the social point of view, “projects are complex social settings
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2673-5.ch009

Project and Risk Management in a Global Context
characterized by tensions between unpredictability, control and collaborative interaction among diverse
participants on any projects” (Cicmil et al. 2006, p. 676). From other hand, one of the substantial char-
acteristic of project is the innovation considering that the life cycle of general innovation outcomes is
increasingly shorter.
The organizations operating in global context are seeking to fight the high level of complexity in
managing projects. Although a lot of researcher (as in e.g. Pinto, Slevin, 1988; Baccarini, 1996; Vidal,
Marle, 2008 and others) have made effort to investigate on complexity projects factors, but the identifi-
cation of a solution for a problem in continuously moving is an hard goal to achieve.
Assuming that the society is complex, that the environment is complex, the competition is complex
and the projects are complex, is it possible to argue that with this high general level of complexity and
with this global “complexition” (competition and high level of complexity), the modern project manage-
ment is really adequate to manage all the activities?
The management of cultural diversity is a hard topic starting from the globalization’ phenomena.
This is not only the case of international management, or the case of negotiation between two or more
parts from different part of the world and different culture. With facilitation of transit of people and
things the global collaboration on big (o mega) project has been facilitated. The management of this big
project has increasingly involved international stakeholders and project team (PT) members involved
from different part of the world. This is, also, the case of the cross cultural aspect in project management
operating in global context.
The aim of this work is to provide a different perspective to understand the complexity projects.
Starting from the definition of project before provided (Cicmil et al. 2006) and acknowledging that
project can be defined as “global” (Binder, 2016), the authors argue that is possible to read the project
complexity also under the lens of cultural aspect in order to reduce it in reducing the cultural risk in
managing projects. Cultural aspect is linked to contextuality and this relation influences the project
complexity (Koivu et al, 2004).
The work is structured as follow: the first part describe the modern PM; the second describe the
Project Risk Management (PRM); the third discusses the cultural aspect and the related cultural risk.
The work end with indication of future research and with conclusions.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT IN GLOBAL CONTEXT
The Project Management (PM) is defined as “systemic management of a complex, unique and a fixed
time lasting enterprise, aiming at reaching a clear and pre-set goal, by a continuous process of planning
and control of different resources having interdependent constraints of costs-time-quality” (Archibald,
2004, page 29). In more details, quality, time, costs and resources are the management variables (or
constrains) around which the methodology of the PM operates. In addition, it is possible to identify ele-
ments: structural such as project, programs, processes, tasks, and main actors (or project stakeholders)
such as Project Manager (PMr), Sponsor and Project Team (PT).
The terms program/project/process/performance (task) are often used as synonyms, even if they have
a different semantic meaning.
In this sense, we assume that program is a long-term action, normally involving more than one project.
The process, instead, is a whole of activities carried out with continuity or made by a sequence of
known operations, which are repeated whenever circumstances require it.
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The performance or task is a short-term effort (ranging between a week and some months) made by
an organization, which together with other tasks, can be a process or even a project.
The project refers to a whole of correlated activities aiming at reaching a unique goal, by the use of
human, financial, material and technological resources and inconformity of pre-set constraints of time,
costs and quality. The projects can have some common characteristics:
• Clear and definite goals;

• Uniqueness: innovative;
• Provisional character: market windows, that is a date of starting and ending, being both scanned
by the project life cycle;
• Progressive processing intended as development obtained along successive and incremental
stages;
• Multidisciplinary approach;
• Limited resources.
Scope/Quality, Costs/Resources and Schedule/Time are the constraints of a project and in order to
realize a successful project, a PMr must consider and search an harmony between these three often-
competing goals (Schwalbe, 2007, p.8), even with the positive evaluation of quality output by customer
(Kerzner, 2009, p.3). The life of a generic project starts with the identification of one or more (totally
or partially) unsatisfied or latent needs and develops through different stages concerning the identifica-
tion of opportunities, feasibility evaluations, planning, construction and tests, exercise and preservation.
Therefore, it is commonly referred to as the “Project Life Cycle” a series of three stages (initial stage,
intermediate stage, and final stage) that connects the beginning and the end of the project with each
other. Each stage of the project has its own characteristics aiming at producing specific intermediate
outputs representing input being fundamental for the prosecution and completion of the activities of the
following stages.
The project stakeholders are people or firms that can either being actively involved in the project,
being influenced by the project’s outcomes or they can also influence the goals and results of the project.
The main stakeholders of a project include:
• Project Manager: The person responsible for the management of the project.
• Client/User: Person or organizational structure that will use the product of the project. Two dif-
ferent levels of clients can exist.
• Performing Organization: Business having employees who are more directly involved into the
carrying out of works.
• Members of the Project Group: Group being in charge of the carrying out of the work provided
by the project.
• Project Management Group: Members of the project group who are directly involved in PM
activities
• Sponsor: Person or group providing cash or in kind financial resources, being necessary for the
project.
• Influential Entities: People or groups who are not directly linked to the purchase or use of the
product of the project but who, because of the role played in the organizational structure of the
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client or in the Performing Organization, can positively or negatively influence the project carry-
ing out procedure.
Besides these main stakeholders there are a variety of project both internal and external stakeholder
categories, such as owners and investors, suppliers and contractors, members of the working group and
their “families”, government agencies and representatives of the media, individual citizens, provisional
or permanent lobbies, organizational structures and companies in their whole. In the case of global
projects, the correct identification of all stakeholders in the planning stage is very important. Realizing
that one stakeholder was not included, require adding this last and all the project requisites required in
the course of work, it could seriously affect the success of the project (Bassi, 2007, page 207) in terms
of impact on triple constraints.
Managing project in the global context, all of these stakeholders can work at very high distances.
This is not only a problem of project organization that can be easily fixed with technology (where it is
possible), or a problem of time zone for the organization of team work, but the main problem is the cross
cultural differences/diversity between all this part involved. This aspect represent a real dimension of
the project, a variable that should be measurable in order to have greater control of risks and ensure a
better project management.
The main figure in the development of a project is the PMr an entity being entrusted by the organiza-
tion, of reaching the goals through a project structure. The PMr plays the double role of sole Manager
of the success of the project and of point of reference for the Buyer, the Business Management and the
whole PT. His tasks are:
• To plan the project in terms of times and costs, ensuring the technical consistency between the
different components of the project;
• To ask the business Organizational Units for the resources necessary for the project, negotiating,
agreeing and formalizing the assignment of the budgeted resources, time, costs and characteristics
of the goods to be produced;
• To check the carrying out of the working stages and of the activities being necessary for the
delivery of the well working product (testing, training of users, preparation of the technical and
operational documents supporting the management, use and maintenance, etc, of the product),
performing the most suitable actions in order to reach the goals.
The first goal of the PMr is that of getting a project be carried out according to the commitment ex-
pectations, succeeding in completely satisfying his needs, also using an approach that could first provide
support to the commitment himself, as regards the clarification and definition in a precise and organic
way, of the requirements needed. The PMr shall also have special technical, management, relational and
personal characteristics (with reference to the sector typical of the project), (human management) and
special professional competences about the management of the personnel, the programming systems
and the control of activities and the use of information systems (Perano, 2012, p. 333). While the PMr
is responsible towards the company for the carrying out of a project, the Project Sponsor has the busi-
ness responsibility of the project.
The Sponsor is in the middle of a system of relations putting in contact different and various organiza-
tions (the client organization, or however the organization being the receiver of the deliverable products
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of the project, the permanent organization belonging to the PT, the PT itself as provisional enclave of
an “adhocratic” kind, meant for carrying out the project).
The Sponsor shall:
• Provide a point of reference and guide both towards the PMr and the PT;
• Guarantee that all the involved parties (stakeholders) participate into the project and are suitably
represented in the project organizational structure;
• Ensure that all the business managers of the involved resources and budgets devoted to the project,
are suitably involved;
• Ensure that all the business policies provided for the governance are carried out;
• Inform the management about the state of the project in course, about the estimated completion
time and the consequent decisions, according to the systematic information produced by the PMr
(state of work progress);
• Guarantee that the PMr plays a suitable role and has enough power to autonomously manage the
project, exceptions to be evaluated, from time to time, with the Coordination Committee;
• Ensure that the PMr understands its role and tasks and avails itself of escalation procedures in all
those cases in which he has not got enough power to intervene;
• Negotiate with the main stakeholders the questions not falling within the authority of the PMr;
• Decide the actions of quality assurance aiming at ensuring that the project is conforming with all
the provided standards, particularly how and by whom they will be carried out;
Project team (PT) is usually seen as a combined effort to reach the goals provided by the project-
through the coordination of the PMr. The PT, substantially unites people coming from inside the orga-
nization or from its external suppliers, who help the success of the project, according to the experience,
the technical skill and personal commitment, it is also responsible for the activities of the PM such as
the planning, control and ending of the project. The team works when goals and methods are clear and
shared and when the whole group is able to manage time, fix and respect roles, procedures and rules.
To create a united team is one of the fundamental rules to manage a project with success. No work-
ing methodology can guarantee the success of a project without the presence of a motivated and well
matched team. Before really starting the carrying out of the project is then necessary to meet each other,
to fix the team goals, to fix tasks and responsibilities for each entity, to define the working standards, to
plan the communication flows, to make sure that everyone well knows the contents of the project plan,
to obtain the commitment of everyone.
The PM is implemented by the application and integration of the PM processes for the start up, plan-
ning, carrying out, monitoring, control and ending activities.
The startup starts a project or a stage of the project and the output defines its purpose, it sets the
goals and authorizes the PMr to start the project itself. The purpose of this stage is determining the link
between the motivations and the benefits expected from the project and the essential elements qualify-
ing the solution, that is the fundamental characteristics of the output and the project. During the start
up stage the following is also specified: the initial description of the field, the deliverables, the project
duration, the resources that the organizational structure is ready to invest, the PMr is chosen among the
possible candidates, the initial assumptions and constraints are documented. All these information are
concentrated into the Project Charter and, once it has been approved, the project receives the official
validation.
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The activity of planning (see Table 1) is an estimate and evaluation operation of the project activities
(duration, interconnections, resources and means being available for the carrying out).
This hierarchic desegregation results to be useful, since it allows to have a complete, and at the same
time detailed picture of the project, thus minimizing possible mistakes or omissions in the assignment of
responsibilities (mitigation of the risk project degree), and making the control activity simpler and more
accurate during the carrying out of the project. The following step is the identification of the resources
devoted to the project – people, equipment, spaces or structures – as well as their allocation to differ-
ent activities. At this point it is possible to draw up a project budget by considering all the costs being
directly referable to the project activities. Once the activities, the people, the roles and costs have been
identified, it is possible to create an outline plan, prepared by the project leader.
The project plan is an official document in which project goals are described together with the elements
being necessary to reach them, and it is updated as the progress of the project goes on in its activities and
stages. It is then a reference plan with which to check, during the carrying out process, the discrepancies
with the partial results, in comparison with the provided purposes. During the project planning, all the
necessary stakeholders are involved, since they are the repositories of skills and knowledge useful for
the development of the PM plan and according to their influence on the project and its results.
During the carrying out stage all the resources are planned, the human and material ones, they are
implemented to reach the goals described in the project plan, carrying out, if necessary, all the neces-
sary revisions following a suitable checking activity. The latter consists of sub-stages, such as the work
coordination and management, the management of quality, the management of the PT and of human
resources, the project communication and documentation, the selection and management of suppliers.
Monitoring and control coexist for the observation of the project carrying out, in order to timely
identify the possible problems and adopt the right correction measures. Continuous monitoring provides
the PT with the information concerning the project conditions and shows the possible areas requiring
special care. In this stage changes are globally controlled; the context is checked and verified; scheduling,
costs and quality are checked; a reporting of performances is carried out, as well as the management of
stakeholders and the team.
The ending is when the project is completed. A project is considered to be ended when the project
goals have been reached, both if the ending has been made for difficulties found (reduction of the budget,
budget overshooting or breach of constraints). The ending stage is that when the output and the budgeted
Table 1. Planning Activities
Formalization of goals; Determination of the resources (people and Planning of the intra and extra team project
materials) and in which amount they shall
be used
Division of the main project into Identification and attribution of roles, Determination and assessment of risks/
components being more detailed, smaller responsibilities and of the mutual project critical points of the project and preparation
and better manageable; relationships of prevention actions
Creation of a risk plan; Cost estimate and expense calendar Identification of the quality standards being
relevant for the project
Scheduling of the activities and definition Definition of the PT with the appointment Creation of a document that guides both the
of the precedence relationships between the of a manager carrying out and the control of the project
activities themselves, the estimate of their
duration and the fixing of the starting and
ending dates;
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resources are to be released, while evaluating the degree of success in reaching the pre-set goals and
capitalizing the acquired experience. The ending process is officialized by the formal acceptation of
the project by the client (purchaser/user). The ending of a project is then the natural completion of a set
of processes that are started since the beginning of the project itself and aiming at allowing, within the
scheduled times, to enjoy what has been carried out.
The management of projects requires an interfunctional structure based on the sharing of the project
goals and on the motivation of the team to reach the efficiency, a structure in which responsibility is
shared at different levels by the PMr with the whole team.
Such a structure provides two kinds of managers, the “function” manager and the provisional “project”
manager: the function manager has the task to censure specialization and the competences of the typical
resource of the function; it is a task of the PMr, instead, to take advantage at best, of the competences
of the resource within the project.
The structures providing two kinds of managers are also called matrix organizational structures where
the dependence on the PMr allows them to use and fully exert its power, regardless of the structures to
which the resources coordinated by them, belong.
In this kind of structure there is no one who finally decides (then the possible conflict between
managers is institutionalized) and the people belonging to a function can participate into more groups
at the same time, following one or more projects. One of the advantages of a matrix structure is that
more balanced and competitive choices can be made, because they are the product of the contribution
of more different points of view.
According to the “weight” of the PMr compared with the function manager four kinds of structure
exist, each of them drastically influences the PM:
• Weak, in which the power and the roles of the permanent structure are not changed and the PMr
is only a coordinator of the resources involved into the project;
• Balanced, in which the function manager allocates resources to the project, defines the interfaces,
manages the resources and checks the budgets of the plan;
• String, in which the PMr has got the control over the resources in comparison with the function
manager, who allocates them to the project and takes charge of them at the end of the project;
• Pure, which deeply changes the structure, roles and powers of the permanent functions. It is char-
acterized by the strong interaction between the members of the PT who are physically in the same
office and by their ability to face the critical points of the project thanks to the formal authority
and autonomy of the PMr.
The maturity model of PM has produced a variety of tools and techniques, widely used and imple-
mented according to the experience and the social and organizational changes of our society. A lot of
this tools and techniques can be used to manage the complexity of the project. This complexity depend
by multiple factors: firstly the “public project are often more complex than those in the private sector”
(Kerzner, 2013) although the “private sector project managers like to assume that their work is more
demanding than project in the public sector” (Wirick, 2009, pp 8-19); secondly the complexity factors
can depend directly by people involved in the management of project. This may concern all figures
involved in all project levels included the stakeholders. In the big project peoples interact and exchange
data and information with a number of exchange that require technical knowledge (not only about PM)
and mind projected in one direction shown by PMr. It is important that in doing PM, peoples rowing in
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the same direction, implying that this peoples have the same understand about the direction dictated by
PMr. It is right in this circumstance that the difference/diversity of cultural aspect (cross cultural) can
have influence in determining the project success or less, or failure.
PROJECTS IN A GLOBAL CONTEXT
Organizations that adopt the PM as a culture for create value through project, generally have similar
characteristics: internal formal procedures shared between all divisions or departments, common knowl-
edge about PM and clear idea of potential but also about the risks, the organizational structure adapted
to PM needs (i.e. PM office, etc…), and others.
Not always, however, this knowledge can contrast the effects of some problem arising from particu-
lar characteristics, as i.e. the global reach of the project. Starting from literature and from the body of
knowledge of PM and according to Binder (2016), we can define five types of project/program in terms
of project reach:
From Table 2 project and program classification according to the reach, it is possible to catch real
elements that can enrich the body of knowledge of PM, allow a better comprehension of project and
program, contribute to facilitate the understanding the complexity of the projects with the advantage
to better mitigate the risks. The interesting aspect (at the moment not more investigate in PM), is that
emerge from point 4 of Table 2, or cross cultural risk in project management related to the project in
global context. Following, from literature, the factors that characterize the complexity of the projects.
Between standard project and global project there are a lot of differences.
PROJECT COMPLEXITY FACTORS
In order to understand the key factors of project complexity, a literature review has been realized. “Com-
plex” is a composite Latin term “Com: together” and “plex: woven”. Complexity describes the behavior
of a system or model whose components interact in multiple ways and follow local rules, meaning there
is no reasonable higher instruction to define the various possible interactions (Steven, 2001, p. 19 from
wikipedia.org). “Project are becoming complex, traditional project management methods are providing
Table 2. Definitions of project/program in global context
TERMS DEFINITION
1 Distributed project Most of team members working in the same organization and in different locations
2 International project Team members working in the same organization and in different countries;
3 Virtual project Most of team members working in different organizations and in different locations
4 Global project “Project managed across borders, with team members from different cultures and languages, working in
different nations around the globe”
5 Global program “A group of related projects with aligned strategic benefits normally associated with tactical
organization change, whose stakeholders are located in different countries”
Source: (Binder, 2016)
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inadequate, and new methods of analysis and management are needed” (Williams, 1999 from Levin &
Ward, 2011, p. 6). From literature emerge that one of the category factors that influence the complexity
of project is the dimension (Christoph, Konrad, 2014, p. 169). Other factor emerged from literature is
the contextuality of project. Chun at al. (2003) highlight that contextuality is a relevant characteristic
of complexity; the authors consider the contextuality as a common denominator of complex systems.
Koivu et al. (2004) proposed the concept of project complexity context-dependence, and the idea that
“the context and practices that apply to one project are not directly transferable to other projects with
different institutional and cultural configurations, which have to be taken into account in the processes
of project management and leadership”. From other studies emerge that cultural complexity was com-
bined with the organizational complexity (number of organizational structure hierarchies; number of
organizational units and departments) (Lan, et. Al., 2015, p. 1701). From literature review emerged that
project dimension, contextuality and cultural aspect have an impact on project complexity.
Assuming that global project/program (as defined in point 4 of Table 2) involve a lot of people (PT
members, stakeholders) with different cultures and languages working in different nations, it is logical
to imagine that the cross cultural aspect can concretely be not merely a factor of project complexity, but
also a real element of risk. This leads to imagine the area of risk of PM and open to “cross cultural risk”
as a new specific risk topic of PM.
PROJECT AND RISK MANAGEMENT
The subject of risk has been for a long time debated in the economic-business literature mostly due to
the lack of a general view, but each event can be assessed differently (risky or less) based on the type of
aspects that have been measured and the specific point of view with which the event was observed. As
regards the meaning of the term risk too, even if it can be guessed, today it is still difficult to identify in
the literature a univocal and generally shared definition of it by the scientific community. According to
some scholars, the risk is naturally involved in an enterprise activity, it is an element that is transferred
to projects where the enterprise adopts a project oriented policy for the creation of value and its main-
tenance, for survival. Others, according to a business point of view, interpret it as a “factor of business
production” (Ferrer, Paccess, 1974, page 119 and the following). Others deal with the subject of risk and
uncertainty, like Knight (1921), providing hints on the relationships existing between them. The activi-
ties of identification, evaluation and definition of risk priorities, belonging to a process based on a risk
oriented culture, are today explained in the more famous study field of the Risk Management which, born
around the ‘50s, has had its evolution characterized by the birth of two thought trends: the Financial Risk
Management and the Business Risk Management (Gaudenzi, 2006, page 224). It was then analyzed from
a global point of view, by distinguishing the pure risks (events causing losses) from the entrepreneurial
ones (events causing losses or gains). Connected with the approach of the Financial Risk Management
the more recent idea of Enterprise Risk Management (ERM) (CoSo, 2004) emerges, which emphasizes
the holistic value of the risk management process, thanks to the use of the adjective “enterprise”, and of
giving more emphasis to the integration of the process in all the business activities” (Gaudenzi, 2006,
page 227) besides transversally involving, within the process of risk management, different actors such
as the top management, the middle management and other key entities. An interesting interpretation of
the risk from a supply chain point of view, is also offered by what is today called the supply chain risk
management (SCRM) (Rowat C., 2003, page 68-69) of the organization.
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First standardization hypotheses of processes of risk management have been formulated, which can be
adopted by organizations working in different sectors. In 2009 the ISO (International Standard Organiza-
tion) has defined a standard for the Risk Management which consists of a whole of general principles
and guidelines, for the identification, evaluation and definition of risk priorities and their management,
which can be adopted by any public, private, social organization, association, groups or individuals: the
ISO 31000:2009. The rule – structured in 4 big sections (the vocabulary used, the principles established
within the rule; the organizational framework; the process of risk management) – defines the risk as the
effect of the uncertainty of goals (Motet, 2009, page 3) that an organizations has set to reach. This shared
interpretation of the idea of risk, focuses the attention on a possible relationship between the goals that
an organization aims at reaching and the risks deriving from a determinable (or sometimes) not deter-
minable distribution of probabilities, which can be referred to events being not certainly due to occur.
The Project Risk Management (PRM) can be defined as “the systematic process of identification,
analysis and response to project risks” (Tonchia, 2007, page 193). The specific goals of the PRM “are
that of increasing the probability of positive events and de-creasing the probability and impact of events
adverse to the project goals” (PMBOK Guide 4th ed., page 340). The risk nature of the project is justi-
fied by three fundamental reasons which are to be well understood for a correct project management:
1. Common characteristics (uniqueness, complexity, hypothesis and constraints, people, stakeholders,

change), which represent risks to be eliminated by evaluations and the following actions;
2. Deliberated design, the carrying out of a project output cannot avoid to undergo a (mainly) con-
trolled risk management;
3. External environment, projects live within a general environment and within a specific context,
full of elements and factors with which the project itself can come in contact, in case of conflict
with the purpose or the specific project goals, risks are born, which are to be considered in its
management.
The PRM process has to identify individual risk events within the project, in order to allow its right
management, as well as the “project risk” which is used to describe the joint effect of risky events and
other sources of uncertainty. The risks of a project can be internal or external.
The main component of a risk referred to a certain event, are the probability of occurrence of such
event and its impact, that is the consequences caused by the event, in the case the latter should really occur.
The PRM is structured in stages, each of them has to produce an output, and it provides the interven-
tion of different entities, each one with its own responsibilities and the use of specific techniques (PMI,
2009, p. 19). The stages of the PRM, from literature (included PM Book) on PM topic, are the following:
• The Planning of Risks: It fixes the procedure according to which it is possible to identify (as
regards their nature and quantity), monitor and control risks. Such process is normally managed
by the PMr (Project Manager) who guides its dynamic development in relation to its cultural ap-
proach and to the context. In this activity is important involve the commitment because the its
priority and thinks can influence the methodology used to address the risks (Nokes, Kelli, 2008,
p. 295);
• The Identification of Risks: It is a repetitive process managed by PMr, by the stakeholders, by
the sponsor (if existing), and by the PT who work at identifying as many risks as possible. During
this stage the revision of the project documents is carried out together with the collection of infor-
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mation by suitable techniques (questionnaires, focus-groups, Delphi technique, SWOT analysis,

etc.) and, by special analyses, (Analysis of the check-list, Analysis of assumptions). “Risk identi-
fication is a fundamental part of defining and analyzing scope, schedule, costs and other project
plans” (Kendrick, 2015, p. 35);
• The Qualitative Analysis: It is a process by which the PMr provides for assigning a weight, a
degree of dangerousness to the category and the single risk concerning the project, together with
the probability of impact (minimum, medium, high);
• The Quantitative Analysis: This stage provides the attribution of a numeric assessment on the
probability and impact of the most important risks (Nokes, Kelly, 2008, pp. 306-307).
• The Plan of Response to Risks: This stage is aimed at identifying the best response to each main
risk falling within the risk management as a component, and at deter-mining the actions allowing
to improve the opportunities and reduce the threats to the project goals;
• Risk Monitoring and Control: It represents the final stage of the PRM characterized by the
whole of the activities aiming at identifying the first effects produced by the occurrence of an
expected event (risk) and at implementing the right countermeasures.
The analysis and management of the risks process consists in using methods, techniques and instru-
ments being different for the different stages characterizing the PRM.
As a basic principle, the techniques of the PRM can be distinguished in two categories:
• Statistical techniques, which analyze the historical series of data concerning the past occurrences
of risks, in order to deduce the frequency and the seriousness with which each risky event could
occur in the future.
• Discretional techniques, used in the cases in which the historical series of data are inadequate and
avail themselves of evaluation criteria strongly based on the human factor, that is on intuition, the
personal ability and the experience of whom manages the risk analysis.
Among the discretional techniques there are both quantitative techniques, their purpose is that of
estimating the distribution of the chance variables of business risks, being the subject of investigation
by statistical analyses carried out by highly complex mathematic and probabilistic models, and quali-
tative techniques measuring the low difficulty risks, which do not result to be immediately and easily
quantifiable, by the help of descriptive scales for the representation of the occurrence probability related
to them. A detailed review of the instruments, techniques and methods used in the management of risk
and distinguished for each stage, is shown below (Table 3). Planning, identification, qualitative and
quantitative analyses, planning of responses, monitoring and control of which the PRM consists, as the
following table shows. Methods, techniques and instruments have been selected according to the direc-
tions of the PMBOK®, the PMI, the ISO 31000:2009 and with reference to a survey whose addressees
have been Project Managers (questionnaire sent to 995 managers working in different organizations)
(White, Fortune, 2002).
From Table 3, following the description of the most relevant tools, methods and techniques used in
PRM.
The analysis of methodologies, both the ETA – Event Tree Analysis – and the FTA – Fault Tree
Analysis – and the DTA – Decision Tree Analysis – they are used in the probabilistic evacuation of risk,
and in particular, in the identification of the system interrelations due to shared events.
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Table 3. Tools supplied to the PRM
Tools & Techniques RISK MANAGEMENT STAGES
Planning Identification Qualitative and Response Monitoring and

Quantitative Analyses Planning Control
Event Tree (Event Tree Analysis) X X
Fault Tree (Fault Tree Analysis) X X
Decision Tree (Decision Tree X X X

Analysis)
Analysis of cause at their roots X X X
Analysis of the technical X

performance
Analysis of reserves
Brainstorming X X X
Checklist X X X
CCPM (Critical Chain Project X X

Management)
CPM (Critical Path Method) X X
Delphi X X X
Cause-effect diagram (Ishikawa or X

fishbone diagram)
EMV (Expected Monetary Value) X X X
EVM (Earned Value Management) X X X
Expert Judgement X X
GERT X
The Interviews X X X
Probability and Impact Matrix (P-I X

Matrix)
PDM (Precedence Diagramming X

Method)
PERT (Program Evaluation and X X

Review Technique)
Project Risk Management Plan X X
RBM (Risk Break-down Matrix) X X
RBS (Risk Breakdown Structure) X X X
Risk Register X X X
State of the project meetings X
Monte Carlo simulation X
SWOT Analysis X
Risk assessment and revision X
What-if Analysis X
Source: (White, Fortune, 2002)
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The technique of the Event Tree is used in order to identify the consequences that can come out
from the occurrence of an event being potentially dangerous. The Fault Tree Analysis is to be included
among the analysis methods of a deductive kind, since, starting from a “general” and whole analysis of
the kind of fault (or undesired event occurred on the system), results into the identification of faults on
its components.
The Root Cause Analysis (RCA) is a structured investigation, which has the aim of identifying the
real cause of a problem and the actions being necessary to eliminate it (Anderson, Fagerhaug, 2000).
The analysis of performances aims at ensuring the comparison between the estimated technical perfor-
mances and the real ones, in order to carry out the necessary adjustments (Russel D. Archibald, 2004,
page393). The shifts occurred in the technical performances can show a new risk, which must be, then,
investigated and analyzed, in order to find the necessary answers (Loosemore M., et al. 2006).
The analysis of reserves, allows to monitor the state of erosion of the financial reserves granted to the
different activities carried out along the whole time range provided for each activity. The brainstorm-
ing is a decision making procedure created by Osborn in 1967 and its purpose if that of encouraging as
many ideas as possible to emerge within the group meetings, in a free and spontaneous way, in order to
find the solution of a problem and to identify an optimal strategy. It allows collecting data and informa-
tion for the identification of risks, the definition of solutions or the collection of ideas by asking for the
advice of experts in the field.
Checklist are lists where what to check undergoes special check questions, they are ordered accord-
ing to the project typology, they are based on the risk factors of the project and on the previous business
experiences allowing to list all the situations or aspects which could imply possible risks. The Critical
Chain Project Management (CCPM) is a method for the planning, carrying out and management of
projects in single and multi-project environments, which is born from the need of remedying a number
of negative factors, which are often the cause of the failure of projects.
The Critical Path Method (CPM) in the area of risk helps to guarantee an efficient management of
project costs, underlining the problem areas. The method of critical path, based on a network technique
implementing an algorithm of deterministic calculation, allows the planning the times of the project
activities and their costs and resources. With reference to risk management, such instrument, consisting
of the project scheduling, allows the PT, to anticipate and mitigate the impact of risky events, therefore
it results to be a key element for risk assessment (Hulett, 1995, pp. 21-31). Its use allows identifying the
interdependence between the project activities considering, for each of them, an acceptable estimated delay
level (float), and provides a scheduling of the activities, defining a relationship of end/start between them.
Delphi method is a repetitive investigation method having the purpose of obtaining information, opin-
ions and answers by a group of independent and autonomous experts (panel), in order to reach a general
agreement about the identification and planning of the project risks (Tonchia, Nonino, 2007, page 197).
K. Ishikawa has developed the cause-effect diagram, also called fishbone, in Japan in 1943, and it
is a managerial technique, which allows analyzing and assessing the most probable casual chain of the
problems arising during the carrying out of the project. The Expected Monetary Value (EMV) refers to
a specific analytical technique in which a calculation, in order to determine the average of all possible
results is carried out when the future is expected as a variety of uncertain events which may or not occur.
It is a technique of risk management, which can help with the quantification, and comparison of risks
in many aspects of the project. By using the EMV, it is possible to quantify each risk, in order to decide
if numbers supports the qualitative analysis.
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The Earned Value Management (EVM) is a cost control methodology, being commonly accepted to
objectively communicate the progress of a project. It allows carrying out a financial analysis to assess
and measure the performances along the stages of the project life cycle. The technique based on the
“judgement expressed by experts”, Expert Judgments, is useful above all for quantifying the failure (or
success) risk of the project, intended as a whole. The expert judgement is usually the crucial point in the
estimate of costs and times of a project, while it becomes a weak point in the quantification concerning
the management of a process.
The Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique (GERT) allows the non-determinability of paths
explicit, with the consequent possibility of representing more conclusions. Therefore, it is a suitable
technique to analyze the “uncertainty” factor, focusing the attention on project risks, and provides, con-
sequently, a probabilistic estimate of the general size of the risk connected with the interrelations and
paths of the single activities. This technique is useful as an approach for measure the project complexity.
The interviews, carried out by meetings with entities having got important information, which can
offer a precious contribution to come to know events and judgements, also allow to know conditions
and opinions being necessary for the identification of the project risks.
The most widespread technique for the analysis of risks as occurrence probability and seriousness
of consequences which can derive from it, is the Impact-probability Matrix, by which it is possible to
identify priority risks by the assignment of the character of priority, according to their potential implica-
tions to reach the goals. It represents the final stage of the risk qualitative analysis of a project.
The Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM) is a technique of network analysis that is very useful
above all in the analysis stage of a project, since it helps to define the critical path and the amount of
time being necessary to carry out pre-fixed activities, defining among them, the dependence/priority
constraints and identifying possible delays.
The Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) is a planning technique used in the PM,
which can be also adopted in the management of project risks. PERT technique, associated with the risk
management, will allow focusing the attention on the analysis and monitoring of sequence constraints,
times and resources. The use of PERT allows the identification of the most delicate and critical activi-
ties, which could cause risks.
The Project Risk Management Plan is used by the PRMr and/or by the PT, in order to identify, clas-
sify and assign priorities, plan and monitor the risk in a project for the life cycle of the same. It provides
a complete model specifying the method, the elements and resources- conforming both with the risk
level and the project complexity to be applied to risk management.
The combined use of RBS and WBS can be used to give place to a matrix structure, allowing man-
aging risk at a level of specific detail. To produce such combined matrix, risk analysis is carried out
before identifying and classifying risks by the use of RBS, directly or by the use of other identification
methods, as brainstorming or the interviews. The lowest levels of the RBS are then connected to the work
packages (WP) in the WBS, producing a bi-dimensional matrix (Hillson D., 2003, page111) called “Risk
Breakdown Matrix” (RBM). This matrix allows to classify risks ac-cording to numeric values, therefore
it allows to identify the activities having more risks connected to it, to identify the most important risk,
that is the one having a higher numeric value.
The Risk Breakdown Structure (RBS) provides a hierarchical representation of the project risks,
structured by categories, emphasizing those being the most critical ones. Once the risks, which can
have a negative impact on the project, have been identified, it is necessary to compare them with each
other, to eliminate the overwhelming ones, to add the forgotten ones, to break down those, which are
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mere effects of primary causes, to gather together those being similar to each other, which have been
uselessly separately detailed. The final step of the drawing up of the RBS is the collection of risks in
two homogeneous categories according to their typology. The Risk Register includes a list of all the
risks identified for a project. It includes the identification of risks with the probability assigned to them,
and their related responses/actions, therefore it is a fundamental instrument for the project managers.
Monte Carlo simulation aims at reducing the uncertainty level, by a repeated number of simulations.
It is an analysis using the network diagram and the estimates to carry out a number of simulations on the
costs and planning of the project. It can assess the general project risk and supplies a finished percentage
value within a certain date or for a specific cost.
What results from such activity is not a single estimate, but a big number of estimates, each of them
is associated with a level of probability according to which it may occur as accurate, thus defining what
is statistically called “level of confidence”.
The SWOT Analysis is an tool supporting the decision making process during strategic planning,
which used in order to determine the strong points, weak points, opportunities and threats of a project
or an enterprise. The assessment and revision of risks allows to confirm and apply risk response actions,
being initially implemented or to change them in case changes have occurred, such as the actions being
initially planned that have lost their validity.
The What-If Analysis is a technique allowing identifying all the potential risk situations and the
consequences of such risks, with the later configuration of possible situations and correction solutions,
countermeasures or the necessary changes to the project. The added value to this methodology is that
of reducing the response time in case a situation foreseen by the analysis occurs with the consequent
reduction of costs and potential problems.
The field of risk modelling has rapidly developed over the last years up to become a key factor in the
systems of risk management by many above all financial organizations (Branger, Schlag, 2004, page 1).
The risk model generally stands for the potential mistake made on facing a certain phenomenon by
some “cognitive instrument” (which is the model) because of limits in the modelling and/or not precise
assumptions, which are dated or simply not valid in “extreme” real conditions. The risk model is meant for
intervening in the solution of certain mistakes and not precise results, which may characterize a project.
Risk modelling is normally a methodological choice, following a foregoing one made by the organiza-
tion, in order to analyze in depth, make the business culture homogeneous about the subject, and adopt
internal formalized procedures. The organizations which do not adopt a project oriented logic normally
adopt standards for risk management among which there is the ISO 31000:2009. In the organizations
working by projects/programs using the study field of the PMr, as regards risk modelling refer to the
area of risk management included again in the PMBOK® (or in other standards), even if not seldom
on the construction of a risk model, both standards (ISO 31000:2009 and PM standard) are referred to.
Risk modelling can be an important instrument to support the management of a variety of strategic,
operational, economic-financial decision, but it is often not properly used and not well understood by
managers. To promote and include the risk model in the risk management process, can allow a better
development of emergency plans allowing a rapid response to crises and potentially offer the opportunity
of transforming negative risks into leading factors for future growth.
All this tools, methods and techniques, from literature and PMBOK©, are the most used in the proj-
ect risk management and in the risk management area. However, managing project in a global context
presents more complexity emerging by multiple factors, included the cultural aspect derived from project
dimension of project. Despite in the last version of PMBOK© (fifth ed.) the cultural aspect was been
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addressed but still undervalued. The cultural aspect in PM can lead to risks depending on the level where
the event will occur (between PM and Team leader; PM and team members; Team leader and Team
leaders; team members and team members). The implications flowing from cultural factor can weigh
heavily on the project/program success. As it is possible to imagine, the PMr have final responsibility
about this type of risk; but until now, there is not tool, technique or instrument that can help to mitigate
the cultural risk in managing project. The relevance of cross cultural management and related risks needs
more attention in PM in order to precede risky events also with the support of specific cross cultural
tools able to help for an appropriate cultural risk analysis.
CROSS CULTURAL RISK IN MANAGING GLOBAL PROJECT
Cross Cultural Management
Over the last decades, growing internationalization of the economy and related globalization of competi-
tion and business strategies have generated increasing interest in international management research, and
in particular in comparing management practices across different cultures and nations (Werner, 2002;
Tsui et al., 2007). A corollary to this development is the ever increasing of publications that deal with a
wide range of issues concerning cross-cultural management (Schollhammer, 1973).
The more comprehensive definition of Cross Cultural Management is the following:
Cross-cultural management explains the behavior of people in organizations and shows people how to
work in organizations with employee and client populations from many different cultures. Cross cultural
management describes organizational behavior within countries and cultures; compares organizational
behavior across countries and cultures; and, most important, seeks to understand and improve the in-
teraction of co-workers, managers, executives, clients, suppliers, and alliance partners from different
countries and cultures around the world (Adler, Gundersen, 2008: 13).
A recent systematic literature review (Capaldo et al., 2012) of 317 articles published on 40 top leading
management journals highlights that the themes that incorporate the “tradition” of cross-cultural manage-
ment studies are “interaction, collaboration & negotiation” and “cross-cultural training & international
assignments”. The authors labeled these themes as cross cultural management research’s core themes.
As is evident, the main issues arising from the selected core themes are the following:
• Cross-cultural training;
• International assignments;
• Interaction;
• Collaboration;
• Negotiation.
The authors also proposed a relationship between them as it follow.

The “international assignment” refers to the specific tasks of expatriates. The term expatriate refers
to an employee who is on a long-term assignment outside his/her home country (Mayerhofer et al.,
2004). Therefore, the expatriate interacts with other people from different cultures (Harris & Moran,
185

1999; Mendenhall & Stahl, 2000). Consequently, the relevance of the theme “international assignment”
in cross cultural management studies derives from the need to adjust to a different climate, a new cul-
ture, and a variety of language barriers (Hechanova et al., 2002), The “Interaction” is aimed at the joint
implementation of activities. Therefore, it requires some amount of collaboration. The “Collaboration”,
in turn, is based on some kind of agreement among the collaborating parties. Achieving an agreement
requires a process of “negotiation”. Thus, the agreement represents the concluding phase of the ne-
gotiation process (Graham et al. 1994;). Previous studies have shown that negotiations conducted by
expatriate belonging to different cultures often fail due to problems related to cross-cultural differences
(Black, 1987; Tung, 1984). These differences may create distortions in the early stages of the cross-
cultural negotiation process, thus affecting the achievement of the agreement and, therefore, the various
opportunities arising from collaboration (Metcalf et al. 2006; Gatti et. al. 2008; Della Piana & Testa,
2009). In order to support effective interaction between people of different cultures, the effectiveness
of the negotiation process and, more generally, the success of international assignments, some activity
of “cross-cultural training” is needed. The aim of this activities is to facilitate effective cross-cultural
interactions (Mendenhall and Oddu, 1986). Supported by the systematic literature review, Capaldo et
al. (2012) believe that cultural differences create many difficulties in the negotiation process and that
this implies the need for specific training programs in order to increase for the expatriates their cultural
background on the target culture, thus minimizing the risk of their ineffective conduct. This consideration
seems even more relevant when considering that in global projects there many stakeholders, so the risks
of not understanding or misjudgment of others’ behavior due to cultural differences can exponentially
increase. This is what it is possible to call “cultural risk” in Project Management. According to the risk
perception process (Douglas and Wildavsky 1982; Rayner 1990; Schwarz and Thompson 1990), cultural
beliefs and world-views determine also how people experience and interpret risks but this aim is out of
the purpose of this work (Renn and Rohrmann, 2000).
Cross Cultural Training for the Effectiveness of a Cross

Cultural Negotiation in Managing Global Projects
When the project spread its influence into foreign countries and the related activities take on increas-
ingly complexity, the need for a deeper understanding as to how cultural factors influence the global
team functions becomes relevant. Cultural factor is an element of context related to both dimension of
project complexity (organizational and technological). This factor can have a significant impact also on
decision assumed in the project. The information (about a decision) can be altered by “cultural variety,
staff diversity and staff interdependences. As a consequence, when turning this decision into an action
(at the end of the information transmission process), the real action can be different from the action the
project manager wanted” (Vidal, Marle, 2008).
Cross Cultural Training and Cross Cultural Negotiation can be considered as relevant issues to take
into account in managing global projects and, overall, their related risks.
Cross Cultural Negotiation in a global project means actively working towards the purpose of the
project that satisfies all parties that start from culturally different positions. This requires that the PMr
must be able to uncover latent differences and dealing with them openly, while also capitalizing on
common ground and building the relationship upon it. Therefore, PMr needs to find a balance between
the unconditional acceptance of another person’s culture (cultural hypocrisy) and the tendency towards
imposing on the other party, even though unwittingly, one’s own culture (cultural imperialism).
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“Cross-cultural training enables the individual to learn both content and skills that will facilitate ef-
fective cross-cultural interaction by reducing misunderstandings and inappropriate behaviors” (Black and
Mendenhall, 1990: 120). Cross-cultural training tend to increase the capability to improve cross-cultural
interactions. More specifically, it is assumed to have a positive impact on the individual’s development
of cross-cultural skills, on the team members adjustment to cross-cultural situations.
Implementing a cross-cultural training program before starting the core PM activities can be seen as
an integral part of the process. Thus, cross-cultural training enhances the capabilities of PM Group on
international business assignments. Drawing on the four areas of expatriate training identified by Weaver
(1998), it is possible to contextualize these areas to the global project and consider that cross cultural
training should assist PM group in:
• Anticipating the stress of cross-cultural adjustment;

• Facilitating the development of coping strategies;
• Helping the team members feel confident that they will be able to adjust successfully to the new
culture;
• Assisting them in understanding the process of cross-cultural adaptation.
Cultural Risk Analysis
Performance and success in a global project characterized from unfamiliar cultures requires adaptation
in the way to do business. When project managers select team members, assign roles and responsibilities
and overall evaluate the risks of a project in a global context have to take into account different cultural
values and behaviors.
It is important that PMr prepares its team members for integration into their new team. He must
help them to adapt, communicate and interrelate at the highest level with team members from different
cultures. By this way, they should perceive the reduction of the psychological effects brought on by
disorienting situations; at the same time, they should realize that it is possible to lead to an increase in
performance and success.
Just to give some examples of how different cultural values may affect human interactions in a global
project, Binder (2016: 24) highlights the following questions:
• Is it acceptable to book a meeting during the lunch hour or to organize it starting at 6pm on a sum-
mer Friday afternoon?
• Are project managers more effective when they use their hierarchical position or their competencies?
• How important is the performance orientation instead of the humane orientation in a global
teamwork?
• What is the preferred leadership style for project managers when they interact with people from
different cultures in the same project?
Sometimes specific cultural tools that help make better decisions are needed. To this end, customized
processes using both rigorous research and real-world experience may support the team leader to rich
a formula for achieving the highest level of performance, ultimately reducing operation time and cost.
187

More precisely, if the team members understand the role culture exerts on building successful global
business relationships, the global project’s effectiveness with global customers, suppliers, and partner
increases because reduce risk in international business encounters gaining cultural self-awareness and
recognizing potential cultural challenge.
The increase of cross cultural competence of the project group members who are directly involved in
PM activities (Project Management Group) is just the first essential step to achieve the goals of project
with an international scope and scale. The second essential step is to understand, adapt and integrate the
cultural values of the whole Project Team (PT) that substantially unites people coming from inside the
organization and/or from its external suppliers. The third essential step regards this kind of alignment
considering other relevant project stakeholders, the Influential Entities. Even if these people or groups
are not directly linked to the project they can positively or negatively influence the project carrying out
due to their role in the Client or in the Performing Organization. Not least is the opinion of the working
group’s families, government agencies, the media and the lobbies.
Considering a global context, the PMr shall have special technical, management, relational and per-
sonal characteristics (with reference to the sector typical of the project), special professional competences
about the human resource management, the programming systems, the use of information systems and
overall an high level of cross cultural competence.
In order to enhance his/her global mindset, it is expected that the PMr improve the following skills:
• Gain self-awareness of the global leadership competencies.

• Understand cultural expectations, develop alternative views of leadership from around the globe
and adapt the leadership style.
• Understand how to effectively build trust in international teams.
• Effectively lead the international team and build intercultural business relationships.
Overall the PMr need to create a “cultural comfort zone” until the project ends. A situation where the
project stakeholders feel safe. Specifically, a behavioral state within which the team members operate
in an anxiety-neutral condition usually without a sense of risk (White, 2009). A comfort zone is a type
of mental conditioning that causes a person to create and operate mental boundaries. Such boundaries
create an unfounded sense of security. Like inertia, a team member who has established a comfort zone
in a particular axis of the project, will tend to stay within that zone without stepping outside of it.
By this way, the PMr may reduce costs, time, and risk in international business encounters.
FUTURE RESEARCH
The main aim of this exploratory study was to provide initial elements to support the need for further
research on this topic. From the literature review a large number of factors have been highlighted and
identified as possible reason behind the high level of complexity in the current status of project manage-
ment discourse. Another important highlight of this study has been the discussion about the pivotal role
of cross cultural aspect between the project dimension and the context factors. The cross cultural factors
in managing global project can constitute the start point for a future research in better understanding
“how cross cultural risk can impact on project complexity and how it is possible to manage and mitigate
that risk”.
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CONCLUSION
The management of global project require particular attention in order to control the complexity deriv-
ing from the global reach of the project. According to Laszlo (1994), Thomas (2000), Hodgson, Cicmil
(2000), the model of PM is not quite adequate to manage, with tools and actual techniques, the actual
project complexity. Many complicated projects are managed with inadequate tools, methods and tech-
niques (in terms of scale, heterogeneity, etc…) or only have ambiguous goals. It is simple to think that
this projects shortly will become complex. Around the topic of project complexity scholars put attention
in order to catch (often with a quantitative analysis) the project complexity factors. A lot of this research
constitute the base of knowledge of this work.
The definition of global project/program, characterized by team members from different cultures and
languages that working in different nations around the globe, raises a need to have a comprehension of
a new aspect that can help to better investigate the project complexity. Starting from this definition of
global project and also consider the project dimension and cross cultural as project complexity factors
bring to a conclusion that cross cultural project can be consider as a project complexity factor and can
constitute a single risk that should be considered in the area of PRM. The cross cultural project risk
analysis can support to manage project in global context, or manage global project with a different level
of complexity or risk and it can help to achieve better the primary project objective in terms of costs,
time and quality.
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Chapter 10
Water-Related Price Risks:
Implications for Company Competitiveness
Ninel Ivanova Nesheva-Kiosseva

New Bulgarian University, Bulgaria
ABSTRACT
This chapter presents the issue of the risks associated with the increase of the price (tariffs) of water,
which are, and promise to be, a growing challenge for the sustainable management of the companies.
At the beginning of the chapter the term risk is operationalized and water-related risks are classified.
The reasons and their specific characteristics for the raising of water prices and the objective risks
they create for the companies have been identified in the main part of the chapter. This part informs the
company management about the possible causes of unjustified increase in the price of the water used in
their activities. Several informational and analytical solutions and guidelines for the management have
been marked in the end. These can prove useful in preventing and reducing the abovementioned risks
and in aiding the sustainable management of the companies.
INTRODUCTION
This chapter examines the causes and sources of the increase in water prices and the risk they pose to
competitiveness. There is no company that does not use water in its production and sanitary needs for
economic and household purposes. The constant increase of the price of the water used as a resource in
production, the complex methodology of water price formation represents a challenge to the sustainable
management of companies, as is included in the cost of production. The purpose of the text is to aid
management in making informed decisions to optimize water use for sustainable management and the
successful performance of companies in financial and social terms.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2673-5.ch010

Water-Related Price Risks
BACKGROUND
Practical problems of water management date back to ancient times with the creation of the first irrigation
and urban water systems in Mesopotamia, China, Ancient Egypt, the Roman Empire. With industrial-
ization, the growth of world population and the development of the processes of globalization, which
move huge masses of people and industries to urban and industrial areas, combined with the needs of
agricultural production, the issues of water management have acquired new aspects and have become
more acute. In fact, research on “water issues” have never ceased and have been made from different
angles - engineering, chemical, environmental, managerial and economic, social, environmental. The
main question is “Is water a commodity, an economic good (and how do we define an “economic good”),
a gift of nature that cannot be priced and a human right?” Ecologists, social scientists, and economists
are divided on the answer to this question. Each has argued their case with the tools of their trade and
within their science. In fact, water is all that and much more, it is the very existence of life in all its
manifestations. Water is life itself.
This unique nature of water and the pressure of the challenges of the industrialized and globalized
world, put the different scientific areas and socio-political system in the position to find a complex
balance between the various uses, the limited quantities, qualities, water needs, combined with exist-
ing incomes. This, indeed, is an impossible task, but the lack of a new Newton to come forth with the
universal law of the socio-ecological-economic universe of water is evident. In an attempt to solve the
water issue the oldest common system of its management is being used, that of centralized regulation.
But the scarcity of water, the investments that the utility companies providing water supply (WSO) have
made in extracting, purifying, treating and delivering it to the consumers requires the use of new methods
in the balance formation, the methods of regulatory pricing coupled with the requirement that water be
seen as a human right - the right of life.
The apparent lack of the new Newton has led to the laboratory creation of multiple methods for water
pricing that combine market components, recover the costs of water companies, and provide the vital
minimum of water supply to the poor, as well as to meet environmental requirements. The application
of these methods in practice, however, leads to the result of constantly raising water prices and coercive
measures for the reduction of its consumption not only for agricultural and industrial needs but also for
household needs.
On the demand side are the businesses and households that can neither live nor exist without water.
All this is a challenge to the management of companies placed in an environment of intense and growing
competition in terms of globalization and requires taking unconventional decisions. But in order to make
the right decision, you need true and accurate data on reflecting the entire complexity of the problems.
In response to this challenge, this chapter presents in an accessible way the main sources of the
increase of the price of water. The goal is the text to serves as a basis for successfully management the
water issues from the companies.
MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER
It is impossible to review the entire literature on “water issues”. However, if there should be a review of
the literature it should start from around 53 000 BC. Since water price risk for companies is not among
the issues on which to focus research there is practically no systematic scientific literature on the risks
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for companies coming from the price of water. In practice these price risks are outsourced by businesses
and their management, and is dealt with by consulting firms as part of their research and development
rather than treated as company research projects.
Risk of Increasing of the Price of Water for Businesses
Risk is a possible deviation from expectations. It can be both positive and negative. When the result of
the risk is negative, the business is likely to lose.
Frank Knight defines risk as “uncertainty”:
The word “uncertainty “seemed best for distinguishing the defects of managerial knowledge from the
ordinary” risks “of business activity, which can feasibly be reduced if not eliminated by applying the
insurance principle through some organization for grouping cases (Knignt, 1964, p. 1ix).
Water risks in the economy can be viewed from three sides.
• On the demand side: from the perspective of water consumers and water services;
• On the supply side: the side of the suppliers of water (WSO)
• On the side of the regulatory authorities, who must balance the needs of consumers and suppliers
-WSO.
The author addresses the issue of rising water prices from the perspective of the managers of the
companies-consumers of water services.
Managing the demand for water for industrial and agricultural needs is a strategic management activity
that aims to achieve efficient and sustainable water use and with it financial stability for the companies
using water supplies for their activities.
The cost of water used in production is part of the companies’ economic risk, the trend being the
increase of its delivery price. The critical study, the defining of this risk by the companies is in favor of
creating informed strategic management decisions in the era of the Second Globalization.
Classification of Water Risks for Companies
The risks associated with water for the companies have different and various classifications.
In Water: The New Business Risk (China Water Risk, 2010) the following risks are differentiated:
1. Physical/Operational risk.
2. Regulatory risk.
3. Economic risk.
4. Reputational risk.
5. Social risk.
6. Supply chain risk.
7. Investment risk.
8. Risks in combination.
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The Swedish organization for water analysis - Swedish Water House (SIWI), part of the Stockholm
International Water Institute, recognizes the following related to water risks for businesses:
1. Operational Risks: These are risks that lead to an increase in the companies’ production prices.
2. Market Risks: Risks associated with loss of market share; they are mainly due to loss of competi-
tion with companies, which reduce their water footprint.
3. Reputational risks.
4. Regulatory risks.
5. Financial risks.
Financial risks reduce revenue, access to capital, leading to higher interest rates and insurance pre-
miums for companies (“Water as a financial risk”, n.d.).
In addition to this SIWI establishes the group “Corruption Risks in Water Licensing” (Water: The
New Business Risk, Part II, 2010).
Risks in this group are reduced to the following: license application process; the content of the license;
bidding and trading procedures; enforcement of license (Warner et al., 2009).
There is potential for corruption, creating risk in these circumstances, is due to monopoly and the
state regulation of WSO.
Therefore, the corruption risk is also a regulatory risk as it derives from the decisions of regulatory
authorities - national regulatory commissions – The Commissions for energy and water regulation or
the ministries, responsible for the regulation of the water sector. Worldwide, the corruption factor in the
field of water supply is indeed immense.
The Water Integrity Network estimated in its report “Water Integrity Global Outlook 2016” (Das,
Fernandez, Van der Gaag, McIntyre & Rychlewski, 2016) that $75 billion dollars of water investments
are lost to corruption annually at various levels - corporate, political, municipal, etc. (assuming corrup-
tion is only 10% of all investments).
The SASB Climate Risk Framework includes risks associated with water to Climate Risk Categories,
which have a corresponding financial impact on businesses. The risk factors for water are: physical ef-
fects, transition to a low-carbon resilient economy and climate regulation, which create an impact on
companies in cash flow, asset value impacts and financing impact. (Sustainability Accounting Standards
Board, 2016).
When it comes to increasing the price of “a resource, a good and a human right”, such as water is, in
terms of classification of financial risks, it is usually called “commodity price risk”.
Water-Related Price Risk for Companies: Causes and Identification
The price risk is inherently an economic risk. Here the author uses the term “price” because in an economy
based on market principles, the price is “a magic crystal, which reflects all economic activity.” The term
“price risk” concentrates in itself the diversity of types and classifications of risk. Ultimately, rising
water prices and the variety of water regimes, different in almost every town and village, are reflected
in the price of the products and services manufactured and sold by the company.
The global trend in the price of water is towards a constant increase. The calculation of the rising
water prices in the cost of goods causes for the companies a price risk related to water.
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GWI estimates that global water rates have increased with an average of 6.8 percent in just one year
(between July 2010 and 2011) at a constant exchange rate (Global Water Tariffs Continue Upward
Trend, 2011).
The author considers the term “price risk” more convenient to use and analyze micro and small
enterprises that neither have centers for R & D, nor financial resources for technological and scientific
optimization of water use, compared with large corporations.
The price risk associated with water:
• Is a systematic and continuous risk.

• Is a risk posed by the cost of water at the entrance: it occurs in adverse movements in the price of
resources (water) needed to produce goods and services, resulting in increased costs to businesses.
• Creates business “revenue at risk” (RAR) (Thayer, Bruno & Remorenko, 2013; Hardcastle, 2015).
• Creates negative cash flow impact for businesses.
Therefore, the price risk of increasing the price of water leads to a risk for the creation of a competi-
tive price of the goods and services that the company produces.
The price risk in the enterprise is practically connected with the:
• Pricing of resources, including water.

• Pricing of goods and/or services to be sold.
A study by Price Waterhouse Coopers, shows that 86 percent of a company’s senior management
believes that the “commodity price risk” (which includes price risk and water), is very important for the
profits of enterprises. (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2009).
The same study indicates that to manage price changes, 81 percent expect to reduce the total cost,
79 percent rely on a guide to purchases, 49 percent of the production changes, 35 percent hedging and
33 percent of hedging and portfolio optimization (Warford, 1997).
In the mid 70’s the price of industrial water in Japan is estimated to have grown drastically. This
forces Japanese companies to undertake an investment program for the processing of water by creating
their own corporate system for this purpose, and usually reducing its consumption.
There are already a number of examples of enterprises in industry that have benefitted greatly from
the rational use of water, such as Coca Cola, the Campbell Soup Company etc. Agricultural business
can generate even more profit from the sustainable use of water (Burritt & Christ, 2014).
Water: Both a Local and Global Problem
The nature of water as a vital resource and good, necessary for every vital function and activity, the fact
that it is both global and local, renewable and non-renewable, creates an uncertainty in its management,
and hence, uncertainty in its users.
Water is essential for human existence as well as for economic activity a “finite and vulnerable re-
source, essential to sustain life, development and the environment”, (The Dublin Statement on Water
and Sustainable Development (DSWSD], Principle No. 4, 1992), which is the basis of life and any
business on Earth.
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In business analysis and scientific literature more importance is attached to the risks associated with
stock market fluctuations, monetary policy, interest rates, the prices of energy for the companies than
with the risks generated by water management issues.
Financial instruments, money and energy are felt as a global problem to a greater extent than water
because they are traded on world markets, which have their price-makers and coordinate worldwide
prices. The situation with water is different. There are no global markets of industrial water. Every living
being needs water here and now, in a specific place, in this specific limited time and its availability for
the people and businesses depends on local factors. Access to water and the provision of the necessary
amounts of water are different in different locations. They are not fixed, nor can they always be managed
flexibly, such as the amount of money today. Water is a global and local issue at one and the same time
where the ability to coordinate a time and place between the global and the local in addressing water
issues is absent. And this makes it a specific, a special resource, from which arise specific and particular
risks for the companies.
But local water problems, which are the key to life and business are global problems, they are also
long-term problems. This is to say that from a management point of view they are strategic management
problems. That is why governmental authorities and businesses alike should come up with strategic
solutions for water management.
Water as an Economic Resource and a Human Right: The Concept

of Affordability -Theoretical and Practical Problems
Water is determined as a fundamental, inalienable human right and along with this as the “economic
asset of economic value.” The fourth principle, proclaimed by the Conference on Water in Dublin in
1992, which is fundamental in its treatment and management reads “Water has an economic value in all
its competing uses and should be recognized as an economic good”. (DSWSD, Principle No. 4, 1992)
Consideration of water as a fundamental human right, proclaimed at the highest international level has
led to the fact that two conditions have been taken into account in the regulatory pricing of water - the
price of drinking water to be accessible (affordable) as this principle does not apply to industrial water
and water for irrigation. Even if in a number of countries the latter is not subjected to stringent treatment
as drinking water, industrial and water used for irrigation purposes is more expensive than drinking (tap)
water. Once after the demands for drinking water have been satisfied as basic needs, water should be
used on a competitive basis as a productive and limited resource; its allocation should be based on the
highest value (utility) that it could create.
These principles have been applied in practice to show that water supply for economic use may be
stopped in the event of a grave water crisis. Such a crisis occurred in Venezuela in 2016 and companies
using larger amounts of water in their production were stopped by virtue of a government decision. (Fol-
lett, 2016). But this has not resolved the problems. There are different theoretical views on the economic
role of the price of water and various practical techniques for its pricing.
Under normal conditions, when no acute water crisis exists, the regulators determining the price of
water are of a different opinion. The price of water supply, unlike the prices of other goods and services
does not perform the function for optimizing the allocation of resources (in this case water) with a view
to more effective use. The price of water is to a larger extent a tool in achieving the stability of the
suppliers (WSO), which are able to continue deliveries and have funds for repairs and maintenance as
well as an ability to invest. The viewpoint of the regulators is that they have been called upon to correct
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market prices and to bring effectiveness in water consumption. When the price does not fulfill such a
function, it does not give the usual information to consumers and producers. In this way, a high risk for
both producers and consumers arises.
Strengthened Individual and Intersectoral Competition Among Water Users: A Steady Increase in
Demand for Water for Industrial Purposes.
Companies in the fields of agriculture, energy, transport, industry, the businesses of “free time” (leisure),
and of course - households that take precedence in determining the regulatory cost and access to water
compete for water resources. The largest industrial users of water are the sectors of energy and industry.
The priorities of the government’s economic policy, the traditions in the economic system, various
public organizations with influence, political and business lobbies that are able to provide greater ac-
cess at a better price to a single sector and in detriment to another influence the competition for water.
Actual water consumption on the planet has been estimated at 9 000 cubic km. per year. Water is the
most widely used resources, its consumption exceeds 30 times the industrial consumption of all other
resources and this tendency keeps growing at a rapid pace (Helmer, 1997).
As a volume, the larger bulk of the water is used for industrial needs. This amounts to about 65 percent
of the water consumed by mankind and the remaining 35 percent are used for the needs of agriculture
and households.
In recent years, there has been a rapid increase in the volume of water consumed for drinking, while
the rate of water consumption for agricultural and industrial use has decreased.
According to the European statistical office Eurostat, the EU industry uses about 40 percent of
the raw water that comes mainly from public (WSO) suppliers. In addition, the industrial sector is the
main pollutant of water responsible for about 60 percent of the pollution, according to incomplete data
(Förster, 2014).
Also, according to Eurostat, the four largest industrial sectors in the EU are supplied for their produc-
tion from 2 percent to 50 percent by public water suppliers and from own water sources, according to data
for 2011 (Förster, 2014). (In addition, these facts show the great role of the state regulatory authorities
in defining the price of water as recourse for industry.)
In the member states of the EU there is a constant trend towards water price increase in the medium-
term future. In England and Wales, the average prices for water services have increased by 35 percent in
the period 1989 - 2006; in 2009 in Spain the price of drinking water increased by 100 percent compared
to 2000 (European Environment Agency, 2013).
The price of the water extracted for the industry has large variations in terms of who delivers it. Ac-
cording to forecasts of “Veolia”- the giant in the water business, the global GPD will increase with 70
percent in 2050 compared to 2010, which will be produced in water scarce regions (Veolia Water, 2014a).
According to the study of Environmental Outlook Baseline (OECD, 2012) the demand for the so-
called “blue water” – the use of water from different sources such as rivers, lakes and groundwater will
grow by 55 percent from 2000 to 2050. (Note: “Blue water” is the freshwater from lakes, rivers and
groundwater; “green water” – water from rainfall; “gray water” (sullage) - wastewater.)
The industry will have the largest share in this growth with an increase of 400 percent or 1,000 cu-
bic km. The largest industrial users of water are energy and manufacturing). The energy industry will
further increase its consumption of water with 140 percent or 300 cubic Km. Due to the growth of the
world’s population (about 40 percent in 2050, or approximately 80 million/per year) household use of
water will increase seriously with a demand of 130 percent, also about the same as the electricity sector
(OECD, 2012).
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The use of water for agricultural production and livestock production accounts for about 70 percent of
the use of fresh water on the planet. Its relative share has large variations in high- and low-development
economies. In some of the low-developed economies this use comes up to 90 percent of the usage of
blue water, while in the developed industrialized countries the situation is vice versa. For example, ac-
cording to Eurostat, in Belgium water for agricultural needs is around 9 percent of the amount of water
for industry, and in the Netherlands this is only 3 percent.
The water used for agricultural purposes in the world derives (world average) from 80 percent rainfall
(the so-called “green water”) and only 20 percent of “blue water” (Molden, 2007).
Increasing demand for water as a result of increased competition for water, poses a serious price risk,
that of increasing the price of water for agricultural, industrial and domestic consumers. This increased
demand will put pressure on the water infrastructure and its prices as well as on the components of its
service.
Price Sensitivity of the Users to Water Prices: Price Elasticity of Water Demand
The price of water is not elasticity of demand. In itself, the rigidity of water demand is a risk that firms
must bear in mind in the present, in their future plans and at any one time.
There is no firm that does not use water to a greater or to a lesser extent. There is no substitute for
water and water is beyond any comparison. Therefore, the industrial and agricultural users of water are
extremely sensitive in this respect.
Users of water in agriculture and industry depending on the region where they operate may be more
sensitive to the price of water if in their region there are no possibilities for the creation of reserves of
water in reservoirs or dams. They are also at risk of reduced water reserves due to climate reasons.
Water, however, has a small share in the total costs incurred by companies for resources and consti-
tutes a fraction of the price of the final goods produced.
There are companies that have lowered to zero the risk of price fluctuations of the water, have es-
tablished their own systems for a complete water cycle, including purifying their own water sources.
Therefore, the risks for the different regions and companies are different. For these reasons, the choice
of pricing and pricing methods concerning water price risks are different for the different companies.
Consumer sensitivity to the price of the water supplied therefore varies to a large degree, and varies
between individual users depending on their income and technological optimization in the use of water,
and also varies seasonally, especially for agricultural purposes. Consumer sensitivity to water is captured
by the measure “price elasticity of demand”. This indicator gives us an idea of how much the demand
will change as a percentage at a given percentage change in price. It is calculated using the following
known formula as part of the percentage change in the amount of demand and the percentage change
in the price of supply.
EPD = (Q1 - Q0)/(Q1 + Q0) /(P1 - P0)/(P1 + P0)
This elasticity, i.e., the change of the amount of water that the consumer can afford in case (increase
in our case) the price of water depends on whether the product or service has a substitute. With water
this is the worst possible scenario since it has no substitute and is usually supplied by the firms - regional
monopolies.
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The elasticity of demand for water is estimated theoretically between 0 and -1 i.e. water demand is
inelastic or relatively inelastic. The baseline scenario for the elasticity of demand to price is that even
large changes in the offer price of water will not cause a drastic change in its demand because it is a vital
resource. This is good for companies supplying water services but not good for consumers, especially
in terms of supplier-monopoly de jure. This elasticity shows that if the price of water increases by 200
percent, then to maintain the same final price of the goods produced with it, manufacturers must reduce
their use of water for the production by 100 percent. This is impossible unless in full recycling.
The model of water pricing is also influenced by the elasticity of water demand. If “block tariffs
(rates)” are used (these will be mentioned later) elasticity has certain variations, if other methods are
used the variations are different. Along with this, even block tariffs produce different variations of elas-
ticity due to different “volumetric steps” which are taken in different countries. But what price does the
block include - just payment for clean water separately or price of clean water together with price for
its purification and wastewater? Climate conditions also influence elasticity and rainy or dry years and
months, which has been well proven in the calculations of Klaiberet et al. (2010).
Other studies have shown that the demand for water for irrigation becomes inelastic below a cer-
tain threshold and elastic above another price threshold. (Varela-Ortega, Sumpi, Garrido, Blanco &
Iglesias, 1998). This is quite logical. A study conducted on the basis of three river basins in Spain and
using mathematical modeling, shows that in one region (Andalusia) water demand becomes elastic at
prices ranging between 4 to 30 peseta/m3 (about 8 US cents/m3 - 1998). For the second region (Castilla)
demand is inelastic at low cost and it becomes elastic at a price over 17 peseta/m3. In the region of Va-
lencia, demand is completely inelastic even when there is a great price increase to a level of 35 peseta/
m3. (Varela-Ortega at al., 1998). These dramatic regional differences are described by other authors and
confirm the strictly regional elasticity of the price of water.
The reasons for these differences can be explained by the effectiveness of the technology of irriga-
tion and the farmers’ income. The better the performance of new water supply facilities, the smaller
elasticity is, due to the greater efficiency of its irrigation systems that have less water loss, and vice
versa. (Varela-Ortega at al., 1998).
Other authors have estimated elasticity of water at -0.2 in countries in transition in EU (Fankhauser
& Tepic, 2007). This means that every increase of 1 percent in the cost of water will result in a 2 percent
reduction in water consumption. This conclusion is unlikely under normal conditions, since according
to it, water demand is elastic and the demand changes more than the amended price. Goods with such
elasticity are of no importance to the user, which is not the case when speaking of water. Explanation
of this ratio may be searched during chaos in the countries in transition in Eastern Europe, including in
the regulation and accountability of water during the survey period, as well as the deep drop in income,
which has been observed in transitive economies.
The assumption that under normal conditions water demand is inelastic and is closer to 0 for the vari-
ous water needs - between 0 and -1, as is characteristic of commodity nutrient and there is no substitute,
which is typical of water.
-1 <EPD <0
As a formal summary of water demand, we can deduce the following formula: Water demand is a
function of the price P, consumer income I, expectations W (for business users), the amount of users N
(reductions or increases), and other non-price factors T, in this case the technological capabilities that
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increase efficiency in water use. The non-price factors move the demand curve to the right or to the left,
i.e. they increase or reduce it.
QD = f (P, I, W, N, Т)
Price Risk Associated with Regulatory Methods of Water Pricing
The methods of pricing and the quality of the regulation of water pricing are key issues in creating price
risks for companies. In different countries, there are “weak” and “strong” regulators who are indepen-
dent by law, but some of them are subjected to different influences by external factors. Non-economic
factors such as corruption and lobbyism are intertwined in regulatory pricing as well as accessibility
to the available quantities of water for the population with low and non-rising incomes. Water pricing
and methods of formation of tariffs are important tools in the management of water consumption (water
demand) on a regional and macro level. As a whole the companies work in great uncertainty concerning
the actions of regulatory authorities.
It is difficult to determine the quantitative effect of the regulatory methods of pricing on producer
prices, including the price of water in the cost of their goods. The reason for this is the lack of complete
and comparable statistics and the many variations of pricing, applied in different countries. In EU, water
prices vary over a large range with amplitudes of about 75 percent. The cheapest water is in Milan and
the most expensive is in Zurich and Geneva (Lallana, 2003, p. 4, p. 7).
The prices of industrial water, the water for household and agricultural needs also varies. The dif-
ferences vary from country to country to a large extent. For example, in the Netherlands the price of
drinking water is around 3.25 Euro higher than that of the price of water for industrial needs and about 2
Euro higher than that for agricultural purposes, per cubic meter. The difference is even greater in France.
While in Turkey, Portugal and Hungary the price of industrial water considerably exceeds the price of
water for household and agricultural needs (Lallana, 2003, p. 5).
We believe these enormous differences everywhere are mostly due to the methods used for pricing
applied by the regulators, the regulators’ assessment of the actual costs of the suppliers (WSO) and the
existence of cartels. When the conditions of the water resources are normal, the price of water should
be formed by the extraction cost, costs for its purification and other treatments, its transportation and
delivery costs to the consumer.
Water tariffs must simultaneously be economically and socially founded and meet the criteria for
quality of life and cost of this quality. The profits of the water providers (WSO) should cover the needs
for investment rather than current spending needs.
In various countries, various methods are used in the pricing of electricity and heating and the pric-
ing of water.
Methods of regulatory pricing, most commonly used are:
• Rate of return regulation/Cost plus

• Price cap/Revenue cap regulation
• Yardstick
In addition, in different countries various solutions are applied, for example:
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• Water Markets - or water cap-and-trade scheme regulation

• Marginal opportunity cost pricing
In Rate of return, prices and profit based on cost plus return on assets. The ratio of Stock price/
Revenues based on cost-plus return on assets. The determination of tariffs has 3 phases - determining
the amount of operating costs, determining the amount of investment and determining the rate of profit.
This method ignores competition. This is a non-competitive method that can bring about a steady
increase in the price of water if applied in a “natural monopoly”. This method creates substantial risk
for corruption. It does not create conditions for increasing efficiencies for the water supplier, resulting
in equal conditions to reduce the price of water by reducing losses in the system of delivery, since the
company supplying water does not increase its efficiency.
Another downside of the application of this method of water pricing is the possibility of overcapital-
ization and the emergence of the so-called “Averch-Johnson Effect” or “AJ- Effect”) (Averch & Johnson,
1962) named after the two economists who developed an abstract model of a company located in regula-
tion and using the “Rate of return”. (The model Averch-Johnson shows that when companies are subject
to regulation by the method of Rate of Return, if permitted their return is greater than the required return
on capital, and firms will tend to overinvest in their capacity).
Symbolic method Rate of return (Operating costs plus) can be recorded as follows:
P (delivery) = AIR / (AQW - MATLW)
• AIR: Annual income needed for the particular water operator (WSO). Annual revenues approved
the company’s costs (related activities) that it may recover through the sale of its service. Allowable
costs include the operating and maintenance costs (OPEX or O & M) plus capital expenditures
CAPEX (depreciation and return).
• AQW: Quantity of water (annual amount) at the entrance of the water system for the previous
year.
• MATLW: The maximum allowable total loss of water, according to the annual target level for the
water system.
Since this method does not involve the consideration of any market conditions by the operators, it
leads to the creation of an overvalued service. In this method, there is a plurality of possible abuses in
the measurement of the incoming water, and in consideration of the water losses in the system.
If there were an honorable contract, bilaterally acceptable for both parties, between the provider of
water and the clients, and if compliance were assured, this risk would not exist. In this respect, the new
IFRS 15, which is coordinated with US GAAP, set to begin in 2018 moves us in the right direction.
In order to determine the return on investment, this regulatory method uses the RAB method (based
on adjusted return on invested capital) (ERRA, 2009).
This is a method of forming tariffs aimed at attracting investments so as to improve and expand the
system. The RAB suppliers of water (WSO) receive a guaranteed return on investment, which would
be sufficient to service their loans and to obtain profit. The savings remain available to the company.
RAB has a number of disadvantages. It is a complex process that requires the development and
coordination of a long-term investment program. There is also the problem with the objectivity and
independence of the evaluation of the assets. It is necessary to introduce the statement of investment
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policy. The regulators also have to establish the fulfillment of the long-term investment parameters. The
danger of presenting operating costs as investment costs exist, as practice shows. Altogether, RAB shows
a tendency towards a continuous increase of the price of water.
RAB = A-F-D + NWC
• RAB: Regulatory asset base

• A: Value of assets used and useful lives
• F: Value of assets acquired gratuitously funded by the state or municipality
• D: Accumulated depreciation over the previous period of used assets
• NWC: Needed working capital.
The RAB (opening value) is taken as a basis for the new regulatory period from the previous one. In
such a way, the RAB for the new regulatory period is:
RAB (new) = RAB (opening) + RAB (additions) - RAB (depreciation) + Disposals
(Determination of RAB after asset revaluation, 2009)

The methodology of pricing with RAB practically admits inaccuracies, especially with weak regula-
tors and corruption among the control and regulatory authorities as they may recognize O & M costs for
investment costs. There is an abundance of such cases. The performance of the operator in an environ-
mental aspect does not improve, because investments have not been made, and the price of water keeps
growing steadily and is unjustified.
The other pricing method is “Yardstick regulation”.
The Yardstick regulation is a regulatory method putting the companies in comparative competition
on certain indicators. This type of regulation requires the revenue of the water provider to be indexed
with the index of average productivity of companies in the industry. This regulation is less common for
countries such as Chile, Colombia, Australia, England and Wales, Portugal. There are different options
according to which this method can be applied. Close to it are the “cost-proxy models”. They include
pricing and overall long-term additional costs for the supply of water.
Yardstick regulation is recommended as a way to weaken the regional monopolies in the supply of
water, as the regulator should have access to the complete information and can compare their perfor-
mance. The controller can compare specific expenses of companies with average-sectorial, and require
them to achieve certain levels of performance.
ACi = Sum (ACj)/(n-1), j ≠ i
In some cases, this method of adjusting results by reducing the price of water achieves higher cost
efficiency.
However, the positive results can be achieved only on condition that the regulator is strong and inde-
pendent, not susceptible to corruption and there is no existing cartel agreement between the companies
monopolists. In other words, the Yardstick regulation is likely to lead to a positive result if the regulators of
public services and the regulatory authorities in the competition are strong, independent and uncorrupted.
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It is estimated that the Yardstick regulation will eliminate the inefficient companies, due to the fact
that it is based on an analysis of the performance of the companies.
Cap price regulation or CPI-X regulation. (Adjustment through price limits) is the other pricing method.
In theory, this method of regulation establishes a ceiling on the price or profit of the suppliers (WSO).
It simulates the market situation as the yardstick does but by using other improved technology.
The method aims to force companies supplying water (WSO) to reduce their dependents, from where
the cost of water supply can be reduced. Companies have to reduce their costs by increasing their ef-
ficiency to meet the requirements of the regulator for a certain level of water price, which they should
not exceed. The company has the incentive to assign to itself all profits received. Therefore, it seeks to
increase its efficiency. That is the way things stand in theory.
The coefficient of efficiency X plays a major role in this method of pricing.
There are different variants of the method. One of the most common is limiting the rise in water
prices through the growth of the consumer price index and reduction of the cost by deducing the factor
of performance X.
In general, the formula is as follows:
Pt = CPIX + K + Q
• CPI: Consumer Price Index

• X: Required efficiency
• Q: Standards of quality
• K: Network expansion – i.e. investment in Fixed Assets.
Or:
Pt = Pt-1*(1 + I - X)t
• P: prices offered by the water and sewerage operator;

• I: Inflation for the previous period, which affects the cost of water and sewerage operator
• T: Time index;
• X: Factor for improving efficiency.
Price period is for 1 year or more.

This model is a variant of the price cap regulation main formula, as it looks like a simple formula
CPI-X+ K+Q, where the terms reflect adjustments for price inflation, productivity, network expansion,
and improved quality of service. In practice, with baskets other features, the formal representation of the
formula can be quite complicated.
There are a number of hazards in the application of the method, however:
If the company - monopoly does not account for increased efficiency, the X factor would be equal
to 0 and then prices will not fall, but will grow continually. There are a number of such cases in which
the index X is not considered and this enables companies to increase prices and assign the entire profits
to themselves along with this.
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More and more European countries use variants of Cap price in different varieties; the main being
Individual price cap, Revenue cap (Fixed revenue cap, Average revenue cap, Hybrid revenue cap) and
Tariff basket.
Block tariffs are the other pricing method. There are increasing and decreasing block tariffs (rates).
This method follows growing - reducing steps of fixed volumes of water consumption or pollution,
according to which increases-decreases the price of water.
Water markets or Water cap-and-trade scheme regulation is the newest tool in this field. Trade with
water rights has already been introduced in several countries. A limited number of countries, in combi-
nation with regulated pricing introduced trading with water rights, which is the sale of a right of access
to water. Such trade has been conducted in Australia, USA, Canada, Chile, Armenia, and Iceland. These
programs are local and have the ambition to expand their number to about 20 (“Cap and Trade”, 2017).
Australia has developed accounting standards for the preparation and publication of water accounting
reports for entities including regulation and accountability in the marketing of water rights in AWAS1
and AWAS2.
Chapter “Water rights, water allocations and water restrictions”, Art. 163, Chapter 164 and “Water
market activity”, Art. 165-167. 1 of AWAS accurately regulates reporting trade with water rights and
claims to water in the water accounts of companies (Water Accounting Standards Board, 2010).
The trade in water rights is a transfer of water licenses for a given period. Usually the period is one
fiscal year. (O’Brien, 2010). These market-based instruments regulating the price of water include
components of its quality and quantity, taking into account the extent of pollution and contaminants that
users of water resources cause. It is believed that these instruments contribute to the proper allocation of
water resources and control water pollution. Trade in water rights allows companies that have a surplus
of water to sell it to the needy and thus profit (Burritt & Christ, 2014a).
Price Risks Related to Reforms in the Water Sector
A great uncertainty and the associated with it risk for companies are the reforms in the water sector
carried out and planned to be carried out in the future. In many industrialized countries, the system of
water pricing and the institutional status of the water regulatory authorities has changed.
Australia envisages the expansion of trade with “water rights”, relying to add a greater market ele-
ment in the pricing of water.
Russia changed its Water code in 2006 and amended it more than dozen times till 2016. (Vodniy
Codex Rossiiskoy Federaciy).
Article 20 of the Code says that water use shall be subject to payment and is based on a contract,
irrespective of the fact whether a body or parts of it are concerned and prohibits monopolization in the
water sector. During the latest reform of the water regulation in the Russian Federation the Commission
for Energy and Water was transformed into a Department of the State Competition Commission and its
functions were linked to the problems of competition.
In the EU countries, these commissions are separate from the Competition Commission. This diver-
sity and variety in the philosophy and technology of water pricing can create risks for profit enterprise
groups operating transnationally.
As a whole, the pricing of water on the principle of “user pays”, “polluter pays” and the use of “full-
cost pricing” (Christian-Smith, Gleick & Cooley, 2011, p. 144) is undergoing reforms in the highly-
industrialized countries apart from China and Russia. These reforms are combined with the necessary
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requirements for these pricing systems - detailed water accounting and reporting, and “full-cost recovery”
of the costs of water infrastructure and service delivery and treatment of water, increasing the efficiency
of irrigation of agricultural areas through new methods of drip irrigation, etc. (Christian-Smith, et al,
2011, p. 146).
What are some of the dangers that these reforms pose?
Using the “Full Cost Pricing Method”: full cost pricing (or fully distributed cost pricing) includes
the distribution share of the overall business costs in the final price of goods and services.
According to the European Environment Agency (EEA):
The full cost comprises three elements as also set out in the WFD [Water Framework Directives,
EC, 2000]:
1. Environmental Costs: The costs of damage that water uses impose on the environment and eco-
systems and those who use the environment, e.g. a reduction in the ecological quality of aquatic
ecosystems or the salinization and degradation of productive soils.
2. Resource Costs (Opportunity Costs): The costs of foregone opportunities which other uses suffer
due to the depletion of the resource beyond its natural rate of recharge or recovery, e.g. linked to
the over abstraction of groundwater.
3. Financial Costs: The costs of providing and administering these services. They include all opera-
tion and maintenance costs, and capital costs (principal and interest payment), and return on equity
where appropriate.) (EEA Report No. 1, 2012, pp. 31-32).
It is important to note that the Resource Costs (opportunity costs) increase while reducing the resource,
which is a prerequisite for raising the price of water supply. The EU envisages a pricing tool called “true
cost” based on its water directive (Werner & Collins, 2012, p. 8). For the time being it is not entirely
clear what “true cost” is. There are various metrics and views with this water pricing.
“Veolia” has offered the water-pricing instrument called “True Cost”.
Apart from the standard costs - Direct Costs in which it has included “price of water”, Operational
Costs (OPEX) and Investments (CAPEX), Indirect Costs which include the cost for CSR of the Company.
In the forming of the final price “Veolia” has included the use of this tool, as well as “Costs related
to risks”:
• Operational risks: e.g. water shortages, flooding;

• Financial and regulatory risks;
• Costs related to reputational risks: e.g. temporary loss of license to operate, boycotts;
• Penalties due to water pollution enhance regulation. (Veolia Water, 2014b)
The water pricing in China is based on “Marginal opportunity cost pricing”.

In 2006 together with the World Bank, the National Development and Reform Commission of the
People’s Republic of China, China introduced the scheme of pricing of water based on the principle of
China Water Risk (2010). A feature of this pricing is that the full costs are not paid by the user of water
services and water sources, but are shared between the state budget and the consumers. The users pay
only the operational, maintenance and disposal costs, and the state budget pays the portion that covers
the capital, investment and infrastructure costs for water supply. The pricing system uses “marginal
opportunity cost”, the price does not include fixed costs that are not specific to this product. This cost
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sharing is based on experience in water pricing, which shows that prices equal to marginal costs lead to
losses for the companies supplying water (WSO).
MOC = MPC + MUC + MEC
• MPC: Marginal private cost,

• MUC: The marginal user (or depletion) cost, and
• MEC: The marginal externalities (social, environmental) costs. (Warford, 1997).
The price of water is largely dependent on the water stocks of the region.
Countries in Africa and some Latin American countries have insufficient water resources. The ap-
plication of the methods of full costing and full cost recovery is not possible because they can cause a
humanitarian catastrophe for the poor.
The distribution of water across the globe is uneven. In Europe and Asia, where 70 percent of the
world’s population lives are 39 percent of the water supplies. (Wurbs, 2005; Wang, Fang & Hipel, 2008;
Kumar, 2008). Water losses increase due both to accidents, the poor state of the water network but also
to a large extent these are due to climate changes. The risk that climate poses is a major long-term one
for users of water for household and industrial purposes.
There are risks associated with a lack of common standards for the accounting of costs in environ-
mental accounting systems, both for WSO and for consumer companies. There is no uniform standard
for environmental reporting for the countries using MSFA.
In Russia, environmental bills are common with financial counts in a financial state regulated single
accounting chart. China uses a Chinese standard, in Japan - Japanese rules apply. In some countries, even
in the EU (e.g. Bulgaria, Romania, Greece) there are no national standards for environmental accounting.
In general not only lack of opportunity for the compatibility of accounting data is observed, but there
are many methodological and terminological differences in the conventional accountancy systems of
states and noticeable differences in this respect between developed and developing countries. This creates
additional difficulties for the companies based in different countries, when alignment and compatibility
of data is sought.
This section deals with the differences existing between IFAS and GAAP, as well as between them
and other accounting standards on accounting in recognition of revenue in terms of the use of certain
accounting methods.
There is a difference between “Cost recovery principle of water pricing” and “Cost-recovery account-
ing method for recognition of revenue”.
“Cost recovery principle of water pricing” is the principle that through water rates defined by regu-
lation, provides financial reimbursement for the firms WSO for extraction, treatment and discharge of
water to consumers. Reimbursement is defined as the ratio between revenue from water supply and
sewerage services and the costs for these by the WSO (Van den Berg, 2015). Cost Recovery Principle
means in fact full cost recovery. “Cost recovery for water services might read: to recover all of the costs
associated with a water system, programme or service to ensure long-term sustainability”. (Cardone &
Fonseca, 2003).
The accounting method Cost Recovery is used for the suppliers of water. This method is used in cases
when there is a high probability of default of the delivered products. According to the method quoted,
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first payments received from customers are used to cover the cost of production and only after full cost
recovery, the remaining payments are recognized as gross profit.
In the utilities of water supply there is a really high probability of default. It arises from the fact that
water is an inalienable human right and there are price caps called affordability for the price of water
for households.
The EU Water Directives have announced the “Cost recovery principal” which is based on the fact
that the water services rendered must be paid (EU Water Framework Directive, 2000, p. 29).
The costs are covered by the tariffs in the water bills of consumers. If the cost of water supply and the
invoices are higher than the thresholds of affordability of the consumers and the consumers are unable
(or unwilling) to pay, the companies supplying the utility service actually do two things – transfer the
unpaid water bills of the households that cannot afford to pay to the accounts of the consumers that can
pay; or they transfer the unpaid costs of supply to the households in the water prices (bills) for business,
so that the water for industry is more expensive than household water, as it is in many countries. Besides
this the water providers continue to want and receive an increase in the price of water from regulators.
The “reasons” are always needs of new investment; covering debts to creditors etc. Water suppliers
have agreed upon a certain percentage of profits with the regulator. For example, the fixed percentage
of profit that is agreed between the regulator and “Sofia Water” (“Veolia”) in Bulgaria is 17 percent of
the annual net profit.
A research on the effectiveness of the application of Cost recovery shows that in agriculture the costs
are between 20 percent and 80 percent worldwide, and about 50 percent on average in the Mediterranean
EU countries. (Assessment of cost recovery through water pricing, 2013). Thus, if subsidies are not ap-
plied, the suppliers must inflate the bills of their regular household and industrial customers.
Another problem is the possibility of use of various methods for evaluation of the value. Accounting
standards allow the use of “historical cost” (book value) and “fair price”. Historical cost is the cost of
acquisition, the “fair value” is the result of assessment, subject to objective and subjective criteria, not
a single concept, and there are numerous “fair prices”. “Fair is the price that would be received to sell
an asset or would be obtained upon delivery of the obligation in terms of the usual operations between
market participants at the measurement date.” (IFRS No 13 Fair Value Measurement, 2011).
The fair value is the “input price”, while the historical cost (book value) is priced as “output price”.
Both approaches used simultaneously in different countries, bring about differences in the value of eq-
uity investments and assets. This in turn affects negatively the application of regulatory methods such
as RAB, assessing the value of investments of the companies-suppliers of water and the value of their
capital. Usually (except in a profound crisis), the fair value is higher than the historical price. In practice
the use of the fair price method only leads to an overinvestment of the companies-water suppliers, proven
in the mathematical model Averch - Johnson at Rate of return. And the investments of these companies
are paid for by the bills of the users.
The design of water tariffs is even more diverse. Companies operating in different cities located even
in the same country can hardly navigate through the differences in the formation of tariffs. Even if the
method of pricing given by the regulator is unified, even if the principle of formation of tariffs for a
country is based on a general principle, different cities have different and varying tariffs - formation of
final price of water supply.
Projects IBNet Tariffs DB (joint product of Global Water Intelligence (GWI) and International Bench-
marking Network of the World Bank (IBNet) collect and display information about tariffs in different
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regions, countries and cities- 2994 numbers of tariffs. 2817 of them are volumetric, 96 Flat rate, Jump
tariff - 11 and others -70. (IBNet Tariffs DB, n.d.)
Most countries use tariffs with fixed or a volume component and a variety of block tariffs, but pric-
ing structures vary greatly. In the designs of the tariffs there are differences in terms of whether the cost
of treatment is separate from the price for the supply of water. The types of rates used in the world can
be described generally so (Table 1).
Risk of Cartel Prices
Due to the regional nature of water, in the majority of cases the supply of water is carried out by com-
panies that are “Monopoly De Jure” in the region (city, region, parts of the country).
The private companies for water supply can be segmented into 6 groups in Europe:
1. The French water giant “Veolia”, “Suez”, “Lyonnaise des eaux” and “SAUR”;
2. The large Spanish multinational construction companies which build water infrastructure and
deal with water management (“Fomento de Construcciones y Contratas S.A.” (FCC), “Sacyr
Vallehermoso”, “Acciona S.A.”, “Ferrovial”);
3. The German and Austrian companies like “Gelsenwasser AG” and “Energie AG”;
4. The private equity companies in the UK and EECA operating on a national level;
5. The domestic companies operating only in their home country;
6. Asian multinationals operating in the UK, and owning large British companies, suppliers of water
– “Wessex Water” (Malaysian), “Bournemouth and West Hampshire Water” (a Singapore based
company). (Urban Water Consortium, 2014).
Table 1. Summary of the models used in water tariffs
General Type Without With metering Not fixed + Minimum + Fixed Blocks
metering (volumetric) charge charge charge
1 Flat fee (flat rate) X
2 Constant volumetric X X
rate
rate
5 Increasing blocks X X X
6 Increasing blocks X X
7 Increasing blocks X X X
8 Decreasing blocks X X
9 Decreasing blocks X X
10 Decreasing blocks X X X
Source: (OECD, 2010)
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In fact, these giants have strongly intertwined their activities. For example, “Veolia” owns “Folkestone
and Dover”, “Three Valleys”, “Tendring Hundred” in the UK (Hall & Lobina, 2012a, p. 7).
Everywhere the prices that these companies are levying are constantly increasing.
For example, in Paris, the price of water has doubled for the last 25 years (Hall & Lobina, 2012b, p.
30) for water supplies from “Suez” and “Veolia”.
In Berlin, water prices have almost tripled for the delivery of water to the city by a consortium of
“Veolia” and the German multinational (RWE). The Commission for Competition in Germany has found
out that the real price is 19 percent lower. (Hall & Lobina, 2012b, p. 32).
In 2011, the CEC imposed on Suez Environment and its subsidiary Lyonnaise des Eau a fine of €
8,000,000. Suez was fined € 8 million for breaking a seal during an inspection in 2011.
In 2012, the European Commission initiated a procedure for price-fixing against Saur, Suez and
“Veolia”. The press release reads as follows:
The European Commission has opened formal antitrust proceedings to investigate whether the French
companies SAUR, Suez Environnement/Lyonnaise des Eaux and Veolia, together with their trade associa-
tion Fédération Professionnelle des Entreprises de l’Eau (“FP2E”), have coordinated their behaviour
on French water and waste water markets, in breach of EU antitrust rules. (European Commission,
Press release, 2012).
Along with this the water supply giant Veolia constantly maintains a high level of debt due to which
it will have to change its pricing policy in the near future (along with restructuring and sale of its assets,
now being carried out). Due to the pressure imposed by consumers, the global trend in ownership of
water providers is already in the process of remunicipalization. (Hall & Lobina, 2012a, p. 5).
In this way, there is a general trend of uncertainty in pricing and the price of water is being formed
due to the uncertainty about the future of ownership of the supplier companies and their indebtedness.
While public administrations have altruistic goals, the private companies’ goals are to maximize profit.
The continuing process of privatization of the water utilities would go on with the increase of prices,
especially if they were able to log in to cartel unions. If the trend on remunicipalization prevails, the
altruistic public purposes of the administration would prevail and public companies would be guided,
first and foremost, by the principle of affordability for home users. But municipal budgets are limited,
and strict adherence to the principle of affordability would lead to increased water prices for household
users, if new sources of financing municipal expenditures are not found, which, as a rule, occurs through
tax increases and is an unpopular measure.
With water prices there is great uncertainty and invariability causing price risk for the companies. The
main source of information for management decisions related to water price risk is to create a competi-
tive price for the companies in the field of environmental accounting and even creating, as Australia
has done, Water Accounting and Reporting. This can give a reliable base for management decisions to
reduce price risk associated with rising water prices for the companies. Public water reporting presenta-
tion has reduced the options for a “reputational risk” that adversely affects the company’s sales. Roger
Burritt writes:
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The future will see accountants called upon to provide clients with analysis regarding the economic
costs associated with water-related decisions. This suggests there is an opportunity for accountants and
accounting firms to position themselves as global experts in the area of corporate water risk and water
trading opportunities. (Burritt & Christ, 2014b).
Special attention should be given to the theory of costs, the practice of their reporting and the devel-
opment of the tool full costing, the Cost Recovery method and the Cost Recovery Principal.
The use of various risk management techniques, developed in compliance with the specific case is
also necessary. Here is a large assortment of tools, depending on the specific case.
• Measure Revenue at Risk (RAR);

• Measurement of market risk;
• Dynamics of the share market.
For managerial decision-making in water-related price risks, the management may solve 2 types of
tasks in connection with the specific character of water-related risks as mentioned above:
1. Tasks in which quantitative relations are almost completely unknown (unstructured or qualitatively
expressed objectives);
2. Tasks, which contain both quantitative and qualitative elements (poorly structured or mixed prob-
lems) (Popchev, 2016).
We should resort to Task 2 in cases where the price of water is growing largely due to the inclusion
in it, besides quantitative, qualitative elements such as the quality of the water, its degree of contamina-
tion after production when the water is sent to the purifying system.
Possible solution option: When environmental factors are characterized by uncertainty, due to the
lack of sufficiently reliable methods or means for measurement and the presence of disturbing factors
with unstable statistical characteristics, etc., the choice is in conditions of uncertainty.
Selecting decisions under risk a majority of optimal criteria is formed and are functions of different
variables (arguments). A numeric value of this criterion is mainly based on two groups of factors.
The first group of factors depends on the individual decision maker and is called “elements of the
decision”. The elements of the decision are the management’s quality and preparation, its understanding
of the importance of water-related price risks.
The second group of factors characterizes the conditions in which the company operates. These are
the regulatory, accounting, local characteristics of the area where the entity operates. With regard to this
group, there are different strategies (Popchev, 2016).
Factor 1 cannot affect factor 2.
There are different criteria for choosing a solution:
1. Characterizing profit in the adopted solution: the greater the value of the criterion, the better the
solution (maximization of criterion);
2. Characterizing expenses (losses) in the adopted solution, with an obvious necessity to achieve the
lowest possible cost-losses (minimization of criterion)
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When it comes to ranking projects in terms of risk and uncertainty, the construction and use of
models, algorithms and software tools for the achievement of a Multi-criteria decision is recommended.
When assessing projects to reduce water use such as the recycling systems using their own water,
etc., methods for risk assessment of investments in real assets can be used, dynamic methods such as the
method factor “income/expenses”, static methods such as method of minimum cost, etc.
The models for risk management should be selected in view of the specifics. For example, in Bulgaria
V. Kasurova summarizes significant experience in implementing various models for risk management.
The study indicates that the application of different models for assessing the risk of bankruptcy for one
and the same Bulgarian company gives different, sometimes even contradictory results (Kasurova, 2010).
CONCLUSION
The associated water price risk for companies is reflected in the increase in water prices, which are
determined and governed locally by different methods and techniques. Raising water prices constantly
increases the costs of the companies and represents a problem for sustainable management. Water prices
should be the focus of managerial effort to win a competitive position on the globalizing markets. A major
problem facing management is conforming the management of local water prices with global markets.
The companies’ management needs to better understand the methods and tools of water pricing.
This is necessary for it to be able to identify the “centers of responsibility” of their growth. Many of
these factors for the increase in water prices are objective and cannot be influenced by management,
but others can be adjusted. So the task before management is to find a means of controls both for the
external environment and also for the optimization of the internal environment. This is a new strategic
task, representing a serious challenge. It cannot be decided without the joint efforts of all water users,
which should combine their efforts for the sake of transparency and correctness of water pricing. Their
efforts for better water risk management must combine “the local and the global – the environmental
and the economic.” The risk for every business is strictly local and specific, and it requires very specific
solutions, consistent with strategic global environmental requirements.
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Averch, H., & Johnson, L. (1962). Behavior of the Firm Under Regulatory Constraint. The American
Economic Review, 52(5), 1052–1069.
Burritt, R., & Christ, K. (2014). Taking Water Into Account. Retrieved January 15, 2017, from: http://
www.accaglobal.com/vn/en/technical-activities/technical-resources-search/2014/september/taking-
water-into-account.html
Burritt, R., & Christ, K. (2014). Water Accounting: A Short-Term Drought? Retrieved January 15, 2017,
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Environmental Accounting: A new stage in the development of accounting and reporting, based
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mental costs and benefits for companies.
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water, energy and heating. They are empowered to control the quality of the water (energy and thermal)
services of the suppliers (WSO).
Regulatory Pricing of Water: Different methods of formation of the price of water by the regula-
tors, including pricing models, principles, laws and rules for their application.
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production, treatment, safety, and delivery to users of water for household and economic needs.
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financial risk). Concentrates in itself in bulk all the above risks in a risk of forming an uncompetitive
price of goods and services due to increasing water prices and lack of optimization of water resources
by the management of businesses. By nature, an economic risk.
218
219
Chapter 11
National Income
Inequality, Society, and
Multinational Enterprises
Nathaniel C. Lupton
Guoliang Frank Jiang

Carleton University, Canada
Luis F. Escobar
ABSTRACT
This chapter calls for understanding the perspective of multinational enterprises (MNEs) on interna-
tional differences in income inequality. The authors set a research agenda on how national differences
in income inequality influence MNE expansion strategies. Applying a transaction cost framework, both
negative and positive economic outcomes of income inequality, from the MNE’s perspective, are identi-
fied. Low levels of income inequality may deter foreign investment, as MNEs prefer countries where they
incur lower levels of transaction costs arising from interactions with various market and non-market
actors. However, the positive effect of income inequality on location attractiveness will likely diminish
at higher levels of inequality when benefits are increasingly offset by additional monitoring, bargain-
ing and security costs owing to instability and conflict. The chapter further explores the implications
for level of MNE equity applied in the choice of entry mode under different levels of income inequality.
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we begin a discussion, and call for novel research, on how multinational enterprises
(MNEs) respond to national income inequality worldwide. Prior research on MNE strategy has detailed
how location characteristics, comprised of land, labor, infrastructure and capital endowment, along
with institutional quality, impact the ‘where’ and ‘how’ of international expansion (Nielsen, Asmus-
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2673-5.ch011

National Income Inequality, Society, and Multinational Enterprises
sen & Weatherall, 2017). The role of societal characteristics, however, receives much less attention.
One societal characteristics that has received much attention lately is income inequality. Recent studies
provide evidence that long-term rise of income inequality leads to slower economic growth (OECD,
2015), implying that there is a more direct relationship between economic investments and inequality.
Our goal, therefore, is to motivate a research agenda aimed at understanding the MNEs’ preferences for
varying levels of income inequality (i.e. location attractiveness), and how it impacts the MNEs’ expan-
sion strategies (i.e. cost and benefits of inequality).
Figure 1 depicts a simplified overview of what is known about the interrelations between income
inequality, society and the firm. Income inequality impacts social conditions including crime, quality of
life, and unrest, and also impacts economic growth and political stability (Neckerman & Torche, 2007).
The firm affects inequality as it is the primary mechanism through which incomes are provided (Cobb,
2016). What is so far missing from current research is the effect that the societal impacts of income
inequality have on the functioning of business operations. Our chapter thus aims to flesh out this rela-
tionship by applying a transaction cost lens to predict how the social outcomes of different degrees of
income inequality impact the economic interests of the MNE. By better understanding this relationship,
we will be able to predict how income inequality impacts MNE decisions on international expansion,
such as location choice and entry mode.
Following this introduction, we briefly define income inequality, its measurement, and its known
outcomes. Next, we review literature on MNE expansion strategies to deduce how the social consequences
of both low and high income inequality will impact them. In this section, we apply a transaction cost lens
(Williamson, 1985) to relate the social and economic consequences of income inequality to economic
costs and potential benefits for firms. We follow this with a section outlining our tentative predictions on
the extent to which the MNE will exhibit a preference for income inequality, depending on its economic
motives for expansion. This section also directs future research on how the MNE may use organiza-
tional structure, namely entry modes such as wholly-owned subsidiaries, joint ventures, etc., to buffer
the firm from the negative consequences of social conditions induced by income inequality. Finally, we
call for research on how MNE experience, including the nature of its home country income inequality
and international experience will also shape the MNE’s general preferences towards income inequality.
Figure 1. The position of the multinational enterprise between inequality and society
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BACKGROUND
National Income Inequality Defined and Measured
National income inequality refers to the distribution of total wage earnings amongst a country’s workers,
including wages from employment, business income and earnings from investment. The extant inequality
research has mainly focused on its negative impacts on individual wellbeing and societal functioning
(Neckerman & Torche, 2007; Pickett & Wilkinson, 2015). While the factors that contribute to income
inequality are multifaceted, income inequality is an inevitable outcome of wage differentiation based on
profession, qualifications and/or productivity levels (Jacoby, 2005). Such differences are to be expected,
as wage setting is a key mechanism for increasing employee motivation and skills upgrading (Simpson,
2009).
Measurement of income inequality can be approached in different ways, although most techniques
involve use of either point estimates or coefficient of variation (Cobb, 2016). Point estimates compare
the proportion of cumulative wealth above and below specific thresholds, for example, the share of cu-
mulative earnings of the top 1% of wage earners compared to the other 99%, or the number individuals
whose combined wealth equals that of the bottom half of earners worldwide (Atkinson, 1975). At the
time of this writing, the eight wealthiest persons of the world had a combined wealth equal to that of the
bottom half of the world’s population (Mullany, 2017). Point estimates typically tend to depict inequal-
ity in sharp relief while ignoring the characteristics of the middle of the distribution. As such, these
estimates tend to depict conditions which do not entirely reflect the experience of the middle class. The
OECD (Lopez Gonzalez, Kowalski & Achard, 2015), for example, points out that while globally the gap
between middle and bottom earners is widening, the gap between middle and high earners is shrinking.
Coefficients of variation, such as the Gini coefficient, are less sensitive to the extreme points in the
distribution and thus better capture the shape of a distribution throughout all ranges. Recent work by Solt
(2009) provides the most comprehensive and comparable data on worldwide national income inequal-
ity. Nonetheless, all measures of inequality are currently limited in that it is impossible to divide the
proportion of income derived from non-labor earnings from labor earnings due to national differences
in tax reporting of investment income. Likewise, most income inequality data are currently aggregated
to the national level, and therefore do not allow examination of sub-national variation, such as the sharp
contrast between rural and urban populations in India, or the population whose economic activity is
primarily informal, and hence not observable.
Figures 2 and 3 depict trends in inequality in a sample of emerging (i.e. BRIC) and developed (i.e.
G7) countries, respectively. The most noticeable difference between the two graphs is average level of
inequality. While G7 countries tend to be more vocal about rising inequality, BRIC economies are overall
much higher on this dimension. Furthermore, while some G7 countries have experienced increases in
inequality (i.e. Canada, the U.S., and Germany), these changes are quite gradual compared to the more
volatile shifts in BRIC countries. China, for example, saw a large spike in inequality around 2000, which
coincided with its ongoing economic liberalization, perhaps indicating the rise of capitalism. India, also
221

Figure 2. Income inequality trends in BRIC countries
Figure 3. Income inequality trends in G7 countries
possessing high economic growth rates, has similarly experienced an income inequality spike, albeit
less pronounced than in China. Although economic growth in Brazil has not met the more optimistic of
predictions, its income inequality has declined since late 1990s. This cursory analysis cannot begin to
explain national income inequality differences and trends, and indeed a substantial body of literature we
review later suggests the causes are complex and highly interrelated. For the purposes of this chapter,
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it is important to note that differences in levels and trends in income inequality between countries vary
widely, and that economic globalization, comprised of substantial foreign direct investment and liberal
economic policies, appears to play a role. We next examine what is known about the outcomes of income
inequality for society. The specific role of the MNE is examined later.
Income Inequality and Society
Growing income inequality in societies around the world, and its relationship with social ills such as
damaged trust, lack of social mobility, negative health consequences, high crime rate and stagnating
wages, is garnering substantial attention in mainstream (e.g. Irwin, 2014; Piketty, 2014) and academic
discourse alike (e.g. Alvaredo et al, 2013). Even long-time stalwarts of competitive business strategy
have raised alarm over the potential for a downward economic spiral with business at the helm (e.g.
Porter & Kramer, 2011). The causes of income inequality are many, and these vary by country, and
between countries, as discussed earlier. Some of the more widely cited influences on increasing income
inequality are the increasing reliance on mechanization and automation, the decline of unionization and
collective bargaining, and globalization (Van Reenen, 2011; Wolff, 2015).
Technological change influences wage distribution through increasing the marginal productivity of
skilled workers, who are paid more, while the wages of less-skilled labor remain stagnant. The often-cited
Kuznets curve (Kuznets, 1955) assumes that demand for skilled workers exceeds supply and thus, in the
short term, technological change widens the earnings gap. Inequality is then the unintended consequence
of technological developments.
While technological progress can increase inequality by displacing less-skilled workers from higher
paying jobs, unions are largely credited with raising the wages of lower income earners at a faster rate
than upper wage earners, thereby narrowing income gaps in the middle of the wage spectrum (Alderson
& Nielsen, 2002). Countries like Spain, Ireland, Mexico and Chile have experienced an increase in union
memberships. Chile, for example, has doubled the number of workers unionized since 1981 (Economist,
2015). The traditional economic view suggests that an increase in union membership would lead to higher
bargaining power of the members, which in return allows them to secure higher wages (Lommerud,
Meland & Sorgard, 2003). For rich countries, however, labor union memberships are at historic lows.
In the United States for example, membership dropped by almost 30% from 1979 to 2013 (Economist,
2015). Declining unionization is largely cited as a source of widening income gaps in the United States
over the latter half of the twentieth century.
Finally, globalization is often targeted as the primary driver of wage stagnation, as manufacturing
jobs are transferred overseas to lower wage countries, thereby placing downward pressure on the lower
end of the wage spectrum while the upper end continues to rise (Hellier & Chusseau, 2010; Smeeding,
2005). However, while jobs have been displaced in developed economies, these losses have been found to
pale in comparison to those caused by mechanization and automation of production (Lehmacher, 2016).
As MNEs move parts of their operations around the globe in order to obtain greater efficiency, higher
productivity, higher revenues and tax advantages, they impact income inequality not only at home, but
also between and within countries abroad. In the next section, we summarize the findings on research that
examines the link between the MNE’s investment activity and its impact on national income inequality.
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Income Inequality and the MNE
Business is one of the primary mechanisms affecting social inequality given its proximal relationship
with value creation (Davis & Cobb, 2010). Most research has focused on the impact of foreign direct
investment (FDI) on national income inequality. In addition, prior studies on the relationship between
income inequality and FDI typically rely on aggregate investment data (Basu & Guariglia, 2007; Deng
& Lin, 2013; Jensen & Rosas, 2007; Lin, Kim & Wu, 2013; Wu & Hsu, 2012) and thus do not provide
direct answers to the question of how an individual firm’s expansion strategy may either benefit from
or be constrained by income inequality.
Research on the impact of FDI on income inequality has produced mixed and sometimes contradic-
tory results (Jensen & Rosas, 2007; Mah, 2012; Mahler, Jesuit & Roscoe, 1999; Peluffo, 2015; To-
mohara & Yokota, 2011). These inconsistencies have been attributed to national differences in human
capital endowment, the technological capability of local industries, and a variety of other institutional
and economic conditions in the host country (Lin et al., 2013; Tsai, 1995; Wu & Hsu, 2012). The lack
of consensus within this literature implies that both the portion of economic gains from FDI captured
by the MNE and the portion distributed to different income segments and stakeholders varies between
countries (Tsai, 1995). This means that as an MNE considers a foreign investment the attractiveness of
a target location depends on how much of the economic gains the MNE expects to capture. This MNE
perspective on the societal conditions produced by income inequality is necessary to better understand
the role of the MNE in shaping national and cross-national income inequality. We next introduce trans-
action cost economics (TCE) to better understand location attractiveness; and then use this framework
to understand the implications of income inequality on the MNE’s expansion strategy.
CLOSING THE LOOP: SOCIETAL QUALITY AND BUSINESS FUNCTIONING
Transaction Cost Economics (TCE) and International Expansion
Transaction cost theory is useful for understanding business decisions in general, and the impact of
inequality on the MNE as it internationalizes, in particular. TCE has long played a crucial role in the
research on strategic management and international business (Coase, 1937; Macher & Richman, 2008;
Williamson, 1979; Williamson, 1985). TCE holds that markets, firms, and intermediate organizational
forms (e.g. strategic alliance) are discrete, efficient governance structures that match different types
of economic transactions. Based on the two key assumptions of bounded rationality and opportunism,
the theory focuses on three transaction attributes, namely asset specificity, uncertainty, and frequency.
TCE predicts that various governance forms have different impacts on minimizing the costs associated
with bargaining, governing and monitoring transactions (Williamson, 1985). The theory is at the core
of several lines of research on strategic management in the global economy.
The theory of the MNE, especially the internalization framework, draws directly on transaction
cost theory (Buckley & Casson, 1976; Hennart, 1982; Rugman, 1981). According to TCE, the MNE
and the market are alternative governance structures for organizing interdependent economic activities
across countries. The internalization framework argues that, due to market imperfections (especially for
intermediate products), the firm is inclined to undertake economic activities internally (e.g. the trans-
fer of proprietary technology) than through markets, as the latter is subject to higher transaction cost.
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Internalization allows the MNE to retain competitive advantage derived from its tangible and intangible
capabilities that cannot be readily transferred internationally using market mechanisms such as in the
cases of exporting and licensing (Rugman & Verbeke, 1992). Thus, MNEs exist mainly as a governance
solution to exploit opportunities arising from the integration of ownership advantages (e.g. proprietary
technology) and location advantages (e.g. resource endowments and favorable state regulations) (Dun-
ning, 1988; Hennart, 1982).
While host countries may offer economic advantages, such as access to low-cost natural resources or
subsidy to set up operations, the countries’ socio-political and institutional environment can potentially
increase the cost of doing business. Political hazards such as seizure of assets and adverse changes in
taxes and regulations can diminish the economic gains captured by the MNE. From a TCE’s point of view,
the socio-political environment of a country market determines how costly it is for MNEs to engage in
economic investment and political activities (Henisz & Zelner, 2004; North, 1990). Uncertain environ-
ment implies higher transaction costs because frequent shifts in government policies or in agreements
with other stakeholders such as organized labor mean frequent re-negotiation of new arrangements
(Anderson & Gatignon, 1986) and this will present the social and political actors with many occasions
to behave opportunistically to shift rents from the foreign investor to local stakeholders (Henisz & Wil-
liamson, 1999).
Transaction costs, comprised of contract negotiation, monitoring and enforcement costs, are incurred
to mitigate ex-post opportunistic behaviors by transacting parties (Hennart, 1991). MNEs are particularly
subject to hold-up by external actors such as the state (e.g. changing royalty regime for a refinery) due
to the lengthy investment horizon and the fact that the assets invested are not easily redeployed (Henisz,
2000; Hennart, 1982; Jensen, 2006; Rugman & Verbeke, 2005; Williamson, 1981). MNEs thus incur
substantial transaction costs to mitigate threats, and sometimes forgo investing in a potential host country
in favor of locations that offer lower transaction costs. The extent to which the MNE leverages ownership
and location advantages through internalization thus depends on the economic and institutional conditions
of the host country, which directly influence transaction costs. For instance, more stable institutional
environments characterized by firm rule of law, reliable property rights protection and political stability
tend to reduce these transaction costs (Henisz, 2000). All else being equal, locations in which MNEs
incur lower transaction costs are more attractive. We next examine how societal outcomes of income
inequality can impact these costs, and therefore contribute to the investment attractiveness of a country.
The Costs and Benefits of Income Inequality From the MNE Perspective
Drawing upon income inequality research in the fields of labor economics, sociology and organization
theory, we highlight the costs of both high and low inequality, which may detract indirectly from the
MNEs overall cost efficiency. These costs, amongst others, impact the extent to which the expected gains
from international expansion are realized. Employees are a primary group of stakeholders impacting the
MNEs’ decisions, but given the impact of income inequality on social functioning, the role of second-
ary stakeholders including government, civil society organizations (CSO) and local citizenry in general
are also considered. We therefore examine the impact of income inequality on location attractiveness
by exploring the transaction cost implications of labor market rigidity, political engagement of market
and non-market actors, and labor supply characteristics in host countries. We later argue that the costs
and benefits of inequality and their effect on transaction costs impact the MNE’s expansion decisions
regarding where to invest (i.e. location choice) and how to invest (i.e. through direct investment or non-
225

equity alliances). To these discussions we further add the contingent effects of MNE investment motives,
and the roles of international and home country experience, which may alter the MNE’s responses to
income inequality.
Direct and Indirect Labor Costs
The cost of labor comprises a substantial portion of the MNE’s overall operating costs. While reducing
labor cost is not the only motive for international expansion and offshoring, it is a key MNE consideration
in moving production operations to a new country. Indeed, moving jobs offshore is highly objected to by
those holding an anti-globalization perspective. All else equal, income inequality indicates a wide distri-
bution of wages levels, i.e. fat tails (Spilimbergo, Londono & Szekely, 1999). Here, income inequality
is often a direct manifestation of a large and underemployed workforce. The rapid economic expansion
in China, for example, was fueled both by an increased focus on industrialization and enticing the vast
potential workforce from rural areas into the manufacturing sector. Due to persistent downward pres-
sure on wages at the lower end of the earnings spectrum, income inequality tends to remain persistent
(Hellier & Chusseau, 2010). In a less abundant labor market, conversely, the lower wages would rise
more rapidly as local firms and MNEs competed for labor resources. High rates of unemployment thus
work in conjunction with already low wages to further stifle wage growth, especially in the absence of
more stringent labor regulations. This presence of abundant low-cost labor creates an attractive condition
for MNEs seeking to maintain bargaining power over labor, which not only reduces wages but also the
costs involved in locating and retaining a more cooperative workforce.
While it is generally assumed that the MNE seeks to lower labor costs simply by moving to lower-
wage countries, that perspective overlooks the fact that these costs also depend on the efficiency of
bargaining, monitoring and enforcing employment contracts. In addition to lower wages, the MNE can
increase the efficiency of its operations by capitalizing on a more flexible labor market (i.e. less rigid
markets). The term labor market rigidity refers to the extent that constraints imposed by labor institu-
tions on the firm’s ability to alter wages and staffing levels in response to changing business conditions,
such as fluctuations in global demand (Cuñat & Melitz, 2012). Stringent policies at the national level
regarding job protection and the use of collective bargaining, are the main factor leading to increased
labor market rigidity, and consequently lower income inequality (Siebert, 1997). Research has also shown
that rigid labor markets formed through high levels of unionization, centralized collective bargaining,
government regulations restricting layoffs and contract extension policies create higher direct and indirect
costs for firms (Belderbos & Zou, 2009; Gross & Ryan, 2008; Lafontaine & Sivadasan, 2009). In the
case of collective bargaining, for example, firms must invest time and resources into negotiations with
labor organizations. In 2016, for example, workers at the former appliance division of General Electric
rejected a new contract, spurning an attempt by the new owner, China’s Haier Group, to cut labor costs
at a factory in Kentucky (Mann, 2016). Need for approval from these organizations before making staff-
ing changes that impact either staffing levels, wages or both limits the firm’s responsiveness to market
conditions. Government policies on layoffs also create compliance costs, and limit the firms’ flexibility
in staffing decisions. Higher inequality arising from less rigid labor markets should thus be more attrac-
tive to MNEs because they create more conducive environments for labor cost economizing.
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Political Engagement of CSOs
Other stakeholders, such as consumer and environmental advocacy groups, also exert demands to which
the MNE may ultimately need to respond. When the MNE seeks to expand its operations abroad, there
are costs and benefits which are unevenly distributed amongst various stakeholders (Jensen, 2006). For
instance, foreign acquisition brings with it the possibility of job losses, which have both direct and indi-
rect effects on the local economy, including lower wages and downward pressure on overall wage levels
(Mann, 2016). Firms must also meet local product quality and labelling requirements, environmental
performance standards, expectations to invest in the local community, and other issues that add to the
cost of investment. Hence, MNEs consider regulations imposed by the state, such as local content re-
quirements, quality and quantity of employment and overall economic development as detracting from
overall firm profitability (Saka-Helmhout, Deeg & Greenwood, 2016).
Similarly, local governments are faced with conflicting demands from different segments of society.
For example, investment by foreign firms can bring new jobs, injects capital, and hopefully stimulates
the overall economy, yet their constituents may raise numerous concerns which cannot be ignored such
as adverse effects of production on the natural environment. Policymakers are thus pressured by various
groups to mitigate potential job losses, protect domestic industry, reduce resource exploitation, and limit
profit repatriation, while encouraging investment in local communities. The more politically engaged
these interest groups are, the more constraints the MNE will face in pursuing its economic goals (Jensen,
2006; Solt, 2008).
While it is apparent that these policy requirements will produce friction in firms’ abilities to achieve
economic objectives, income inequality is also likely to have an effect on the vigilance of CSOs. Rela-
tive bargaining power theory demonstrates that both individual and organizational constituents of a
society are less likely to voice their concerns, seek concessions and so forth when they are simply not
accustomed to having their demands met (Goodin & Dryzek, 1980; Solt, 2008). High levels of income
inequality are likely to lead to a reduction in these sort of societal pressures, as large numbers of indi-
viduals increasingly interpret the social system as being ‘rigged’ against them, thereby inducing them
to disengage, politically (Uslaner & Brown, 2005).
As income inequality increases, engagement with the political process for many stakeholders declines,
due to the positive connection between wealth and political power (Solt, 2008). Simply put, the higher
the income inequality of a country, the lower the level of interest amongst the non-elite to improve their
standing through political processes. As a result, the political process becomes less competitive and
the relative political bargaining power of the MNE consequently increases. Hence, it will be easier for
the firm to create alignment between its interests and those of local policymakers (Bonardi, Holburn &
Bergh, 2006). The MNE can focus on a smaller subset of requirements such as job creation and tech-
nology provision, and sometimes political contributions (Boddewyn, 1994). A lower level of political
engagement amongst CSOs thus allows the firm to reap greater benefits from its economic activities, as
it faces a more muted policy response for environmental protection, setting labor standards, increasing
domestic content, supporting local industry and so forth. Conversely, under conditions of low income
inequality, the firm faces arduous negotiations and lengthy bargaining sessions with the state and CSOs,
thus incurring higher transaction costs. As the MNE seeks to expand, it will thus likely seek out loca-
tions with less politically engaged constituents, which ultimately means that countries exhibiting higher
income inequality will appear more attractive.
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The Costs of Social Unrest
To this point, we have argued that income inequality, as socially unpopular as it may be, may be perceived
favorably by foreign investors. However, the positive effects we have argued for are likely characteristic
of more economically developed countries, where income inequality is low to moderate. The negative
societal conditions noted by sociologists, including increased crime, negative health outcomes, lack of
trust, and general social unrest, are more likely to manifest as income inequality increases. As general
society becomes less cooperative, more suspicious of business interests, and generally more violent,
there are real costs borne by firms. In this section, we therefore argue that although higher inequality
countries may be more attractive for conducting business, the benefits associated with income inequal-
ity diminishes as increasing inequality can become a socially intolerable and economically unattractive
location attribute.
There is a growing sentiment that rising inequality is a form of economic injustice brought about by
global capitalism, and MNEs are often seen as central actors in fostering this process (Alvaredo, Atkin-
son, Piketty & Saez, 2013). Higher levels of inequality are often considered the cause of social unrest,
(Alesina, 1996; Uslaner, 2008) resulting in increased societal conflict and political dysfunction (Alesina
& Rodrik, 1994; Uslaner, 2008). This socio-political unrest tends to stifle economic growth (Alesina
& Perotti, 1996), produce a less healthy population (Kawachi, Kennedy & Wilkinson, 1999; Pickett &
Wilkinson, 2015), and entrenches income inequality across generations by restricting economic mobility
(Pickett & Wilkinson, 2007). These poor-functioning societies, brought about by rising income inequality,
are characterized by constituents exhibiting mistrust of authority figures such as, police and government,
and diminished inclination towards cooperation. Aside from making life less pleasant for their members
of these societies, this dysfunction is likely to make conducting business transactions more arduous.
The efficiency of collecting payments, negotiating and reinforcing contracts, monitoring employees and
business partners, will all be reduced, leading to higher transaction costs for firms (Flores & Aguilera,
2007; Knack & Keefer, 1997). As well, there is likely to be an increased need to protect against crime,
thus increasing security costs incurred in guarding the firm’s assets (Kawachi et al., 1999).
Increasing Risk of Political Violence
Political risks involve the degree of instability of policies concerning taxation and expropriation, but
also the risk that a government may lose power through the use of force. The political tension fuelled
by higher income inequality produces greater uncertainty for business investors regarding future costs
(Alesina & Perotti, 1996; Alesina & Rodrik, 1994). For example, taxation may increase in high income
inequality countries as those controlling the state seek to increase their benefits at the expense of the
general public, or in more extreme cases, by seizing the assets of the firm (Habib & Zurawicki, 2002).
This increases the uncertainty faced by firms, increasing the costs they incur in monitoring their local
environment, in particular the emerging desires of the state. While aligning with the states’ interests is
often beneficial for foreign firms, it can become a liability as governments become less stable. Since
the policy decisions of a destabilizing government tend to become more erratic, alignment with the
state threatens the firm’s assets and even survival when the government changes hands (Siegel, 2007).
The instability of high income inequality societies may further manifest itself in overt political activity
including, in the extreme, political violence (Fowles & Merva, 1996; Keefer & Knack, 2002). In essence,
while increasing inequality tends to reduce political engagement, further increasing inequality may result
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in actively disengaged constituents, more prone to political upheaval. As these threats increase to the
point of manifestation, the functioning of the state is greatly impeded and may ultimately fail. Without
the ability to use its authority, the state is less able to enforce laws, thus leading to increased crime, vio-
lence and corruption. These fractious societies experience a higher frequency and severity of vandalism
and violent crimes (Kawachi et al., 1999). MNE employees and other assets may be specifically targeted
because they are increasingly viewed as perpetrators of inequality through their use of offshoring and
their political alignment with the state. The firm thus finds its indirect costs of production on the rise,
as expenditures are increasingly needed on safeguards and security such as police protection (Hakkala,
Norback & Svaleryd, 2008). These violent conditions need not be manifest for the MNE to be induced
to make additional security investments. Even in countries where conflict is actively suppressed by the
state or military, the increasing threat of violence is likely to induce the firm into making larger invest-
ments to secure its assets.
Investment Location Attractiveness
We have argued that income inequality would be generally viewed as positive, given that firms enjoy the
benefits of more flexible labor markets and operate more efficiently in environments that do not place
too many additional, sometimes conflicting demands on their resources. However, reduced levels of
trust, declining cooperation, socio-political instability, and the dysfunctional nature of high inequality
societies are unattractive from both a social and business perspective.
Of course, the more serious breakdown of society resulting from these effects is, in recent times,
more of an exception than the norm. We thus believe that, given current cross-country differences in
levels of income inequality, MNEs would generally maintain an overall positive perspective on income
inequality, all else equal. This perspective would manifest itself in, for example, choosing locations
with higher income inequality in which to establish more efficient operations. The more unfortunate
effects of income inequality on society are likely to manifest only in countries with the highest levels of
income inequality. In these countries, the increasing costs incurred to mitigate against crime, violence
and general lack of cooperation will begin to outweigh the benefits, directly reducing the MNE’s ability
to capitalize on efficiency gains. Thus, while income inequality will be viewed as generally positive by
firms, we expect that this effect will diminish at higher levels. The following are initial predictions on how
inequality impacts MNE expansion strategy based on available evidence to date. Future research needs
to test these empirically, and provide a more nuanced understanding of how income inequality impacts
the location decisions of MNEs. Such research will help not only MNE investors, but also policymakers
interested in reducing inequality while encouraging foreign direct investment.
While we think that MNEs in general will favor higher inequality countries (i.e. the benefits of in-
equality outweigh its cost), we believe the impact of inequality on location attractiveness will depend
on its economic motives. Dunning (2000) classifies motives for investment into resource-, efficiency-,
market- and strategic asset-seeking. Each of these motives may alter the relationship between income
inequality and location attractiveness, thus contributing to cross-country imbalances in the types of for-
eign investment. The reasons for these expected differences lie in the fact that different motives create
economic value through different mechanisms. For example, efficiency-seeking investments are focused
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on achieving cost reductions, often through accessing lower cost labor, while market-seeking investments
seek to expand revenues and achieve market penetration in the local market.
Efficiency-seeking investment can achieve cost reductions through enhanced access to larger labor
pools and/or increased labor productivity. MNEs seeking to improve their efficiency through international
investment will experience the most friction from low inequality countries, due to increased labor rigidity
and the increased bargaining power of lobbyists and CSOs. This is because labor market rigidity limits
the MNE’s ability to adjust employment levels and conditions in response to fluctuating demand levels,
and changing global market conditions. In general, MNEs seeking to create new value through increased
cost efficiency will benefit the most from cost advantages realized through investing in higher income
inequality locations. Nonetheless, relative efficiency is an important consideration for nearly any type
of investment, and so we do not expect that different motives will change the MNE’s overall preference
for higher inequality, at least within the current context of liberal market capitalism.
MNEs can also improve their performance by more fully leveraging the MNE’s tangible and intangible
assets to achieve economies of scale, which in turn enhances its market power (Dunning, 1993). Research
establishes that market-seeking investments are most attracted not only to the availability of sufficiently
large and affluent market segments, but also levels of economic growth, which in turn signal increas-
ing consumer demand (Lei & Chen, 2011). Higher inequality countries often experience more stagnant
growth. This is because socio-political conflict, pressures for redistribution through taxation, tend to
lead governments to favor policies that do not encourage economic growth but redistribution of wealth
(Alesina & Perotti, 1996; Rodrik, 1999). Thus, when MNEs consider the growth potential of a market,
gains from the reduced labor market rigidity are at least partially offset by the reduced market potential.
The benefits of higher inequality for market seeking investments are further eroded through adverse
reputational effects. These investments typically require the firm to work more closely with market and
non-market actors in the host country such as consumers, wholesalers, retailers, advocacy groups, and
non-governmental organizations. This increases the number of situations in which bargaining situations
arise (Hakkala et al., 2008), thus exposing the MNE to more threats of opportunism and consequently
higher operating cost. In essence, the MNE becomes more exposed, on more fronts, to the negative
aspects of high inequality countries, in which mistrust and political instability more readily prevail
(Adger, 2000; Dai, Eden & Beamish, 2013). The MNE in turn is compelled to invest more resources
in building political coalitions and securing property and persons (Boddewyn, 1994). At the extreme,
MNEs may choose to avoid the market altogether, in favor of a commercially less promising but safer
locale for market expansion.
Another motive for investment is to develop the strategic, intangible assets of the firm, most notably
through hiring skilled workers and conducting R&D. This type of investment is focused on enhancing
the MNE’s competencies, rather than exploiting them (Cantwell & Mudambi, 2005). Through these in-
vestments, the MNE seeks to augment its capabilities by tapping into geographically dispersed sources
of strategically valuable knowledge and knowledge workers (Le Bas & Sierra, 2002; Tallman & Chacar,
2011).
In order to gain a strategic advantage in more knowledge-intensive functions, the MNE needs to access
skilled workers and keep them motivated to share their knowledge and collaborate. These two objectives
are difficult to achieve in higher inequality countries. First, these countries are more often characterized
by reduced access to education, making them less attractive to firms seeking knowledge workers. In ad-
dition, higher inequality can lead to fewer incentives for knowledge sharing amongst individuals because
they tend to closely guard any source of advantage they possess (Dyer & Nobeoka, 2000). Therefore,
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the reduced trust and the lack of norms for collaboration limit employees’ ability and motivation to inte-
grate knowledge (Minbaeva et al., 2003). Moreover, MNEs will find it difficult to become more socially
embedded in these fractious socio-political environments, which in turn complicates knowledge absorp-
tion and assimilation (Heidenreich, 2012). Hence, the competence-enhancing potential for learning and
capability development is limited, ultimately reducing opportunities for innovation (Dodgson, 1993).
In addition to building new capabilities, MNEs are also more cautious about sharing their existing
proprietary knowledge through subsidiaries, as this tends to increase contract monitoring and enforcement
costs (Oxley, 1999). Faced with greater risk of political unrest, policy uncertainty, and most pertinently,
concerns about property rights protection (Easterly, Ritze & Woolcock, 2006), MNEs seeking to enhance
their competencies may be less inclined to invest in higher income inequality countries.
In summary, the costs and benefits of income inequality are borne unequally by MNEs motivated by
different investment objectives. Cost reduction is most significant to efficiency-seeking investments, and
thus the positive relationship between income inequality and location attractiveness is likely to be more
pronounced. In the case of market-seeking and more so in competency-enhancing mandates, the costs
of inequality begin to weigh heavily on the benefits, thus eroding the attractiveness of higher inequality
locations for these purposes.
Entry Mode Choice
Firms may use strategies and organizational structure to buffer the costs of income inequality, for example
by choosing to enter via equity joint venture or alliance rather than wholly owned subsidiary. MNEs face
an array of entry modes including wholly-owned subsidiary, joint venture, or non-equity investments
such as licensing. As a general rule, an entry mode is preferable when it offers long-term efficiency in
managing and controlling economic activities overseas. A large body of research investigating the choice
of entry mode into a foreign market from a transaction cost perspective generally agrees that different
modes of entry entail different levels of control (Brouthers, 2002; Brouthers & Brouthers, 2001; Mad-
hok, 1997). For instance, Anderson and Gatignon’s (1986) seminal paper proposed that firms possessing
highly specific assets and stronger brand names will be better served by choosing entry modes offering
higher degrees of control, such as wholly-owned subsidiary, and that the benefits will be greater when
external environment is uncertain. Recent meta-analysis has largely confirmed this predictive strength
of TCE in explaining entry mode choices (Zhao, Luo & Suh, 2004).
A related body of research extends the transaction cost framework to examine inter-firm relationship
and governance arrangements, especially within a strategic alliance or a joint venture (Pisano, 1989;
Sampson, 2004). These studies show that the importance of protecting transaction-specific assets such
as intellectual property determines the structure of alliance relationship and that misaligned governance
choices such as excessive bureaucracy can lead to higher transaction costs between alliance partners and
inferior economic performance. However, research that draws on relational exchange theory and insti-
tutional theory, has shown that trust between transacting parties can lower transaction costs, facilitate
investment in transaction-specific assets, increase the use of joint action agreements, and hence improve
firms’ economic performance (Dyer, 1996a, 1996b; Gulati, 1998; Zaheer, McEvily & Perrone, 1998).
Therefore, the interplay of transaction attributes and social and environment conditions is important to
the understanding of firms’ strategies and performance.
According to relational exchange and institutional theories, it appears likely that in low income
inequality countries, where firms face more arduous relationships with labor organizations and more
231

politically active CSOs, a higher equity stake would be preferable. Wholly-owned subsidiaries offer the
highest degree of control and hence lowest transaction costs, but cooperating with a local partner also
has benefits. Working with local partner can be beneficial for building trust and legitimacy, and learning
how to successfully manage external stakeholders. Hence, MNEs seeking to work with a more locally
experienced partner may choose majority-owned joint ventures. At the opposite end of the inequality
spectrum, since MNEs face heightened uncertainty surrounding political risk and socio-political unrest
in the highest income inequality countries, it would appear that these environments too would predict
use of higher equity stakes. Since wholly-owned subsidiaries offer the most control, this may be the
preferred method for entry, although such an approach also creates the greatest risk in terms of loss of
investments, or expropriation.
Finally, it would seem that equity entries would be most efficient in a moderate inequality location,
where labor markets are more flexible, other stakeholders are less politically engaged, and society is gener-
ally more trusting. That said, there are numerous other considerations, especially the MNEs preferences
towards certain modes and its economic reasons for international expansion that will bear upon the entry
mode decision. Hence, we would predict that in moderate income inequality countries, the probability
of choosing a particular entry mode is less affected by differences in inequality. Indeed as we argued
previously, these are likely the most desirable FDI locations, all else equal, from a strategic perspective.
MNE Experience, Home and Abroad
Learning from experience changes a firm’s strategic behavior (Nelson & Winter, 1982). As a firm repeat-
edly engages in an activity, its ability to efficiently manage the activity improves because the firm can
infer from previous outcomes and adjust its actions accordingly (Cyert & March, 1963). MNE experience
alters its perception of location attractiveness and consequently affects its foreign investment strategy
(Delios & Henisz, 2003; Jiang, Holburn & Beamish, 2014). Learning based on direct experience has
been found to be an important source of competitive advantage and superior performance for MNEs
(Barkema, Bell & Pennings, 1996; Vermeulen & Barkema, 2001). We highlight two types of firm experi-
ence, namely international experience and home country experience, which may both influence MNEs’
strategic responses to national income inequality.
The prevalent Uppsala internationalization process model suggests that MNEs gradually increase their
commitment to foreign markets as their experience of international operation accumulates (Johanson &
Vahlne, 1977). International experience helps resolve uncertainties about stakeholders, institutions, and
market conditions in unfamiliar countries, which reduces perceived risks and associated operating cost
in prospective projects, thereby increasing the probability of subsequent investment overseas (Eriksson,
Johanson, Majkgard & Sharma, 1997). MNEs acquire and refine their competencies for operating over-
seas with every new foreign investment. As these competencies are redeploy in new locations the MNE
incur lower transaction cost because they become more knowledgeable in engaging with various local
stakeholders. A stylized finding from the internationalization process literature is that experience gained
through prior foreign investments positively influences the MNE’s propensity and pace of subsequent
investment (Barkema & Drogendijk, 2007; Chang, 1995; Davidson, 1980). In general, MNEs more
globally diffused and with more years of international operation, are typically more experienced with
the challenges of operating in more hostile environments (Barkema et al., 1996; Nielsen et al., 2017).
However, prior studies have paid limited attention to the firm’s home country experience. Yet, the
firm’s structure and strategy are history dependent (Nelson & Winter, 1982; Stinchcombe, 1965). The
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firm evolve to function effectively in its home country’s market and institutional environments. Therefore,
social, technical, and economic conditions of the home country to a large degree determine the MNE’s
competencies and its preferences for location attributes of foreign countries. For instance, Cuervo-Cazurra
(2006) finds that foreign investors that have been exposed to bribery at home may not be deterred by
corruption in potential host countries, but instead seek countries where corruption is prevalent. Simi-
larly, Holburn and Zelner (2010) find that MNEs from home countries with higher policy certainties,
or more intense policy competition among interest socio-economic and ethnic groups are less sensitive
to host-country policy risk.
In the case of income inequality, we expect that both international experience and home country
experience will influence how MNEs respond to and cope with income inequality in foreign countries.
We expect that international experience will overall lower transaction costs associated with income
equality, especially in host countries with higher level of socio-political instability attributed to income
inequality. Yet, the extent of this impact will likely depend on the level of inequality in the MNE’s home
country. Since countries at both ends of the inequality spectrum presents higher level of transaction
costs to MNEs, we expect that firms from home countries with moderate level of income inequality
will particularly benefit from international experience because they likely lack sufficient home country
experience in dealing with transaction costs arising from inequality.
CONCLUSION
In this chapter, we have proposed that national income inequality influences MNEs’ foreign expansion
strategies, due to the various economic and social consequences of inequality which can be translated to
transaction costs for the firm. In doing so, we address calls to embed studies of inequality in the context
of institutions and organizations (Morris & Western, 1999; Neckerman & Torche, 2007).
If our predictions are at least partially correct, then the costs and benefits of income inequality for
MNEs will have consequences on overall firm profitability. By the same token, the preferences of the
MNE will be at least partially manifested in their choice of locations for expansion. Future empirical
research therefore needs to establish the existence of a link between income inequality and location at-
tractiveness. Research on the contingent role of investment motives will also help to demonstrate how
transaction cost considerations come to bear on these issues. A closer examination of investment mo-
tives will directly respond to recent calls for in-depth analysis of the role of managerial intentionality
in the internationalization process (Buckley, Devinney & Louviere, 2007; Hutzschenreuter, Pedersen
& Volberda, 2007)
That said, transaction costs arising from income inequality are only one of many considerations for
the MNE. Thus, to the extent to which firms can use organizational structure as a buffer against transac-
tion costs, income inequality may be a partial influence on entry mode considerations. In some cases,
the control afforded by higher equity stakes may be the key to achieving these buffers, in others it may
be the experience and relational capital of a local partner. Finally, more internationally experienced
firms may shun locations with exceptionally low or high income inequality because they appreciate the
economic costs of these locations, while less experienced firms may not be able to assess or cope with
the risks, thus also choosing to shun these locations. However, more internationally experienced firms
may already have developed stronger political and relational capabilities in foreign markets that would
233

help them counter the costs of income inequality. Likewise, experience dealing with income inequality
in the home country should help in similar fashion.
By shining a spotlight on the MNE’s potentially differential preferences towards income inequality,
we hope this chapter begins a discussion which has the potential to help researchers better understand
how firms impact national income inequality. Prior research has helped us to better understand how lo-
cation characteristics, typically cast as macroeconomic factors such as level of economic development,
technological sophistication, etc., moderate the effect which aggregate FDI has on income inequality.
This chapter brings MNE investors’ economic motivations into the discussion. By better understanding
how these motivations impact investment decisions, investment policy makers are better equipped to
prioritize amongst investment types, and set objectives for attracting them.
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Multinational Enterprise (MNE): A business organization which owns or controls assets in more
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241
242
Chapter 12
Low vs. High Income
Entrepreneurial Households:
Heterogeneous Response to
Common Institution Environment
in Developing Countries
Stelvia Matos Vernon Bachor

University of Nottingham, UK Winona State University, USA
Jeremy Hall Bruno S. Silvestre

University of Nottingham, UK University of Manitoba, Canada
ABSTRACT
We explore how income differences influence heterogeneous entrepreneurial responses to the institutional
environment in Brazil shapes low-income entrepreneurs’ propensity to exploit the informal rather than
the formal economy. Drawing on the Brazilian Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) data, entre-
preneurship discourse and institutional theory, we discuss the influence of inadequate preparedness and
barriers to institutional support influencing entrepreneurs’ abilities to engage in productive economic
activities. We contribute to the entrepreneurship discourse by suggesting that concepts developed within
the context of relatively prosperous settings do not adequately reflect how low-income entrepreneurs
respond to institutional settings.
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we compare relatively low versus high-income entrepreneurs. Although they all share
a common institutional environment, differences between these segments play a role in how entrepre-
neurs respond to, and operate under, institutional structures. We build on Baumol’s (1990) and North’s
(1990) arguments that institutional incentives and structures play a key role in fostering entrepreneurial
development. Lawrence et al. (2002: 282) define institutions as “relatively widely diffused practices,
technologies, or rules that have become entrenched in the sense that it is costly to choose other practices,
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2673-5.ch012

Low vs. High Income Entrepreneurial Households
technologies, or rules”. We postulate that, while the institutional environment may be relatively homog-
enous within a given country, the degree of poverty (as measured by self-reported household income
level) shapes how entrepreneurs engage in business activities, which in turn affect how they respond
to, and are supported by, the institutional setting. Our objective is thus to describe how entrepreneurial
behavior differs between low-income and high-income entrepreneurs, and how the institutional setting
may influence such behavior. We contribute to the entrepreneurship discourse by suggesting that the
concepts and theories developed within the context of relatively prosperous settings do not adequately
reflect how low-income entrepreneurs will respond to institutional settings, and provide insights on why
lower income entrepreneurs often prefer to exploit opportunities within the informal economy.
This chapter supplements the empirical literature on entrepreneurship in weak institutional environ-
ments (Aidis et al., 2008; Johnson et al., 1999, 2000; McMillan and Woodruff, 1999, 2002; Djankov et
al., 2005, 2006; Webb et al., 2009), but differs by emphasizing that there are heterogeneous responses
to the institutional environment by entrepreneurs, depending on their level of income. It is also a partial
response to Bruton et al.’s (2012) call for the “need for an indigenous examination of the firms and
managers in institutional settings where informal firms dominate.”
The role of institutions in fostering entrepreneurial development has been widely recognized (Aldrich
and Fiol, 1994; Sine et al., 2005). For example, North (1990) argues that economic growth is driven by
the incentive structures that encourage individual effort and investment, which in turn is determined
by institutions, i.e. society’s ‘rules of the game’, the establishment of which shapes future productive
structures (Bygrave and Minniti, 2000). Baumol (1990) argues that, while the supply of entrepreneurial
talent is roughly constant, institutions mostly determine entrepreneurial growth that can either encourage
productive, unproductive or destructive outcomes. He suggests that productive entrepreneurship will be
hindered if the institutional incentives supporting more productive outcomes are weak.
This study considers entrepreneurs in Brazil, a major ‘BRIC’ (Brazil, India, Russia and China)
emerging economy (Wilson and Purushothaman, 2003), yet one dealing with social inequality (Griesse,
2006; Hall et al., 2008; 2011). We utilize data collected through the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor
(GEM) database to explore the differences between the country’s highest income and lowest income
entrepreneurial households. Our objectives are threefold. First, we provide a description of the differ-
ences between low and high-income entrepreneurs in Brazil in terms of their socio-demographic and
perceptual factors such as entrepreneurial skills and experience, fear of failure, perception of opportuni-
ties and social capital. Second, we describe how these factors influence (i.e., magnitude and direction of
affect) an individual’s decision to get involved in a startup business, when analyzing low high-income
groups separately. Finally, we explore how these differences lead to heterogeneous responses to com-
mon institutional settings.
The remainder of this chapter is structured as follows. In the next section, we provide an overview
of the entrepreneurship literature and institutional theory as a theoretical foundation for our empirical
analysis. Then we use the entrepreneurship literature to explore the importance of entrepreneurship
in developing countries and factors that influence entrepreneurial behavior. We describe our data and
method, which is then followed by our comparative analysis of low versus high-income groups and their
entrepreneurial behavior. We conclude with discussions on the implications of our work for research
and entrepreneurship policy.
243

BACKGROUND
Entrepreneurship and Institutions in Economic Development
According to Levie and Autio (2008), the role of the entrepreneur in economic development has been
recognized since at least Schumpeter (1934), who regarded entrepreneurs as agents of transformation.
He suggested that, through innovation, entrepreneurs create profit-making opportunities by establishing
temporary monopolies through organizational and technological innovation, which in turn are eroded by
new innovations. Schumpeter (1942) referred to this process as “creative destruction”, which improves
productivity and thus greater economic growth. More recently the ‘Schumpeterian entrepreneur’ has
been recognized (e.g., Acs et al. 2004; Audretsch et al. 2006) as an agent able to convert knowledge into
economic value, and thus a significant contributor to economic growth.
Kirzner (1997) provides another perspective on entrepreneurship and economic growth by suggest-
ing that ‘alert entrepreneurs’ discover arbitrage opportunities in the market. According to Shane et al.
(2003), Kirznerian entrepreneurs differ from Schumpeterian entrepreneurs by being less dependent on
knowledge creation but rather the exploitation of existing information, and thus are a much more common
form of entrepreneurship. Sautet (2013) in the context of developing countries notes the opportunity of
entrepreneurs to grow beyond the local context is often constrained, particularly those from within impov-
erished communities. Thus, the context within which an entrepreneur operates plays an important role.
Institutional theory has proven to be a useful theoretical foundation for exploring the context under
which entrepreneurs operate (Bruton et al., 2010). Leibenstein (1968: 78) suggests that “socio-cultural
and political constraints” shape entrepreneurship within a given country. Such constraints include national
cultural or universal values (Smith et al., 2002), relative wealth, type of government (e.g., centralized
planning versus open economy), population growth (Hunt and Levie, 2004; Levie and Hunt, 2005), the
economy’s growth rate (Acs and Amoro, 2008) among others. DiMaggio and Powell (1983) see institu-
tions as critical in reducing the uncertainty in a society as the institutions encompass the structures that
provide the incentives for different types of economic activity (Aldrich and Fiol, 1994; North, 1990).
Casero et al. (2013) using multiple countries of GEM data for 2006 and 2007 found that institutional
quality influences total entrepreneurial activity and this activity contributes to economic development.
Scott (1995) introduced three institutional pillars (regulative, cognitive, and normative) that provide
the stability and incentives that promote or inhibit social behavior in an economy. Each of these insti-
tutional pillars impacts firm legitimacy, “a generalized perception or assumption that the actions of an
entity are desirable, proper, or appropriate within some socially constructed system of norms, values,
beliefs, and definitions” (Suchman, 1995: 574), and these institutional pillars are considered critical for
understanding entrepreneurship development in emerging economies (Peng and Zhou, 2005). Etzioni
(1987) found that legitimacy increases the availability of resources that support new firm formation
and growth, thus increasing the demand and supply of entrepreneurial activity. The formal and informal
institutions establish legitimacy through the incentives and restrictions that encompass business rent-
seeking activity (North, 1990). Webb et al. (2009) distinguish between entrepreneurs that engage in the
formal economy (legal and legitimate means that produce legal and legitimate ends), informal economy
(legitimate ends but illegal means) and the renegade economy (illegal and illegitimate means and ends).
North (1990) suggests that entrepreneurs weigh the incentives and restrictions in the environment as
represented by regulations (i.e., formal rules) as well as in terms of the prevailing cultural values and
norms (i.e., informal rules).
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Baumol (1990) argues that in an environment where the benefits and rewards for rent-seeking activities
outweigh their costs, unproductive entrepreneurship (i.e., entrepreneurship that benefits the entrepreneur
but not the economy) will flourish. Acs and Szerb (2007) discuss the aspects of societal wide institu-
tions implemented through public policy and regulation that are intended to be available to all equally,
but in practice access to the resources made available by such policy and regulation are limited for the
poor and, more importantly, frequently these same institutional factors erect barriers to the poor. Two
important specific examples of policy and regulations are property rights and protection and access to
the legal systems that ultimately facilitate access to legitimate financial market (Aidis, 2005; Sautet,
2013; Webb et al., 2009).
Institutional Effects on Entrepreneurial Behaviour in Low Income Group
Studies on entrepreneurship have emphasized that demographic and economic factors such as education,
age, wealth, and employment status are important drivers of entrepreneurial behavior (Blanchflower,
2004; Brush, 1992; Reynolds et al., 2003). More recently, Arenius and Manniti (2005) propose the in-
corporation of a set of variables describing the entrepreneur’s subjective perceptions such as presence
of role models or whether they know other entrepreneurs (e.g., Begley and Boyd, 1987), confidence in
one’s skills and abilities (Baron, 2000), risk propensity (e.g., Kihlstrom and Laffont, 1979), and alert-
ness (Kirzner, 1973, 1979). Arenius and Manniti (2005) call these perceptual variables and argue that,
although often biased, these variables are correlated with an entrepreneur’s decision to start a business.
However, another stream of the entrepreneurship literature argues that perceptual variables are sig-
nificantly influenced in emerging economies by the institutional environment (Ahlstrom and Bruton,
2002; Peng and Heath, 1996; Smallbone and Welter, 2001, 2006). According to Molonova et al. (2008),
institutions provide sets of norms and expected behaviors that are reinforced by a system of rewards
and sanctions to ensure compliance and influence social interactions in a given community. We clas-
sify institutions into three different categories (DiMaggio and Powell 1983; North 1990): Regulatory
institutions refer to the formally codified, enacted, and enforced structure of laws in an environment;
Normative institutions are less formal and usually manifest in commercial conventions and business
practices; and Cognitive institutions are the beliefs about the expected standards of behavior specific to
a culture and are typically learned through social interactions by living or growing up in a community.
We argue that within the same country with common regulatory institutions, heterogeneity can be
observed in terms of normative and cognitive institutions. In countries like Brazil, with a long histori-
cal legacy of inequality (Griesse, 2006), this heterogeneity can be significantly accentuated. Although
regulatory institutions are the same throughout the country, an impoverished entrepreneur living under
circumstances where the rule of the game is to survive and informality is the norm, will likely behave
very differently from entrepreneurs from wealthier communities that have access to formal education,
financial services, etc. Consequently, in countries such as Brazil, with high levels of social and wealth
disparity, the income level and social class from which the entrepreneur comes from are important. More
specifically, we argue that entrepreneurs from extreme income distributions (upper and lower) have dif-
ferent behavior because they are exposed to different normative and cognitive institutions as they are
immersed in different social contexts, thus institutions will affect their business performance in very
diverse ways and this heterogeneity becomes clear on at least four dimensions.
First, the level of education vary considerably between those from impoverished communities and
those that are not. Those from impoverished communities are often forced to start working earlier in life
245

(e.g., sometimes before 12 years of age) at the expense of their formal education (Barros et al., 1994).
Moreover, the schools located in impoverished communities tend to be of an inferior quality in com-
parison to the schools of those within wealthier communities (Schwartzman, 2005).
Second, law enforcement and property rights tend to be problematic as lower income entrepreneurs
often participate in the informal (Webb et al., 2009) or “unofficial economy” (Johnson et al., 1997).
This is particularly relevant in developing countries where black and gray markets (i.e., illegitimate) are
established (Aidis and van Praag, 2007). In developing countries, like Brazil, lower income entrepreneurs
usually become street vendors, selling commodity merchandise or food at a low price, and they usually
do not have adequate money or knowledge to create a formal business following legitimate channels
(IBGE, 2007). In the informal markets, low-income entrepreneurs often sell counterfeit merchandise
(e.g., knock-off glasses, CDs and DVDs) without considering that such an activity is illegal (Andrade,
2004; Stephen et al., 2011). The formal structure (regulatory institutions) cannot identify these entrepre-
neurs properly as they are not registered as a business and do not pay taxes, and as a result they do not
have access to labor rights such as paid vacations, parental leave, or retirement plans (Dasgupta, 2003).
Third, these entrepreneurs pursue business opportunities through the informal market, thus the
financial system does not recognize them as legitimate entrepreneurs (de Soto, 2000), and since they
do not appear in the official statistics, have bank accounts or a lending history, it makes it difficult for
them to access the needed capital to legalize or expand their business (Reficco and Marquez, 2009). Ac-
cording to Parente (2003), low-income populations in Brazil have historically not had access to credit,
either as consumers or entrepreneurs, while upper income entrepreneurs traditionally have access to a
sophisticated financial system.
Fourth, low-income entrepreneurs often live in improvised areas consisting of squatter communities
or shantytowns that lack property rights, have businesses that mostly operate informally, and are known
for extreme poverty and crime, for example the infamous “favelas” in Brazil (Hall et al., 2008). These
communities are often led by criminals, such as drug dealers, who control illegal activities and act as the
established power by solving problems for that community (Morais, 2006). Thus, the behavioural norms
under which these entrepreneurs learn through social interactions are usually unaccepted by regulatory
institutions and are often considered to be illegitimate. The media creates illusory stereotypes of criminal
offenders (Zafaroni, 2003 and Morais, 2006), especially drug dealers, which impressionable youth living
in poor communities identify as role models because criminals are constantly on the news. Consequently,
the effect of normative and cognitive institutions under which low-income entrepreneurs operate will
differ from high-income entrepreneurs, and will likely create barriers for low-income entrepreneurs to
create and maintain a viable business.
Social resources theory (Lin, 1982) sheds light on resources embedded within social networks by
examining what these resources are, how these resources can be accessed, how these resources can be
mobilized and thus can potentially help individuals to enhance their social status (Lin, 1999). Social
capital theory (Bourdieu, 1985; Coleman, 1988; Portes, 1998) regards social networks as capital in an
economic sense (i.e., as a resource that can contribute to better economic outcomes) and the information
and obligations generated as a result of sustained interactions between network members raises reciproc-
ity (Herreros, 2004). Hills et al. (1997) found networks to be important for access to resources (e.g.,
information, finance and labor) thus enhancing the opportunity recognition capabilities of the entrepre-
neur. A reliance on a small number of information sources may economize on information processing
but can potentially introduce serious biases in the information received (Kahneman and Lovallo, 1993;
Payne et al., 1992; Tversky and Kahneman, 1974). Thus, individuals in a low-income context tend to
246

have less opportunity to establish and maintain close ties with a broad network of others as a result of
poverty and low literacy constraints.
The concept of self-confidence (i.e., self-efficacy – an individual’s self-assessment of their ability
to succeed in specific situations) is mostly influenced by an individual’s beliefs about their previous
performance on similar or related tasks (Bandura, 1997; Compeau and Higgins, 1995). Individuals when
reporting high self-confidence towards a particular task were found to invest greater effort in pursuing
goals, in effective problem solving, in continued task interest, in persistence when faced with setbacks,
and in a task orientation approach rather than avoidance. Low levels of literacy, typical of individuals
living in low-income settings, would be expected to result in lower levels of self-confidence in entre-
preneurial decision-making then those individuals with higher income.
Some entrepreneurs deliberately limit their business growth as they may expect some negative con-
sequences from growth that potentially are in conflict with their goals (Kolvereid, 1992; Storey, 1994).
Shane et al. (2003) suggest that an entrepreneur’s aspirations of growth is the result of environmental
conditions and entrepreneurial opportunities, and the motivations and ability of particular people might
lead to different types of entrepreneurial actions under the same environmental conditions. Given the
majority of informal businesses are run by or contemplated by low-income entrepreneurs, they may
want to minimize exposure beyond their established market domain to avoid attracting the attention of
regulatory institutions (Sautet, 2013). Thus, low-income entrepreneurs may choose to limit growth to
avoid the costs of becoming formal.
Alertness is also crucial to understanding entrepreneurial behaviour (Kirzner, 1973, 1979). Alert
entrepreneurs are those that are explorative, take broad intuitive perspectives that incorporate multiple
inputs and tend to be more effective in recognizing and acting on business opportunities (Ardichvili et
al., 2003; Bygrave et al., 1997; Kaish and Gilad, 1991); conversely those that fail in recognizing entre-
preneurial opportunities often misjudge the context and the type of behavior required in a given situation
(Gaglio and Katz, 2001). According to Gaglio and Katz (2001), the theory of alertness suggests that
entrepreneurs, given the context in which they are immersed, make their decisions based on their abil-
ity to see opportunities. Therefore, we suggest that while entrepreneurs differ because the environment
equips them with different information, their level of alertness to opportunity may be the same.
DATA AND EMPIRICAL METHOD
Much of the issues identified in the previous section have been explored using the GEM dataset, an ongo-
ing multinational project created to investigate the incidence and causes of entrepreneurship within and
between countries (Reynolds et al., 2005). The GEM surveys rely on stratified samples of at least 2000
individuals per country drawn from the entire working age population of 59 countries, capturing both
entrepreneurs and non-entrepreneurs, and collect data on a number of individual social and economic
characteristics and perceptions. Acs and Szerb (2007: 119) observe that for developed economies, re-
ducing entry regulations, in most cases, will not result in more high-potential startups, but instead labor
market reform and deregulation of financial markets is required to support growth of high-performance
ventures. In this study, we use individual-level survey data collected between 2005 and 2009 in Brazil
for the GEM Project. This period was selected because data by different levels of income is not avail-
able for previous years. The GEM model suggests the relationship between new business activity and
247

the institutional environment is mediated by opportunity perception and the individual’s perception of
start-up skills (Levie and Autio, 2008).
The GEM survey identifies individuals’ entrepreneurial activities as the outcome of a series of factors
that influence their decisions including socio-demographic and perceptual factors. Socio-demographic
variables include gender, age, income, work status, educational attainment and social network. The lat-
ter was measured by asking if the individual knows other entrepreneurs. Perceptual variables include
subjective evaluations of the respondent about themselves and their entrepreneurial environment. These
include them assessing their own skills, knowledge and ability regarding to start a business, their assess-
ment of the existence of a business opportunity and the extent to which fear of failing affect their decision
to start a business. The survey also collects data on the motivation to be engaged in an entrepreneurial
activity as whether the individual is taking advantage of an opportunity or has no better employment
choices (i.e., out of necessity).
Although the GEM dataset splits income distribution data into the lowest, medium and highest 33%,
we decided to exclude the medium range to avoid blurring of marginal differences between the middle
33% with those at the upper and lower levels. Table 1 provides information on the general characteristics
of the two selected groups.
Brazil is a useful country to study the difference in entrepreneurial behavior across income groups
for the following reasons. First, the country is a major emerging economy (Wilson and Purushothaman,
2003), yet one dealing with social inequality (Griesse, 2008; Hall et al., 2011; Neri, 2009). Brazil’s income
distribution is heavily skewed towards the wealthy, where the top 10% of the population control 44% of
the national income, whereas the bottom 40% of the population control only 10% of the national income
(IBGE, 2010). In addition, many Brazilian policy makers now recognize entrepreneurship as a potential
solution to social improvement (Hall et al., 2011). To determine whether there are differences between
the upper and lower income groups, we apply the Chi-square (χ2)-test, with statistical signification at
the 5 percent level (p < 0.05; two-tailed).
Table 1. General characteristics of the cross-income sample
Lowest 33% Upper 33%

Mean* SD Mean* SD
Gender .46 .489 .53 .50
Age 36.98 13.42 36.49 12.55
Educational attainment .72 .448 .27 .468
Work status .50 .500 .68 .468
Involved in start-up .03 .164 .05 .215
Manages/owns business (up to 42 months old) .08 .267 .11 .312
Manages/owns business (older than 42 months) .09 .292 .16 .386
Reason - start up (opportunity) .50 .50 .64 .481
Reason - business (opportunity) .30 .46 .63 .482
Number of observations 6216 2435
* Mean values reflect the proportions of the referred discrete variable: (gender: 1 male, 0 female); (work status: 1 full/part time, 0 not
working, retired or student); (start-up and manages/owns business: 1 yes, 0 no); (Reason: 1 opportunity, 0 necessity).
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We divided our analysis into two parts. First we investigated the descriptive characteristics of each
income group, regarding socio-demographic and perceptual variables and entrepreneurial decisions, to
identify what variables are statistically significantly different using cross-tabulation analysis. Second,
we investigated the influence of socio-demographic and perception variables in the entrepreneurial de-
cisions of the two groups. For example, we aimed to identify which variables influence the decision of
a low-income individual to become involved (or not) in a start-up, and if this influence differs between
the lower and upper income groups. We use a Probit model to estimate the probability that individuals
from low and high-income levels will get involved in a start-up against individual variables.
Brazilian Gem Data Analysis
Table 2 shows that for those involved in start-ups, 5 of the 10 variables are significantly different for
socio-demographic and perceptual variables of low and high-income. Low-income start-up entrepreneurs
are mostly female, older, less educated, have less confidence in their skills and know fewer entrepreneurs
than the high-income group. Table 3 shows that fewer low-income entrepreneurs are involved in estab-
lished business when compared to high-income entrepreneurs. We suggest these results could be due
to heterogeneous responses to normative and cognitive institutions between the low and high-income
groups, which may in turn negatively impact the low-income entrepreneur’s capabilities and motivations
to create and sustain a business.
Table 2 also shows the motivation for starting a business for the low-income groups is equal for either
out of necessity or opportunity exploitation. However, when the motivation is analyzed for established
businesses, the data in Table 3 shows the majority of low-income entrepreneurs are involved in business
by necessity rather than opportunity recognition. In contrast, the majority of high-income individuals
are involved in both start-up and established businesses for opportunity exploitation rather than out of
necessity. This finding also alludes to differences in success between the two income groups, where
low-income entrepreneurs may be forced to continue a mediocre business due to a lack of other options.
The corresponding χ2 for the motivation to be involved in established business equals 163.94, while for
a start-up business is 3.44, suggesting the difference in motivation between the two groups increases as
the expectations of success decreases with business experience for the low-income individuals. Indeed,
within the low-income group, fewer entrepreneurs have successfully created businesses, where only
9.4% are running established businesses versus 16.2% of the corresponding high-income entrepreneurs.
Table 2 also allows us to identify the differences in how the two groups of income perceive them-
selves and their environment. Consistent with the literature, the results show that fewer respondents of
the low-income group seem to know other entrepreneurs when compared to the high-income group.
Although this finding provides limited information about the social capital of low-income population in
our sample, it does suggest they may have fewer opportunities to establish ties with other entrepreneurs.
The results also show the low-income group scores low in subjective perception self-efficacy to start a
business as well as in expectations to grow.
The results about the perception of future opportunities shown in Table 4 the majority of those
involved in start-ups have positive expectations and were not significantly different between low and
high-income entrepreneurs and the analysis indicates the perception of future opportunities is the most
important covariate for the low-income group with a coefficient of 29.25. Although this result is by
no means a comprehensive measure of alertness, it does suggest that opportunity perceptions may not
dependent on educational level. This contrasts with some of the literature, for example Levie and Autio
249

Table 2. Chi-square tests of differences in proportions of those involved in start-ups
Lowest 33% Upper 33% Chi-square

Gender 44.4 70.3 18.92***
Age 76.0 83.9 2.632
Work status 72.6 81.7 2.72
Low education attainment 58.3 18.6 44.83***
Knows entrepreneurs 58.8 75.0 7.97***
Sees good opportunities 70.1 63.8 1.24
Knowledge/skills 87.3 94.7 4.30**
Fear of failure 20.0 21.4 0.08
Reason – start-up (opportunity) 50.0 62.5 3.44**
Expects to grow 72.5 86.5 2.86
Actively involved in start-up 2.8 4.8 23.78***
Gender: 1 male; Work status:; 1 = working full or part time, 0 = not working; Age up to 54yrs; Reason: 1 = opportunity, 0 = necessity;
Expects to grow: 1 = yes, 0 = No
Table 3. Chi-square tests of differences in proportions of those involved in established business (older
than to 42 months)
Lowest 33% Upper 33% Chi-square

Gender 45.2 55.5 7.18***
Age 68.3 69.9 0.52
Work status 94.6 94.1 0.139
Low education attainment 74.2 34.6 261.36***
Reason (opportunity) 31.4 63.2 163.94***
Expects to grow 53.4 75.0 14.82***
Manages and owns an established business 9.4 16.2 79.44***
(2008), by showing that educational level does not always positively relate to alertness. However, this
finding is consistent with Webb et al.’s (2009) argument that the informal economy provides ample op-
portunities for alert entrepreneurs.
Finally, Table 4 shows the differences between income groups in how the variables influence the
decision of individuals to start a business. Gender seems to influence both groups, although women
are more likely to get involved in a start-up in the low-income group than men. Age seems to matter for
the high-income group, especially in the 35 to 45 years old range, while age does not have a significant
affect in the entrepreneurial decision of the low-income group. The likelihood of getting involved in a
start up is positively related to being full or part time employed for the low-income group but does not
seem to affect the high-income group. There were also differences in influence amongst the perceptual
variables. Table 4 shows that for the low-income group, the coefficients of the perceptual variables
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Table 4. Probability of an individual to get involved in a start up (no)
Lower 33% Upper 33%

Estimate ChiSq Prob>ChiSq Estimate ChiSq Prob>ChiSq
Gender (male) .199 4.81 .0284* -.390 8.07 .0045*
Age [18-24] -.064 .13 .7159 -.419 2.57 .1087
Age [25-34] -.013 .77 .3805 -.231 .97 .3239
Age [35-44] .030 2.61 .1061 -.706 9.34 .0022*
Age [45-54] -.152 .65 .4217 .425 1.69 .1942
Work status (Full or part time) -.166 .89 .3467 .073 .08 .7721
Work status (Part time only) -.729 8.72 .0031* .186 .20 .6530
Work status (Retired; disabled) .760 2.15 .1426 -.128 .07 .7968
Work status (Homemaker) 0.5911 4.09 .0432* .228 .12 .7246
Work status (Student) -.664 2.71 .0997 .157 .08 .7748
Education attainment (none) .888 3.02 .0823 .397 .64 .4221
Education attainment (some .342 3.14 .0762 .226 .54 .4610
secondary)
Education attainment (secondary) .092 .02 .6586 -.360 3.00 .0834
Education attainment (post- -.608 3.30 .0691 -.043 .02 .8837
secondary)
Knows entrepreneurs (no) .174 3.88 .0488* .188 1.92 .1659
Sees good opportunities (no) .509 29.25 <.0001* .178 2.19 .1385
Knowledge/skills (no) .678 28.65 <.0001* 1.16 19.36 <.0001*
Fear of failure (no) -.480 19.16 <.0001* -.353 5.51 .0189*
Model diagnostics
RSquare .1461 .1489
Log-Likelihood (difference) -95.714 19.334
* Significant values at the 95% confidence or above
‘perception of future opportunities’, ‘ability to start a business’, and ‘fear of failing’ were all significant
with the latter being negative, as expected. Thus, with the exception of ‘knowing other entrepreneurs’,
perceptual variables significantly influence entrepreneurial decisions of the low-income group. For the
high-income group, only the variables ‘ability to start a business’ and ‘fear of failing’ were significant.
In particular, the difference in magnitude of the coefficient of ‘fear of failing’ of the two groups suggest
that high-income entrepreneurs tend to be less risk adverse than their low-income counterparts.
Our study indicates that low-income entrepreneurs with low levels of education can be as alert as high-
income ones, thus there is entrepreneurial potential throughout the system. However, in response to insti-
tutional disadvantages, these low-income entrepreneurs may be drawn towards the informal economy. We
251

suggest that policymakers need to recognize that entrepreneurial behavior differs depending on income
levels, and specifically that responses to institutions will vary. They thus need to develop mechanisms
that encourage formal and productive entrepreneurship that reflects the heterogeneity of such impacts.
More specifically, we suggest that policies that assume that all strata of society will respond equally to
the institutional environment – a ‘one size fits all’ approach – will result in at best a continued legitimi-
zation of informal activities, or at worse encourage destructive entrepreneurship. Finally, policymakers
need to understand that cognitive (i.e., cultural) influences have the largest impact on opportunity-based
entrepreneurial activity.
Our study is limited due to the use of one data source. Although the GEM program is one of the most
comprehensive series of studies on entrepreneurship, there is a potential sample bias. For example,
informal entrepreneurs may be hesitant to participate in such studies because they would prefer to
maintain a low profile. Indeed, this may be one of the most difficult challenges of studying low-income
entrepreneurship, where the boundaries of informal, illegitimate, illegal, and even criminal activities
may be open to interpretation.
Further research could explore how skills to support productive entrepreneurship can be incorporated
into educational systems and programs designed to promote entrepreneurship within poor communities.
Further research also needs to explore how entrepreneurial alertness is related to productive outcomes,
and how institutions can be aligned to veer poor entrepreneurs away from the informal economy. For
example, our study alluded to how alert entrepreneurs within impoverished communities may be in-
fluenced by negative references, leading to destructive outcomes. A formal test between such negative
references and destructive outcomes would thus provide valuable insights in how activities within the
informal economy can be avoided.
CONCLUSION
Our motivation for this research is based on the argument that entrepreneurial outlook and behavior
differs considerably between low and high-income entrepreneurs in emerging economies. We postulate
that while institutions are important to entrepreneurial behavior, such differences will result in different
responds by, and support for, entrepreneurs. We draw on entrepreneurship and institutional theories and
the GEM survey conducted in Brazil to examine how and why different income segments of the popula-
tion differ in terms of entrepreneurial behavior.
Consistent with the literature, we found that, within upper income levels, men dominate most entre-
preneurial activity. However, counter to the literature, we found that women are more dominant in lower
income levels. Although further research is needed to understand why, we speculate that one reason could
be due to men being more likely to be engaged in criminal activities, and thus unlikely to participate in
the surveys in an attempt to maintain a low profile (see research limitations above). Another reason may
be due to the influence of conditional cash transfer programs such as Bolas Familia where the recipients
of the funds are exclusively mothers providing them with a small revenue stream that can be used as
start-up money for a new venture.
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As expected, our results show that low and high-household income entrepreneurs are significantly
different in terms of socio-demographic characteristics, self-perceptions regarding their entrepreneurial
skills, the social network and entrepreneurial environments in which they operate, and their motivations
to get involved in business. These differences in turn are likely to reflect differences in how entrepreneurs
are able to exploit cognitive and normative institutions. As a result, low-household income entrepreneurs
may be at a disadvantage within the formal economy, as shown by our findings that fewer low-income
entrepreneurs are able to maintain a business than those with higher incomes. Furthermore, in contrast to
high-income entrepreneurs, as time progresses low-income individuals maintain their business increas-
ingly out of necessity rather than perceived opportunity. However, in spite of these disadvantages, we
also found that low-income entrepreneurs are starting businesses at the same rate as those with higher
income levels, but are unlikely to succeed due to their lack of preparedness. Finally, we suggest that, in
response to these institutional disadvantages, low-income entrepreneurs are drawn towards the informal
economy, a problem that policymakers may be able to address by developing mechanisms that take in
consideration heterogeneous responses to common institution environments.
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Low-Income Entrepreneur: A Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) categorical variable that

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260
261
Chapter 13
Determining Influencing Factors
of Currency Exchange Rate
for Decision Making in Global
Economy Using MARS Method
Hasan Dinçer
Istanbul Medipol University, Turkey
Ümit Hacıoğlu
Serhat Yüksel
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study is to identify the determinants of US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate
for strategic decision making in the global economy. Within this scope, quarterly data for the period
between 1988:1 and 2016:2 was used in this study. In addition to this aspect, 10 explanatory variables
were considered in order to determine the leading indicators of US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange
rate. Moreover, Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines (MARS) method was used so as to achieve this
objective. According to the results of this analysis, it was defined that two different variables affect this
exchange rate in Turkey. First of all, it was identified that there is a negative relationship between current
account balance and the value of US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate. This result shows that
in case of current account deficit problem, Turkish Lira experiences depreciation. Furthermore, it was
also concluded that when there is an economic growth in Turkey, Turkish Lira increases in comparison
with US Dollar. While taking into the consideration of these results, it could be generalized that emerging
economies such as Turkey have to decrease current account deficit and investors should focus on higher
economic growth in order to prevent the depreciation of the money in the strategic investment decision.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2673-5.ch013

Determining Influencing Factors of Currency Exchange Rate for Strategic Decision Making
INTRODUCTION
Globalization means that eliminating economic barriers between countries (Dunning, 2002). It was ef-
fective almost all over the world especially after 1970. As a result of this aspect, economies of different
countries became interconnected. This situation brought many advantages to the countries with respect
to the economic growth. On the other hand, globalization also led to many risks for these countries,
such as volatility in the market. In other words, economies of the countries became more fragile to the
extraordinary changes in other countries owing to the globalization. In addition to the negative effects
for the economic stability of the country, these kinds of problems also affect the decisions of the inves-
tors negatively (Yüksel et. al., 2015).
Within this context, the stability of the currency exchange rate is very significant for the economies
of the countries. The main reason behind this situation is that the exchange rate affects many important
factors in the economy such as export, economic growth, and foreign direct investments (Bacchetta
and Van Wincoop, 2000). Therefore, countries always prefer a stable exchange rate in order to prevent
volatility in the market. Otherwise, countries may experience important losses due to high amount of
increase or decrease in the value of exchange rate. In the past, there were many economic crises which
were occurred because of this problem. For example, Southeast Asian countries had important losses in
1998 due to the high amount of changes in currency exchange rate (Corsetti et. al., 1999).
Turkey is also a country which experienced two different economic crises in 1994 and 2000. During
this period, Turkey had significant amount of losses due to high amount of increase in US Dollar/Turk-
ish Lira currency exchange rate. Many companies went bankruptcy owing to the fact that they cannot
manage this increase. As a result of this situation, a lot of people lost their jobs. The effect of this crisis
was so severe that lots of banks were taken over by the Savings Deposit Insurance Fund (SDIF) in this
period (Yüksel, 2016b).
Because of this situation, it can be said that the studies aimed to identify the determinants of the
exchange rate is essential. Parallel to this aspect, the purpose of this study is to define the influencing
factors of US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate. In order to achieve this objective, Multivari-
ate Adaptive Regression Splines (MARS) method was used in this study. With respect to the originality
concept, the most important property of this analysis is that MARS method was used for this subject
firstly in this study. As a result of this analysis, it will be possible to make recommendation so as to have
more stable US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate.
The paper is organized as follows. After introduction part, information about the similar studies in the
literature was given. Additionally, the third part gives information about Multivariate Adaptive Regres-
sion Splines (MARS) method. In this part, firstly general information and model creation process will
be explained. After that, studies in which this method was used will be explained. Moreover, fourth part
includes research and application to understand the determinants of US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency
exchange rate. Finally, the results of the analysis were given at conclusion.
BACKGROUND
Because the subject of determining the value of the exchange rate is very important, there were many
studies in the literature which focused on this subject. Some of these studies were explained on Table 1.
262

Table 1. Similar studies in the literature
Author Scope Method Result
Edwards (1988) 12 developing countries Regression It was concluded that macroeconomic factors influence real exchange rate.
Gagnon (1993) USA Descriptive Statistics Exchange rate variability has a negative effect on the level of trade.
Campa (1993) USA Tobit It was identified that there is negative correlation between exchange rate
volatility and with the number of foreign investors.
Devereux (1997) Canada Regression Macroeconomic factors such as GDP growth and inflation rate affect real
exchange rate.
MacDonald (1998) G7 countries VAR Foreign trade and real interest rate are the significant determinants of real
exchange rate.
Darby et. al. (1999) France, Regression They analyzed the situations in which exchange rate uncertainty affect the
Germany, Italy, UK level of investment or not for different countries.
and USA
Berument (2002) Turkey VAR There is a direct relationship between inflation rate and foreign exchange rates.
Juhn and Mauro (2002) IMF member countries Probit The size of the economy has a significant effect on exchange rate.
Bilgin (2004) Turkey Regression It was defined that there is a strong relationship between foreign exchange rate
and unemployment.
Şimşek (2004) Turkey ARDL Test It was concluded that net foreign assets, M2 money supply1* and trade balance
influence the real exchange rate in Turkey.
Morales-Zumaquero (2006) Canada, Japan, USA SVAR Fluctuations in real exchange rate are explained by inflation rate.
Gül and Ekinci (2006) Turkey Granger Causality Test It was determined that there is a relationship between exchange rate and
inflation.
Candelon et. al. (2007) 8 EU member countries Regression It was analyzed that higher inflation affects exchange rate.
Mark (2009) USA Regression Output gaps and expected inflation are the main determinants of exchange rate.
Cayen et. al. (2010) Australia, Canada, New Regression Commodity price levels are very significant so as to determine real exchange
Zealand rate.
Savaş and Can (2011) Turkey Granger Causality Test Changes in BIST 100 Index affect foreign exchange rate.
Hamori and Hamori (2011) Japan SVAR Real shocks play a dominant role in explaining the real exchange rate
fluctuations.
Dilbaz Alacahan (2011) Turkey Descriptive Statistics High interest rate causes a decrease in foreign exchange rates.
Acar Balaylar (2011) Turkey Descriptive Statistics It was identified that foreign currency rate is affected by unemployment rate.
Chowdhury (2012) Australia ARDL Test It was determined that government expenditures affect real exchange rate.
Berke (2012) Turkey Engle Granger Causality There is a negative relationship between foreign exchange rate and BIST 100
Test index.
Kia (2013) Canada Regression The change in interest rate, the growth of money supply and the US debt per
GDP have a negative impact on the growth of the real exchange rate.
De Grauwe and Markiewicz (2013) USA, UK and Germany Regression It was analyzed that the exchange rate behaves as a random walk.
Rossi (2013) 20 different countries VECM The success of exchange rate prediction depends on the time.
Altıntaş (2013) Turkey ARDL Test Increase in oil prices leads to rise in foreign exchange rate for oil-importing
countries.
Gabaix and Maggiori (2014) USA Regression There is no relationship between exchange rates and inflation rate.
Kaplan and Yapraklı (2014) Turkey Panel Data Analysis Current account deficit, public debt amount and reserves are important
indicators of foreign currency rate.
Ferraro et. al. (2015) USA Regression It was identified that commodity prices can predict exchange rates at a daily
frequency.
Brdys et. al. (2016) Poland Monte Carlo A non-parametric prediction technique was created.
Chaudhury et. al. (2016) India GARCH They created a model in order to predict the value of the Indian rupee.
263

Devereux (1997) tried to analyze real exchange rates in Canada by using regression analysis. As a
result of this analysis, it was concluded that macroeconomic factors such as GDP growth and inflation
rate affect real exchange rate. Berument (2002), Candelon and others (2007) and Morales-Zumaquero
(2006) reached the same conclusion by using different VAR analysis. Similar to these studies, Gül and
Ekinci (2006) identified that high inflation rates are the main cause of exchange rate depreciation in
Turkey. Nevertheless, Gabaix and Maggiori (2014) concluded that there is no relationship between
exchange rates and inflation rate.
In addition to them, there are also some studies that analyzed the relationship between interest rate
and exchange rates. MacDonald (1998) made a study about the exchange rate values in G7 countries and
determined that real interest rate is the significant determinant of real exchange rate. Dilbaz Alacahan
(2011) and Kia (2013) made similar conclusions in their studies with the help of different methods. On
the other hand, Bilgin (2004) identified that there is a strong relationship between foreign exchange rate
and unemployment.
Additionally, some studies in the literature also focused on the relationship between exchange rate
volatility and investment decisions. Campa (1993) tried to analyze this relationship in the USA. Accord-
ing to the results of tobit analysis, it was concluded that there is negative correlation between exchange
rate volatility and with the number of foreign investors. Similar to this study, Gagnon (1993) also de-
termined that exchange rate variability has a negative effect on the level of trade. Moreover, Darby and
others (1999) defined the situations in which exchange rate uncertainty affect the level of investment or
not for different countries.
Furthermore, it was also seen that some studies in the literature focused on the prediction of the cur-
rency exchange rate. De Grauwe and Markiewicz (2013) created a model for USA, UK and Germany in
order to estimate future values of exchange rate. Rossi (2013) also made similar studies for 20 different
countries by using vector error correction method. Additionally, Ferraro et. al. (2015) used regression
analysis so as to predict exchange rate in USA. Parallel to these studies, Chaudhury and others (2016)
also focused on the prediction of the value of the Indian rupee.
RESEARCH AND APPLICATION
Data and Variables
In this study, quarterly data for the period between 1988:1 and 2016:2 was used. The data was provided
from the internet pages of World Bank, Borsa İstanbul, Turkish Statistical Institute and Central Bank
of America. In addition to the data, Eviews8 program was used for unit root test. Moreover, MARS 2.0
program of Salford Company was used in MARS method.
The aim of this study is to determine the leading indicators of US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency
exchange rate. Therefore, this rate was used as a dependent variable. Additionally, by analyzing similar
studies in the literature, 10 different explanatory variables that may affect the value of exchange rate
were defined. The details of these variables were emphasized in Table 2.
GDP growth rate is the first independent variable in this study. The effect of economic growth on
exchange rate depends on the source of the growth. If the main source of GDP growth is household
consumption, this will increase import and local currency will depreciate. On the other hand, if GDP
growth is mainly provided by exports and investments, then local currency will appreciate (Candelon et.
264

Table 2. The details of independent variables
Variable References
GDP Growth Rate Şimşek (2004), Kia (2013), Mark (2009), Devereux (1997), Candelon et. al. (2007), Edwards (1988),
Hamori and Hamori (2011), MacDonald (1998), Juhn and Mauro (2002)
Foreign Capital Inflows Şimşek (2004), Chaudhury et. al. (2016), Edwards (1988), MacDonald (1998), Juhn and Mauro (2002)
Current Account Deficit Şimşek (2004), Bilgin (2004), Kaplan and Yapraklı (2014), Chaudhury et. al. (2016), Chowdhury (2012),
Edwards (1988), Morales-Zumaquero (2006), Juhn and Mauro (2002)
Inflation Şimşek (2004), Gül and Ekinci (2006), Berument (2002), Savaş and Can (2011), Chaudhury et. al. (2016),
Gabaix and Maggiori (2014), Rossi (2013), De Grauwe and Markiewicz (2013), Mark (2009), Devereux
(1997), Cayen et. al. (2010), Hamori and Hamori (2011), MacDonald (1998), Morales-Zumaquero (2006),
Juhn and Mauro (2002)
Reserves Kaplan and Yapraklı (2014), Chaudhury et. al. (2016), Juhn and Mauro (2002)
Interest Rate Dilbaz Alacahan (2011), Chaudhury et. al. (2016), Gabaix and Maggiori (2014), Rossi (2013), De Grauwe
and Markiewicz (2013), Kia (2013), Mark (2009), Cayen et. al. (2010), Chowdhury (2012), MacDonald
(1998)
External Debt Şimşek (2004), Kaplan and Yapraklı (2014), Kia (2013), Cayen et. al. (2010), Chowdhury (2012)
Unemployment Bilgin (2004), Acar Balaylar (2011), Mark (2009)
BIST 100 Index Savaş and Can (2011), Berke (2012)
Oil Price Altıntaş (2013), Chaudhury et. al. (2016), Ferraro et. al. (2015), MacDonald (1998)
al., 2007). Similar to this situation, it can also be said that there is a positive correlation between foreign
direct investment and the reserves with the value of local currency (Edwards, 1988).
Additionally, when there is current account deficit in a country, international reserves of this country
will decrease and this situation will decrease the value of local currency (Morales-Zumaquero, 2006).
Parallel to this aspect, there is also negative relationship between the foreign debt and the value of lo-
cal currency (Chowdhury, 2012). Furthermore, higher inflation rate also decreases the value of local
currency (Devereux, 1997). The main reason behind this issue is that the goods of this country become
more expensive in comparison with import goods. Owing to this situation, higher demand on import
goods leads to decrease in the value of local currency. Because of the same reason, there should also be
negative relationship between oil price and local currency value (Ferraro et. al., 2015).
Moreover, higher interest rate causes the demand of local currency to increase. As a result of this
situation, US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate is expected to decrease (Rossi, 2013). In addi-
tion to this aspect, unemployment rate is also another determinant of the value of exchange rate. Because
unemployment rate is a significant indicator of the economy, the relationship between unemployment
rate and US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate should be positive (Mark, 2009). Due to the
same reason, when there is an increase in BIST 100 index, the value of this exchange rate should de-
crease (Berke, 2012).
MARS Method
Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines (MARS) method was firstly introduced by Jerome Friedman
in 1991. Mainly, it was used in order to determine the relationship between dependent variable and
independent variables. The equation of MARS method is given below.
265

Y = B0 + ∑nK=1 an Bn (Xt ) + ε (1)
In the equation above, “Y” shows dependent variable while “X” refers to the independent variable.
Moreover, “B0” gives information about the constant term. Additionally, “an” shows the coefficient of
the basis function. Furthermore, “ε” explains error term of the equation whereas “K” demonstrates the
number of basis functions.
There are many advantageous of MARS method by comparison with other regression methods. In
this method, smoothing splines are used instead of simple regression line. Owing to this situation, it
will be possible to have more accurate results by using this method. In addition to this issue, there is
no multicollinearity problem that demonstrates the relationship among explanatory variables in MARS
method. Because of this aspect, high number of independent variables can be used in the analysis. The
final advantage of this model is that explanatory variables can take part more than once in equation
with different coefficients. Hence, results of this analysis will be more explanatory in comparison with
other methods (Friedman, 1991).
With respect to the model creation process, there are two different stages. First of all, system produces
all possible basis functions by using different combination of independent variables. After achieving the
most complex model which has maximum number of basis functions, system starts to eliminate some
basis functions from this complex model. In this process, the basis functions which have the highest error
value (GCV-generalized cross validation) will be removed from this model. As a result of this process, the
most ideal model, which has the highest R2 and lowest GCV values, can be achieved (Friedman, 1991).
MARS is a very new model, so there are few numbers of studies in which this model was used. In
addition to this aspect, this model was rarely used in finance and economics area. Sephton (2001) tried
to identify the determinants of the recession in USA and concluded that MARS method gives more ac-
curate results than probit method. Tunay (2001) made a study about the velocity of circulation of money
and identified that it is not stable in Turkey. Moreover, Bolder and Rubin (2007) aimed to determine the
best lending strategy of USA and defined that MARS method is the most efficient method with respect
to determining the best lending strategy.
Also, Muzır (2011) measured the credit risk of the banks in Turkey and concluded that MARS method
measures credit risk better than logit and artificial neural networks. Additionally, Tunay (2011) determined
that MARS method is very successful in order to predict recession. Moreover, Oktar and Yüksel (2015)
explained the leading indicators of Turkish banking crisis by using MARS method. Yüksel (2016a) also
identified the determinants of current account deficit by using this method.
Analysis Results and Findings
In order to understand the relationship between dependent variable and independent variables by us-
ing MARS method, first of all, stationary analysis of these variables should be made. For this purpose,
Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) and Philips Peron (PP) tests were used. The results of these tests were
given in Table 3.
As it can be seen from Table 3, level values of two independent variables (Growth Rate and Current
Account Balance) are less than 0.05 according to the results of both two tests. This situation shows that
only these two variables are stationary at their level values. Because level values of other 8 variables
are more than 0.05, their first differences were used in the analysis. After stationary analysis, MARS
method gave us 8 different models which were explained in Table 4.
266

Table 3. Unit root test results of independent variables
Variable Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) Test Philips Peron Test

Level Value First Difference Value Level Value First Difference
(Probability) (Probability) (Probability) Value (Probability)
Growth Rate 0.0000 - 0.0000 -
Foreign Direct Investment 0.4313 0.0125 0.3927 0.0419
Current Account Balance 0.0097 - 0.0040 -
Inflation Rate 0.6563 0.0000 0.3677 0.0000
Reserve 0.4313 0.0000 0.6118 0.0000
Interest Rate 0.4040 0.0000 0.0953 0.0000
Government Debt 0.9309 0.0295 0.8366 0.0000
Unemployment Rate 0.6302 0.0000 0.6035 0.0000
BIST 100 Index 0.3104 0.0000 0.4391 0.0000
Oil Prices 0.6533 0.0000 0.1440 0.0000
Table 4. All models created by MARS method
Number of Basis Functions Number of Variables GCV GCV R2

8 3 0.373 0.502
7 3 0.356 0.525
6 2 0.345 0.540
5 2 0.336 0.552
4 2 0.334 0.555
**3 2 0.333 0.556
2 2 0.341 0.546
1 1 0.449 0.401
As it can be understood from Table 4, each row represents different model. The undermost line shows
us the starting model that has only one variable and basis function. In the analysis, the system added
some basis functions to this starting model. This process went on until the system reaches the most
complex model. The first row in Table 4 represents the most complex function in the analysis. It has 8
basis functions and 3 different explanatory variables. After that, the system eliminated some unneces-
sary basis functions from the most complex model. As a result of this process, the system achieved the
best model. In Table 4, the model, which has the sign of “**”, explains the best model. It has 3 basis
functions and 2 independent variables. On the other hand, it can also be seen that the best model has
the lowest GCV value and highest GCV R2 value. The details of the best model were given on Table 5.
As it can be seen from Table 5, the p values of all basis functions in the best model are less than
0.05. This means that all of the functions are statistically significant. In addition to this situation, the
probability value of F test (0.000) is also less than 0.05. This aspect shows that the model is also mean-
ingful as a whole. Moreover, the value of adjusted R2 (0.597) indicates that independent variables can
267

Table 5. Statistical information about the best model
Variable Coefficient p Value

Constant 1.755 0.000
Basis Function 3 0.253 0.008
Basis Function 7 -0.085 0.000
Basis Function 9 -0.281 0.000
F Test 56.717 [0.000] p Value 0.000
R2 0.607 Adj. R2 0.597
explain 59.7% of the dependent variable. Furthermore, the details of the basis functions in the model
were explained on Table 6.
From Table 6, it can be understood that two independent variables affect US Dollar/Turkish Lira
currency exchange rate. The variable of current account balance was stated in both basis function 3 and
9. The coefficients of these functions are 0.253 and -0.281. Because the absolute value of negative coef-
ficient is higher, this means that there is a negative relationship between the current account balance and
US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate. In other words, when there is a current account deficit,
the value of US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate will be higher. The main reason behind this
situation is that international reserves of this country will decrease and foreign debt will increase in case
of current account deficit. As a result of this issue, value of local currency will decrease. This conclusion
is similar to many studies in the literature (Chowdhury, 2012), (Edwards, 1988), (Morales-Zumaquero,
2006), (Juhn and Mauro, 2002).
Another significant variable according to the analysis is the economic growth. This variable was
stated in basis function 7 in the best model. On the other side, the coefficient of this variable is -0.085.
That is to say, there is a negative relationship between GDP growth rate and US Dollar/Turkish Lira.
This situation shows us that when there is an economic growth in a country, Turkish Lira gains more
value in comparison with the US Dollar. The reason for this aspect is that when GDP growth is mainly
provided by exports and investments, then local currency will appreciate in that country. Devereux
(1997), Candelon et. al. (2007), Edwards (1988), Hamori and Hamori (2011), MacDonald (1998) and
Juhn and Mauro (2002) also reached the same conclusion. The importance levels of these variables were
given on Table 7.
As a result of the analysis, the best model in our analysis was formed as following.
Y = 1.755 + 0.253 * BF3 - 0.085 * BF7 - 0.281 * BF9
Table 6. Details of the basis functions in the model
Basis Functions Details Coefficient

Basis Function 3 max (0, Current Account Balance + 0.110) 0.253
Basis Function 7 max (0, GDP Growth – 1.000) -0.085
Basis Function 9 max (0, Current Account Balance + 4.610) -0.281
268

Table 7. Variable importance in the model
Variable Cost of Omission Importance (%)

Current Account Balance 0.592 100.00
GDP Growth 0.381 42.845
In this study, determinants of US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate were tried to be analyzed. As
it can be understood from this aspect, volatility of the exchange rate for only one country was evaluated.
Because this subject is very significant for the countries, another research for this issue which includes
many different countries will be very beneficial for the economies to make strategic decisions. While
making this kind of analysis, it will be possible to consider different situations in order to understand
the volatility of the exchange rates.
CONCLUSION
It was aimed to analyze the determinants of US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate in this
study. Within this context, 10 independent variables were taken into the consideration. In addition to
this situation, quarterly data of these variables for the period between 1988:1 and 2016:2 was used in
this study. Furthermore, Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines (MARS) method was used so as to
achieve this objective.
First of all, unit root test was made for the independent variables to understand whether they station-
ary or not. Within this scope, Augmented Dickey Fuller (ADF) and Phillps Perron (PP) tests were used.
As a result of this analysis, it was understood that only two independent variables (Growth Rate and
Current Account Balance) are stationary on their level values. Because other 8 independent variables
are not stationary on their level values, the first difference of these variables were used in the analysis.
After stationary analysis, the influencing factors of US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate
were determined by using MARS method. MARS model provided 8 different models to us. Out of them,
one model was chosen as the best model by the system. This model has 3 basis functions and two differ-
ent independent variables. Moreover, it has the lowest GCV value and highest GCV R2 value.
According to the results of the analysis, it was determined that two independent variables affect
US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate. The first significant variable in the analysis is current
account balance which was stated in basis function 3 and 9. While considering the value of the coef-
ficients, it was identified that there is a negative relationship between the current account balance and
US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate. This means that the value of US Dollar/Turkish Lira
currency exchange rate will be higher in case of current account deficit. When there is a current account
deficit, there will be decrease in the amount of the reserves and the demand for US Dollar will increase.
Therefore, the value of Turkish Lira will decrease in comparison to US Dollar.
269

In addition to this situation, it was also concluded that economic growth is also another important
indicator of US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate. This variable was stated in basis function 7
and the coefficient of this variable is -0.085. Since the coefficient is negative, it can be understood that
there is an inverse relationship between economic growth and US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange
rate. In other words, when GDP growth is mainly provided by exports and investments, the value Turkish
Lira will increase by comparison with US Dollar.
The value of exchange rate affects many important factors in the economy such as export, economic
growth, and foreign direct investments. Owing to this situation, it can be said that the value of the ex-
change rate plays a very important role for the economies. Hence, countries try to determine the way of
providing a stable exchange rate in order to prevent volatility in the market. According to the results of
this analysis, the reasons of the volatile US Dollar/Turkish Lira currency exchange rate were determined.
Therefore, it can be recommended that Turkey has to decrease current account deficit and should focus
on higher economic growth in order to prevent the depreciation of Turkish Lira. Thus, volatility in Turk-
ish economy will be minimized. In addition to this situation, these conclusions will be also helpful for
investor so as to make strategic investment decision.
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Currency Exchange Rate: It shows the ratio of local currency of a country to a foreign currency.
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): Investment made by a company in another country.
Global Economy: The economies of the whole countries, considered as a single economic system.
Strategic Decision: Action of a company that affects key factors and long run performance.
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among multiple time series.
ENDNOTES
1
M2 Money supply includes cash, deposits, money market securities, mutual funds and other time
deposits.
273
274
Chapter 14
Economic Partnership
Agreement Mexico-Japan
and Its Impact on Foreign
Direct Investment:
A Strategic Analysis
José G. Vargas-Hernández
University of Guadalajara, Mexico
ABSTRACT
This chapter is intended to analyze the advantages to associate with a developing country like México
from the perspective of the theories of the Agency, Institutional, Resource-based Theory and the Theory
of Transaction Costs. Generally, FDI contributes to capital formation, expansion and diversification of
exports, increasing competition, provide access to top technology and improving management systems.
Mexico is of the largest FDI recipients within the developing countries. Japan, on the other hand, is one
of the largest sources of FDI worldwide, and is gaining a larger share in the Mexican FDI context since
the onset of the Economic Partnership Agreement. In this paper, factors that might lead to the depletion
of productive spillovers from Japanese manufacturing companies are reviewed from a qualitative per-
spective. The analysis suggests that inefficiencies in endogenous companies; and Japanese companies
being part of firm networks (keiretsu), might lead to productive spillovers depletion.
INTRODUCTION
For decades Mexico has have a good relationship with Japan. The leaders of both countries have struggled
to maintain a relationship of friendly cooperation to benefit the development of both countries. Mexico,
being a source of coarse natural resources has always been in the crosshairs of industries of several
countries and in recent years has improved its trade relationship with Japan to complement the lack of
resources of the Asian country.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2673-5.ch014

Economic Partnership Agreement Mexico-Japan and Its Impact on Foreign Direct Investment
Japan as an island has limits in the scope of resources, especially agricultural. It is a country that
imports 60% of its population consumes in food. This is why it is a sourcing seeking country to resolve
its situation in scarcity of resources. Mexico and Japan have economic characteristics that make them
complementary to each other, mainly in the food sector, where Mexico could position itself as a leading
supplier of agricultural and livestock products. This complementarity should contribute to economic
development in both countries through trade and investment.
The commercial relationship between Mexico and the countries of North America and Europe has
grown over the decades due to the incursions of several free trade agreements such as NAFTA and the
TLCUE. On the other hand Japan’s participation in the country’s imports is down from 6.1% in 1994
to 4.8% in 2001, while the share of Mexico’s total exports fell from 1.6% in 1994 to $ 0.3% in 2001.
As regards the Japanese FDI, Mexico received between 1994 – 2001only 3.3% of equity (Secretaría de
Economía, 2015).
In 2005 entered into force the Economic Partnership Agreement between Mexico and Japan, a
marketing agreement between the two countries would promote cooperation and boost the economy of
them. But will it be to an emerging economy booming, why he chose Mexico for free trade? The answer
can be seen through the theories: Theory of transaction costs, agency theory, theory based on resources
and institutional theory. It begins by giving a brief overview of the relationship between Mexico and
Japan, then a review of the theories that are to be used for reference and end explaining the importance
of Mexico as a trading partner.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The aim of this study is to determine the impact of Japanese FDI in manufacturing in Mexico in terms
of technological spills that occur in the sector. In addition, to establish whether there are flaws that do
not allow technological spillovers generated, if any, are older.
JUSTIFICATION
Mexico, like other countries invested in measures to attract foreign direct investment to their territories.
Trade liberalization becomes stronger in the eighties, significantly reducing import tariffs on average
that passed during the course of a period of three years from 23.5% to 11.8%. The base of products with
low tariffs was from 92% to 25.4% during the same period 1985-1987. Additionally, the mid-nineties
initiated reductions to barriers on investment from abroad, privatization of public enterprises, among
others (Hanson and Harrison, 1999).
It was decided to revise the Japanese FDI due to the significant growth experienced in recent years,
and the weight it has gained in the total FDI that has received Mexico. Particularly Japanese FDI in
manufacturing, given that, as presented above, is the category to which most of Japanese FDI goes.
Additionally, the manufacturing sector generates great interest in inter-industry and intra-industry con-
nections that may arise.
275

BACKGROUND
After the problems of commercial banks from the 80’s, due to the difficulty of attracting capital to de-
velop projects, many countries eased restrictions on the entry of foreign direct investment (FDI). For this,
developing countries resorted to various measures to attract FDI. Governments in developing countries
see on FDI the possibility of accelerating the economic growth of their countries through economic
spills and knowledge transfers (Carkovic, and Levine, 2002). These economic spills can occur within
the same industry or inter-industrial way.
Mexico receives around 20% of FDI coming to the region. This situation is a result of changes in the
policies that led the country out from the economic crises of the seventies and eighties. Policies focused
on liberalization, promotion of trade, privatization, among others (Jordaan, 2009). FDI coming to Mexico
has as its main source, the United States, as it is possible to foresee, given the geographic proximity. The
strong bilateral trade and free trade that brought down tariff barriers between them countries, with 53%
on average between 1999 and 2010 followed by Spain, the Netherlands and Canada (Guzman, 2014).
At the end of 2014 it was expected that FDI flows into Mexico reached 24,000 million dollars and
for 2015 is expected to exceed 28,000 million according to the economic expectations of specialists.
Mexico as a country occupying the tenth largest FDI recipient worldwide, receiving 2.6% of world flows
in 2013, surpassing the 12-position obtained in 2013 (Ministry of Economy, 2014). Mexico has played
an active role in the search for new treaties and opportunities to enable their companies to access new
markets. This work is reflected in the ten free trade agreements with forty-five countries that permit
thirty bilateral agreements on investment promotion, and nine limited (Promexico, 2014). Within these
agreements signed, the agreement is found the Mexico-Japan Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA)
in 2005.
The Ministry of Economy of Mexico (2002), in its final report states that the agreement of Economic
Partnership Association (EPA) represents a great opportunity for both countries to exploit complementa-
rities between them, which will result in social and economic benefits for both countries. Both countries
have large markets, more than one hundred million people in Mexico, over 120 million people in the
Japanese market. In addition they are two of the 15 largest economies in the world. Additionally, there
are complementarities in resource endowments of both countries, Mexico with labor, land and natural
resources, while Japan has economic resources and knowledge.
Therefore, from the point of view of Japan, it was keen to exploit the competitive advantages that
Mexico could offer to this country, including the possibility of directly accessing the US and Canadian
market without tariff barriers. This is evident in the case of manufacturing industries, especially the
automotive and electronics through the use of NAFTA. Additionally, localized in Mexico, Japanese
companies would have the same facilities as companies in other countries with which Mexico has signed
agreements to place their products in the Mexican market. Add to the above Carrillo (2014) that for
Mexico signing the EPA would give preference to 99% of exports to Japan, many of these products in
the agricultural sector. Being Japan a country that imports 60% of food consumed, it is a business of
great economic importance.
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Japan is itself one of the largest underwriters of FDI in the world, ranking among the five countries
with higher outward FDI between 2008 and 2009, according to the Report on Investment in the World,
2010, despite the international financial crisis. For Mexico, Japan ranks ninth in FDI source as aver-
ages between 1999 and 2010, reaching 1% of this. However, it is observed a tendency for these flows
continue to grow, allowing FDI from Japan to achieve greater weight in the total investments (Carrillo
and Okabe, 2014). Despite the above, and the belief that FDI generates positive externalities in the host
country through productive spills, Hanson (2001) states that there is empirical evidence for and against
assertion, especially as regards the welfare of the country receiver, where there is conflicting evidence.
In this article it seeks to analyze qualitatively and from a perspective of spillovers, FDI from Japan,
mainly in the manufacturing sector, in order to study the generated productive spills by this industry,
so intra-industry mainly to below. Also, to review if indeed the Japanese FDI is presenting productive
spills, and analyze what factors might diminish. For this, it is reviewed some aspects related with the
efficiency of Mexican suppliers and institutional aspects of Japanese companies.
RECENT LITERATURE REVIEW
An analysis of the emergence of the Economic Partnership Agreement Mexico – Japan by manger
(2005) asserts that it has the character of a defensive reaction initiative triggered by the impact of the
North American Free Trade Agreement, giving the opportunities to Japanese companies to invest in
México in the automobile, electronics and auto parts industries, among others. Not only Mexico is the
market but also is a platform to export products made by Japanese firms. The Japanese approach to use
a framework of bilateral trade agreements, as it is the case with Mexico, is analyzed by Sutton (2015).
A more recent analysis on “Economic Partnership Agreement Mexico - Japan: Analysis of Trade
Creation and Trade Diversion 1999-2013” conducted by Lugo Sánchez (2016), she does not find any
evidence that the Economic Partnership Agreement between Mexico and Japan (EPAMJ) has contrib-
uted to increase Mexico and Japan’s trade with 23 countries from 1999. Other study by Guzman-Anaya
(2016) found increase in foreign direct investment flows from Japan to Mexico and determines the main
factors that affect local suppliers of Japanese Automobile multinational firms doing business in Western
México under the framework of Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA).
Other analysis conducted by Carrillo Regalado (2016) concluded that the foreign trade between Japan
and Mexico does not support the hypothesis that the Economic Partnership Agreement has a significant
stimulus over the volume of bilateral trade. On the other hand, González Bravo (2016) studies the exports
of manufacturing firms located in the State of Jalisco to Japan finding that the number of companies
doing business with Japan had increased 60% after the agreement.
MEXICO-JAPAN RELATIONSHIP
Mexico is the world’s ninth largest economy and represents a market of about 100 million people (Sec-
retaría de economía, 2015). It is a country with abundant flora and fauna, with young and dynamic labor
at low cost and in constant training work. Japan is the second largest economy and has an active market
of 126 million people, is a country with high capital, purchasing power and leading edge technology.
The boundary with North America returns to Mexico an attractive country to invest in it, produce and
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market goods to the American market, taking advantage of NAFTA and other treaties and agreements that
Mexico has with more than 45 countries, so that countries like Japan are seeking to collaborate through
economic agreements to reap the benefits in access to resources, as well as trade relations.
On the other hand, Japan has a growing economy. It is an important potential source of foreign direct
investment and has a market for Mexican goods that could be very productive. In addition, besides this
would generate the economic spill that should consider the benefit of the bilateral agreement, as the
transfer of technology and knowledge, which is contributing to the creation of jobs and an increased
competitiveness of human resources. By diversifying the export market, Mexico decrease its economic
dependence on the United States, its main trading partner and which directs most of its exports.
Based on a friendly relationship led for decades between Japan and Mexico, it was consolidated with
the signing of AAEMJ in the year 2005. The agreement was in negotiation for two years. A study group
was formed for the realization comprised of government officials, businessmen and academics from
both countries. On September 17, 2004 it was signed, during the government of Vicente Fox Quezada,
coming into force on April 1, 2005 (Secretaría de Economía, 2015).
For Japan this treaty represented the first large-scale free trade agreement with Latin American
country. To Mexico, it represents a market of potential consumers on a large scale. The main objective
of the agreement is to promote trade liberalization and investment between Mexico and Japan, through
tariff reduction and the facilitation of customs and immigration procedures. Expectations for Mexico’s
AAEMJ focused on expanding FDI from Japan, to increase and diversify Mexican exports and the
promotion of the development of productive chains, led by quality inputs related to the commissary of
Japanese companies by Mexican companies (Garcia De Leon, 2010).
ON FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT
However, FDI is not distributed equitably among countries. The location of FDI and industry is a relevant
concern that has been investigated since Marshall (1890) in his book Principles of Economics. He identi-
fied some factors, mainly physical, such as climate, soil, mineral resources, among others. Thereafter,
the location of industry and its determinants, more recently, the study of the location of FDI, has been
studied in the economy, leading to the identification of new factors beyond the purely physical aspects.
Jordaan (2009) identifies four general factors recurring in literature. These are the potential demand
which can be estimated by per capita income, GDP, population density, among others.
Companies seek to anticipate the potential market that would have on the region and others that
could access their products easily. Another general aspect is the regional production costs, costs related
to labor, access to resources markets, and intermediate goods that require companies. It is possible to
sense that companies prefer to settle in regions where these costs are lower, and have higher returns. But
some studies have shown that there is a positive relationship between wage levels and FDI, a situation
that can be explained in the case of wages efficiency (Head et al, 1999).
Other factors identified by Jordaan (2009) are the public policies that encourage the arrival of foreign
companies and FDI. Within regional policy strongly related FDI inflows are those related to corporate
taxes, benefits to job creation, tax exemptions, among others. Finally, the presence of agglomeration
economies is a key location for FDI. The importance of agglomeration lies in different aspects such as
the flow of knowledge, human capital, and ease of access to suppliers and distributors, among others.
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CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Several theories are used for the study of the relationship between Mexico and Japan under the Economic
Partnership Agreement signed in 2004 and implemented in 2005. The benefits of the bilateral treaty
are analyzed under the agency theory, resources and capabilities theory and theory of transaction costs.
The research strategy in emerging countries has gained importance in recent years. Emerging coun-
tries have gained weight internationally, politically and economically context speaking. This has led
some of the attention to these countries. Xu and Meyer (2012) decided to make a literature review on
the development of research in emerging markets, checking that has obviously increased the number of
articles on developing economies. Institutional theory is the mainstream of theoretical approach in the
field; however, new perspectives appear as learning relationships, real options, spillovers, among others.
Spillover is the way that technology and human capital spills and is transmitted to local companies or
endogenous, from FDI. Four channels for the transmission of spills from product of FDI are identified:
1. Effects of demonstration and Imitation, local businesses learn by imitating and observing foreign
companies.
2. Effects of competition, through competitive firms increase production and become more competitive.
3. Effects of connection with foreign companies, through linking companies, foreign ones transmit
knowledge to endogenous.
4. Training effects. Local companies hire people who were previously trained by multinationals as a
means of transmitting knowledge or technology (Kinoshita, 2001).
Importantly, the absorption capacity of the company and the effort made in learning, are critical fac-
tors for spills to become effective (Kinoshita, 2001). Glaeser et al. (1992) believes that spills related to
knowledge are the “engine of growth” of economies and has three models of how knowledge spills occur.
1. Externalities Marshall-Arrow-Romer type, which are between firms in the same industry. He states
that the concentration of firms in the same industry in a city helps spills between companies gener-
ated, allowing businesses to grow equally to the city. This can happen in different ways, such as
the spy, imitation, and ease of movement of human capital, among others.
2. The second approach, proposed by Porter (1990), goes in the same direction as the Marshall-Arrow-
Romer. It believes that knowledge spillovers also generate positive effects on the industry and the
region. However, it believes that it is through local competition that companies are encouraged to
innovate and quickly adopt the advances that occur in the sector. Companies should strive to remain
on the market or disappear against new coming firms.
3. Finally the third, where Jacobs (1969) believes that the greatest advances and innovations are
developed outside the industry, so more than the agglomeration of firms in the same sector. It is
necessary inter-industrial agglomeration is generated.
There are also critical positions on FDI and technological spillovers generated. Some authors believe
that foreign investment does not necessarily produce technological spillovers and increased productivity.
Blomström and Kokko (2003) argue that an increase in FDI does not necessarily imply an increase in
national welfare. Since the arrival of investment by foreign companies, it is not immediately in an in-
279

crease in productivity on the part of local businesses through spills. By contrast, local companies should
be keen to learn and absorb knowledge.
Similarly, Cheol-Sung, Nielson and Alderson (2007) consider, based on the theory of dependency, that
when countries are dependent on FDI, this could have a negative impact on economic growth. Depend-
ing entirely on foreign companies might not allow local businesses to grow, destroying local businesses
and affect the country’s development.
Agency Theory
Agency theory arises from the need for organizations to delegate and make decisions. When the own-
ers or principals at top management positions begin to delegate decision-making to other individuals
or agents in a process that involves monitoring, control and error correction begins. The agency theory
studies the existing problems between the main positions based on its goal of study. The first is the
positivist who mainly focuses on the relationship of firm owners and managers of the organization. The
second line is more general and focuses on the relationship that can be found in many situations where
there is this dual relationship of the owner and the agent (Vargas-Hernandez, Guerra Garcia Bojorquez
Gutierrez Gutierrez Bojorquez, 2014).
productivo, Tambta importante y posee un mercado para bienes mexicanos que podrCANproductivo,
Tambta importante y posee un mercado para bienes mexicanos que podrCAN
The owners of the company are the people who provide the economic capital and own the firm. Pat-
terns, according to Peng (2010) are classified into three:
1. The concentrated ownership is made up of the founders and as it expands will be involving more
shareholders becoming a diverse ownership.
2. Family property, which is comprised of members of a family whose objectives are common although
sometimes members are unqualified for the tasks.
3. State ownership where the state is the main owner and often lacks adequate incentives for people
working in these companies.
There is another theory called Reconsidered Agency Theory which indicates that not all agents are
equal and some executives are doing more to be effective managers in creating a sustainable corporation.
Apart from these statements in Mexican companies have the same classification of property owners,
most companies start out as family businesses that continue growing, evolving and entering international
markets so the companies that manage to internationalize have overcome major barriers as lack of incen-
tives, low skills, and little knowledge. As the company grows it will need more staff and shareholders to
invest and controls the actions of subordinates. There are also state-owned enterprises that sell services
to Japanese companies located in the country to improve trade cooperation.
In conducting the activities in the agency theory of delegating functions and decision-making firms
incur in various restructuring costs, monitoring and binding contracts between agents. The AAEMJ
aims to facilitate the paperwork for the Japanese companies to import their trained human resources to
management positions to improve management activities and reduce the quotas for the free access of
human resources. The principal agent theoretical model may not apply to Japanese concentrated owner-
280

ship structures (Ojo, 2013). However, an empirical research on the principal-agent theoretical model
shows that it is week in the Japanese context of firms. Buchanan, Heesang Chai, & Deakin (2013) use
the theoretical model of agency to explain corporate governance of the Japanese firms and found that
shareholders do not behave as principals.
For Mexican companies, the agency theory explains that opportunism taking place in business is
due to the reason that agents seek their own benefits. So employees fall into corrupt processes and the
mismanagement of resources. The AAEMJ seeks to implement that better relations between the two
countries, to facilitate customs and import resources procedures is to eliminate corruption in the market-
ing channels, which benefits SMEs in the country who wish to seek a new market policies.
Apart from the agreement there are other government measures to take action by state governments
to improve internationalization experience, this through courses, seminars, etc. that show how to per-
form the export process and give advice with customs formalities, transport and denomination of origin.
Theory Based on Resources and Capabilities
The industry is analyzed by companies to make tools that allow them to understand the preferences of
consumers in relation to their product or service offered and the position of competing companies in
consumer preference. Porter designed the model of the five forces that shape the vision of industry-based
strategy. These five forces are:
1. Intensity of Rivalry Between Competitors: Here are six different situations

a. The number of competitors is crucial.
b. The size of the competitor influence on competition.
c. Set the domain can be difficult.
d. The new capabilities increase the rivalry.
e. The decrement or deterioration of the company makes desperate measures.
f. The large exit costs are reflected in loses.
2. Threat of Potential Entries: Established firms are concerned to keep out of the market potential
adversaries’ incoming companies and create a brand identity and product and loyalty to their firm
customers.
3. Bargaining Power of Suppliers: Four conditions or possible situations to negotiate with suppliers
arise:
a. That the industry has few suppliers and they have the power to decide the price or vice versa.
b. The supplier provides unique and different products.
c. The firm is not an important client.
d. The supplier is able to enter the focal industry.
4. Bargaining Power of Buyers: Here come four conditions:
a. The group of buyers is small.
b. Products produced no savings or benefit to the quality and life of the consumer.
c. Purchase standard products and raw materials without preferred brands.
d. Enter the focal industry through backward integration.
5. Threat of Substitutes: A substitute, being a product that satisfies a consumer need that usually
meets other product or service is subject to the price at which supply products. Its main threat is a
price decrease of the focal firm.
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For the company, resources and products can be two sides of the same coin, but many products require
multiple resources and most resources can be used in various products. The resources of a firm at a given
time can be defined as those (tangible and intangible) assets that are semi-permanently attached to the
firm and used to take their production process and realize their product. A barrier to entry without a bar-
rier resource positioning leaves the company vulnerable to diversify inputs. A technological advantage
allows the firm to have higher incomes and to allow further develop more ideas than its competitors
(Vargas-Hernandez, Guerra Garcia Bojorquez Gutierrez Gutierrez Bojorquez, 2014).
Companies need to find the resources to maintain their position in the barrier of resources but nobody
have yet, and therefore allow them to be among the few who succeeded in creating these resources. Re-
sources should be combined well with those who have currently and that competes with few to acquire
it. And to develop and build the capacity of its human resources to enable them to compete with the
competition and conduct the production process effectively and efficiently.
Product design and the introduction of organizational capabilities aimed to cut time and cost in the
automobile industry enable Japanese firms to develop new products (Clark and Fujimoto 1991; Nobeoka
and Cusumano 1997). Lieberman, & Dhawan (2005) measure the linkages between resources and ca-
pabilities with performance to demonstrate the efficiency of a Japanese automobile industry in scale
economies and manufacturing. The economic growth of Japan increased very fast during the eighties
of the last century based on innovation, reverse engineering technology and benchmarking capabilities,
despite the scarce resources (Dahlman, 2007).
Being able to access resources and difficult access to power generating and developing competitive
skills in their employees, companies create a competitive advantage over other competitors in their sector,
which can determine their permanence in the market. Speaking of Mexican companies when negotiating
with national products and resources that do not exist in another continent or have a cost of excessive
production, have since their foray into the Japanese market a competitive advantage that if they know it
to handle can achieve significant growth business based on exports made. The main products exported
to Japan are derived from agricultural activities but major Japanese companies coming to invest in the
country are manufacturing. So, both countries benefit from AAEMJ to commercialize goods that are
difficult to produce in their commercial counterparts.
Japanese companies established in Mexico have been attracted by the potential both domestically and
by the nearby economies: the United States and some Latin American countries. The critical masses of
companies that have shaped clusters (cluster) have been another reason to be interested in Mexico. The
clusters have been established not only in traditional Border States such as Baja California or Nuevo
Leon, but in the Mexican Lowers (Bajio), in states like Aguascalientes, Queretaro and Guanajuato (Falck
Reyes, De la Vega Shiota, 2014).
Mexican natural resources that are exported in consumable supplies like salt grain, avocado, beef, tuna,
to name a few, have abundance in the country and allow Mexican companies embrace a new market and
not only compete in the local market, which is already saturated with similar companies. Mexican crafts
also have great momentum abroad, favoring those sectors that were disappearing in the country. On the
other hand FDI by Japanese companies in different states of Mexico contribute to the development of
the area where they are located, to create jobs, use local products and train human personnel and favors
the Japanese company with cheap labor and easy access to natural resources that abound in the country.
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Theory of Transaction Costs
Transaction costs are the costs incurred by the company or provider to get their goods or services to
consumers. The agenda of the organizations is the value that is given to the decisions made in terms of
getting information that the company needs (Vargas-Hernandez, Guerra García, Bojórquez Gutiérrez,
Bojórquez Gutierrez, 2014). It should be understood that there is a direct relationship between employers
and employees and that this relationship is direct and uses the capabilities of both to achieve the objec-
tives of the company. The agency incurs various costs to conduct activities such as restructuring costs,
monitoring and binding of a series of contracts between agents with conflicting interests. The agency
theory assumes that agents tend to be opportunists who will seek their own benefit.
Asymmetric information provides the basis for opportunism. Opportunism is selfish advantage
seeking an individual over others. Is when an individual uses deception or skills for the greater good or
service at a price equal to or lower than other consumers (Vargas-Hernandez, Guerra Garcia Bojorquez
Gutierrez Gutierrez Bojorquez, 2014).
Companies to achieve lower transaction costs can create a significant competitive advantage, improve
their production, and achieve to reduce the cost of their product at low prices to compete or attain a
greater margin of profits maintaining its market price. The AAEMJ to facilitate procedures and reduce
tariffs enables companies of both countries and promotes the consumption of the products offered by
its trading partner.
According to the AMIA between 2003 and 2013, 140 Japanese companies announced investment
projects in the country, some of these companies are: Nissan, Toyota Motor, Mitsui & Co. and Mitsubi-
shi Corporation, Honda, Bridgestone, Kyocera, Sharp, Sumimoto and Mazda. This group of companies
contributed 67% of the announced investment. The states with the biggest Japanese investment flows
are Aguascalientes, (27% of the investment), Guanajuato (18%), Nuevo Leon (8%), Baja California (7%)
and Morelos (5.2%) (Falck Reyes, De la Vega Shiota, 2014). On the other hand, Mexican companies
that export have also benefited from reduced transaction costs to market their products to Japan. The
following (table 1) shows the increase in exports in recent years.
Institutional Theory
The institutions based view claims that the conditions of the business and industry should consider the
impact of state and society when framing its strategy. The laws, regulations and rules are the regulatory
pillar of the behavior of individuals and businesses. The fundamental changes to the formal and informal
rules that affect organizations and players are defined as institutional transaction.
On the other hand, from the industrial perspective, Porter (1990) lists four factors affecting industries:
1. Firm strategy, structure and rivalry.

2. Factor endowments.
3. Related and supporting industries.
4. Domestic demand.
The theory of the industry based view defines two proposals on the importance of institutions, which
are summarized below.
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Table 1. Mexican exports to Japan in millions of dollars Mexican exports to Japan
Year Investments
2005 1,470.0
2006 1,594.0
2007 1,912.6
2008 2,046.0
2009 1,600.6
2010 1,925.6
2011 2,252.3
2012 2,610.7
2013 2,244.1
2014 2,609.20
* Value in Million
Source: Based on data from the Ministry of Economy (May, 2015).
1. As managers and companies make strategic decisions in a rational way, depending on interests and
constraints.
2. As the restrictions relating to the management of the company. Taking into account the culture of
the company which has been the know-how of the institution.
Abroad it can be taken two forms of ethics to combine with the country’s culture, ethical relativism
that is adapted to the customs of the country in which is or ethical imperialism that is the belief in one
universal ethics. Ethics is a principle that helps to fight corruption, so you should inculcate in citizens
from an early age. By introducing the company in a new country must make three decisions for action:
1. It is important to have an understanding of the formal and informal institutions.

2. Strengthen intercultural awareness information by expanding knowledge.
3. Integrate ethical decision-making as part of the strategic process.
Property rights are social institutions that define or delimit the range of privileges granted by individu-
als to specific assets. Property rights can be moral, exclusive, unlimited or perpetual right. Institutional
theory explains how the firm adapts to the environment that surrounds the speculations, expectations
and environmental regulations and rules or sanctions that affect it.
In recent decades, multinational companies have taken advantage to the organization of production
of advances in information technology, declining trends in transportation costs and the proliferation of
free trade agreements, regional and bilateral, fragmenting the production processes (Falck Reyes and
de la Vega Shiota, 2014).
The EPA (AAE) has been particularly beneficial for the promotion of Mexican exports with low
value added. This situation is even more problematic to the extent that the provisions of the Agreement
provide for exports of Mexican products in bulk, thus limiting the increase in the value added by its
preparation to get ready for final consumption (Ramirez Bonilla, 2014). Apart from the benefits it gives
the AAEMJ for Mexican companies; it has a significant government support in terms of advice and
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assistance to exporters. One example is the YOEXPORTO (I export) program, from the government of
Jalisco, which is a course that will guide step by step from market selection, packaging, transportation,
port procedures, etc., to optimize experience and facilitate trade to Japan or to another country through
agreements or free trade agreements
METHODS
This paper presents a theoretical and literature review on foreign direct investment inflows from Japan
into Mexico in manufacturing revision. From the qualitative and quantitative results obtained by different
authors to determine the impact of FDI in terms of technological spillovers generated.
BARRIERS IN THE PRODUCTION OF JAPANESE FDI

SPILL IN THE MANUFACTURING SECTOR OF MEXICO
ANALYSIS FROM THE LITERATURE REVIEW
FDI and Spillovers
Several international studies have been conducted to try to determine the magnitude of the impact of FDI
in host countries and the nature of this. With this, it is been trying to understand how FDI is impacting
local economies, and how FDI should have major positive impacts to leave. Therefore, it is important to
understand how multinational companies with domestic enterprises are related, and thus able to focus
efforts to attract FDI to sectors where it leaves greater benefits. In Indonesia, Blomström and Sjöholm
(1998) study the impact of FDI and productivity of domestic firms from technological spillovers that
may arise. Through an econometric analysis of data obtained through the 1991 industry survey, conclude
that local businesses benefit from technology spillovers.
However, there is no significant evidence that requires multinational partnerships with local compa-
nies, generate greater technological spillovers, so it does not have a significant impact on productivity.
Fauzel, Seetanah and Sannasee (2015) study the relationship between flows of FDI in the manufacturing
industry and the effects on productivity. In that sector in Mauritius, a country located in the Southern
Indian Ocean. The results collected during 1980 and 2010 show that FDI if it has had an impact on factor
productivity and labor productivity. This has gone hand in hand with government efforts to encourage
FDI. Importantly, the results measured in the short term, are not very significant. But in the long-term
outcomes are more favorable to FDI spills, at the point of having local investment also impacted favorably.
China remains one of the largest recipients of FDI globally. Hu and Jefferson (2002, 1075) performed
a study based on census data from the National Bureau of Statistics country. Through the econometric
analysis, the authors determine the impact of FDI for the electronics and textiles sectors at industry level.
For the electronics industry, the authors find a statistically significant negative spill-level industry. Spills
are positive for the company receiving the investment, but the other companies in the industry lost market
and the effects are negative in the short term. Otherwise, it is in the case of the textile industry. In the
long term, the advantage gained by the company receiving FDI seems to disappear.
Pritish and Sakiru examine productive spills of FDI in the manufacturing sector in India during the
period 2000-2009. Econometric studies indicate that there is a positive impact on FDI and business pro-
285

ductivity. Both, the company receiving investment flows and the sector in general, which runs counter
to that found in other studies. Also identify policies taken by the government and the general change of
attitude to the impacts of FDI that have led to improvements in manufacturing productivity.
In order to verify the impact and understand how spillovers generated by FDI in Mexico, Guzman (2013)
studied the Japanese and US FDI in the country focusing on vertical spillovers generated within the
same industry work. His first conclusion suggests that there are differences in productivity spills in the
investment coming from both countries. In the case of Japanese FDI, there is a positive effect related to
the production of the related industries with backward vertical (suppliers). For US FDI, a negative effect
was observed. In the case of vertical spills up, there was a positive impact on the presence of Japanese
investment, but no significant effect for investment from the United States.
However, FDI inflows to an industry is not sufficient reason to generate productive spills, companies
must be able to absorb these spills. The existence of a technological gap increases the benefits of tech-
nological spillovers, however if the gap is very large, local companies will not be able to absorb spills.
In turn, through a frame of awareness-motivation- capabilities Meyer and Sinani (2009: 1089) express
the benefits of technological spillovers have a curvilinear relationship with the level of economic devel-
opment. Promptly with issues such as income, human capital and institutions and concluding that the
poorest and the richest countries are those that benefit most from FDI inflows. Meyer and Sinani (2009)
argue that institutions and human capital are essential if companies create the motivation and skills they
need to absorb technological spillovers.
For poor countries, spills occur through demonstration effects channel through competition effect,
whereas in developed countries spills occur. Companies in developed countries prepare for the arrival of
foreign companies and define strategies to cope and stay in the market. Through the Survey of Japanese
Companies in western Mexico, Guzman Carrillo and Okabe (2014) can identify certain characteristics
that reveal inefficiencies in supplier Mexican companies of Japanese companies. This would indicate
that there could be problems for endogenous companies could absorb production spills. The survey was
conducted in companies of the states of Guanajuato, Queretaro, San Luis Potosi, Aguascalientes and
Jalisco, of which more than 70% of surveyed companies are engaged in manufacturing. Some of the
characteristics obtained by the author from the survey are:
Japanese companies used more to foreign suppliers to Mexican suppliers. Importantly, Japanese
companies prefer to hire foreign suppliers with high-tech aspects, technical and technological assistance,
among others. While the endogenous suppliers related to training, purchase of computer equipment
and low value-added activities related to cleaning, security and transport (Guzman Carrillo and Okabe,
2014) is preferred activities
In addition to the above, the Japanese companies surveyed believe that endogenous providers in
general have not met the conditions required quality, with more than 60% of companies indicating this
situation. In a second step, the Japanese companies identified that the lack of endogenous production
capacity of suppliers is an obstacle to the link between endogenous suppliers and Japanese multination-
als. The third reason that hinders linking is the fact that Mexican suppliers do not produce inputs that
Japanese companies need. (Guzman Carrillo and Okabe, 2014).
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Finally, it is important to consider that Japanese multinationals consider that there are significant
differences between endogenous suppliers and foreign suppliers. While they consider that over 60%
of foreign suppliers have good quality, only 12% of endogenous qualified suppliers are positive. Most
domestic suppliers started regularly and bad. Regarding time delivery of the requested products or
services, over 50% of endogenous suppliers were rated as poor and 30% as a regular (Guzman Carrillo
and Okabe, 2014).
For foreign suppliers, none was rated as bad, more than 50% as fair, and 30% were rated as good.
Similarly, with regard to sufficient supply, about 90% of endogenous suppliers were rated as fair or poor.
While for foreign suppliers, more than 80% was rated fair or good, in relation to the offer. Mexican sup-
pliers receive a better score in relation to costs, where approximately 80% of the companies were rated
as good or fair, while foreign suppliers for more than 70% is rated as fair or poor (Guzman Carrillo and
Okabe, 2014).
On the side of Japanese multinationals in Mexico, it is worth highlighting the impact that could have
on keiretsu technological spillovers to endogenous suppliers. The keiretsu are networks of companies
that are interrelated among them. Many of these networks come from before the Second World War.
Networks may be of two types, horizontal or vertical. Horizontal networks are between companies from
different industries, while the vertical can be up (with distributors or buyers) or down (with suppliers).
Businesses take advantage of the keiretsu reductions in risk and uncertainty in their relations with compa-
nies belonging to the same keiretsu, mutual assistance, reducing information asymmetries, among others.
Moreover, it may involve over investment costs because it can lead to lower performance and increase
information asymmetries between member companies and those outside the keiretsu (McGuire & Dow,
2009). Based on the Survey of Japanese Companies in Western Mexico, Guzman Carrillo and Okabe
(2014) identify aspects that might indicate the involvement of multinational Japanese companies to a
keiretsu. In a first step, the fact that Japanese companies must import most of the inputs used in their
production. Over 80% of Japanese companies manufacturing imports inputs from Japan. To a lesser
extent, the United States with 60% of companies importing inputs from this country, taking advantage
of the proximity and the elimination of tariff barriers product of the Treaty of the North Atlantic Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
The fact that Japanese companies have obtained information for localization in Mexico of other
Japanese companies, can give signs that belong to these networks. Trying to agglomerate near other
Japanese companies would be within their own production chain. However, it is important to note that
Japanese multinationals showed interest in the survey work in the future with Mexican suppliers, 70%
of companies surveyed (Guzman Carrillo and Okabe, 2014).
The possible membership of Japanese multinational companies to any keiretsu could have negative
implications for technological spillover that is expected to happen between multinational and endog-
enous companies. Japanese companies likely will prefer to continue working with companies from their
keiretsu or companies which already has worked before, since Japanese companies know the quality
of their product and way of working. This situation is difficult to endogenous providers being able to
establish links with Japanese companies.
This situation would be affected more by the possible dissatisfaction of Japanese multinationals with
endogenous suppliers. Domestic suppliers should in turn improve the quality of their products, improve
delivery times and increase the supply of their products in order to be more closely linked to multinationals,
and power in a medium or long term in activities linked to higher value added and of more technology.
287

Finally, under the framework of Economic Partnership Agreement, where technical cooperation
between Mexico and Japan is highlighted, it is important to find ways to strengthen the effects channel
connection between the companies, such as transmission channel of technological spillovers from FDI.
Thus, both endogenous suppliers as Japanese multinationals could benefit from technology transfers and
human capital. The willingness of Japanese multinationals to link to Mexican suppliers is proof that it
can be possible to work in this regard.
Challenges to Mexico’s export and foreign direct investment position in the Japanese market under the
Economic Partnership Agreement Mexico – Japan are likely to continue and to benefit after United States
withdrawal from the Trans-pacific agreement. This is one important issue to conduct research on the
impact of basic structural features of both partners, Mexico and Japan, and to analyze the interdependency
of business cycles and industries in relevant sectors such as the Japanese automobile industry and elec-
tronics, etc., investments in Mexico, after the imminent withdrawal of United States plants from Mexico.
CONCLUSION
If a developing country does not have financial institutions that allow saving on traditional sectors to
be used in order to finance new areas, then the growth of new industries will be restricted by the ability
of companies to get benefits now. Low initial benefits will be obstacle to investment, despite the high
long-term benefits that can be obtained (Krugman, Paul.R, Obstfeld, Maurice, Melitz, Marc J, 2012,
p.266). Mexico is endowed with many natural resources, land, and labor and comparatively skilled and
productive, while Japan has a high capital and technology. Producers and consumers of Mexico and Japan
may benefit from bilateral trade in sectors where each country has a comparative advantage, thereby
strengthening the economic relationship.
Japan imports 60% of its food consumption, but Mexico’s share in total imports of food products from
Japan is negligible. Therefore, the potential impact of the elimination of tariffs on agricultural products
from Mexico would not constitute any threat to Japanese agriculture. However, it is recognized the need
to create a product-by-product analysis to arrive at specific recommendations on the most appropriate
measures to ensure preferential treatment for agricultural products that Mexico is already exporting and
those with export potential to Japan, modalities to prevent any distortion in the Japanese agricultural
sector (Ministry of Economy, 2015).
THE AARMJ would be similar to many other international treaties that Mexico has, however what
makes it remarkable is the clear provision of economic cooperation in SMEs. Through bilateral coopera-
tion it could be expected that Mexican companies will develop, especially small and medium that are
the foundation of the Mexican economy (Okabe, 2004).
Both countries are net importers of cereals, fodder, oilseeds, dairy products and meat, using third
country imports to meet domestic demand. Mexico considers that complementary areas are located in
areas such as tropical products, fruit and vegetables, beef, chicken and pork, fruit juices and other drinks,
as well as processed products. There is a need to focus on areas of complementarity and economic po-
288

tential to achieve a mutually satisfactory trading, as both Japan and Mexico can complement its domestic
production of food products through imports of products from its trading partner.
In order to have a continuous flow of goods and investment between Mexico and Japan, both countries
should cooperate to improve the business environment and work on several projects for the promotion
of trade and investment. Some examples which are exported to Japan are shown in table 2 below.
With the implementation of AAEMJ Japan seeks greater autonomy from the US economy, reorient
its trade policy and enhance its industrial policy of encouraging free trade and improve its economy
benefits granted by the agreement on investment, exports and imports. Mexico sought, meanwhile, to
reduce dependence on the United States, which is its main trading partner, increase participation in the
Japanese market, preferential treatment of export products, comparative advantages (González García,
2014). Apart from AAEMJ Mexican imports and exports, it has been affected by changes in tariff mea-
sures, trade policy and support for Mexican SMEs.
According to data provided by the Ministry of Economy (Secretaria de Economía) since 2005, year in
which enters into force on AAEMJ treaty can be seen, although exports have increased over the benefits
of the agreement, imports have increased to a greater extent, so the aim of the agreement is to promote
the economic development of Mexican companies to the extent it has been provided.
Imports of Mexican origin belonging to groups 0: Food and live animals and 2: inedible raw materi-
als were the main beneficiaries of the EPA; in 2004, the first year of operation of the Agreement, the
import value of the two groups was 52,000 million yen and 32,000 million yen, respectively (22.03%
and 12.96% of the value of total imports from Mexico) ; in 2013, it was 89, 000 million yen and 48,000
million yen (20.27% and 11.04% of the value of total imports of Mexican origin). The main advantages
of the products of Mexican origin were recorded in 003 sectors: meat and meat preparations, 011: Fruits
and vegetables, 213: Fertilizers and minerals, 215 metal ores and scrap (Secretaría de Economía, 2015).
Japanese exports of both groups had minimal values: in 2004, 127 million yen and 471 million yen;
in 2013, 310 million yen and 1,998 million yen. In September 2011, on the occasion of the signing of
the Protocol Amending the Agreement for the Strengthening of the Economic Partnership, the partici-
pants emphasize Mexican agencies, thanks to the Agreement, Mexico had become: leading supplier of
mangoes, avocados, melons, asparagus, beans, sardines and sesame oil; Second provider: frozen orange
juice, squash, stout, tuna and pectin; third largest supplier of tomatoes, jojoba oil, broccoli and rambu-
tan: fourth provider: meat (pork, beef, horse), papayas, sea urchins, and squid and cuttlefish (Ramirez
Bonilla, 2014).
The EPA has been particularly beneficial for the promotion of Mexican exports with low value added;
the modifying agreements were aimed at greater inclusion of Mexican products to the Japanese market
and promote FDI and bilateral cooperation of both countries. As mentioned Juan Jose Ramirez (2014),
Table 2. Products exported to Japan: Main products that Mexico currently exports to Japan
Crude Oils Aguacate Salt Commonly Used Bluefin Tuna in the Atlantic
and Pacific
Copper minerals Silver minerals Animal casings (except fish) Bladders (except fish)
Stomachs of animals (other than Tequila Stout Adapters
fish)
Transmitters Photographic plates Cylinders Photovoltaic cells
Source: Based on data from Secretaría de Economía (Mayo, 2015)
289

the Mexico-Japan bilateral relationship has been exceeded and to re-nationalize the EPA now must be
taken into account regional integration processes where economic and political actors involved from
both countries to interact, there with their counterparts.
Without this update AEE any future evaluation will continue calling with “regular, low or stagnant”
performance. There are theories related to the inability of Mexican firms to act as agents for suppliers
for Japanese companies to create systems that allow to produce supplies of imported for the purpose
of increasing the volume of added value of national content and domestic products and exploit a niche
constant and necessary for Japanese companies market. It has been speculated that it is the lack of com-
mitment of Mexican businessmen, culture and ingrained habits such as lack of punctuality.
On the other hand it is possible that Mexican companies do not have enough motivation to want to
venture into the production of goods for suppliers for Japanese and modify their plants and produc-
tion methods, so the market has not been exploited as it should. Like the other treaties and free trade
agreements as Mexico has celebrated, the AAEMJ has applications that have not yet been exploited by
Mexican entrepreneurs; it may be due to lack of motivation, lack thereof, lack of government support
or export complicated processes. Furthermore, the agreement improved the economic situation of the
states where Japanese FDI is concentrated, creating jobs and providing goods and services to families
of Japanese businessmen who come to the region.
It has also managed to improve the development of Mexican companies that have decided to enter
the Japanese market and provide some of the products that Japan demand. So even though the results
have not matched expectations cannot be denied that the AAEMJ is important to achieve development
tool Mexican SMEs and should promote their use, as well as that of other FTAs and EPAs that has the
benefiting the country and foreign trade.
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FDI: Foreign Direct Investment.

Foreign Direct Investment: Bets performing companies that want to internationalize by expanding
the market for their products or services outside their national territory.
FTA: Free Trade Agreement.
Japan: Insular country located in East Asia between the Pacific Ocean and the Sea of Japan.
JEL: Journal of Economic Literature.
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nent. It is located in the southern part of North America and is made then by 32 states to hold congress
and own constitution.
NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement.
OECD: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.
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benefits, services, opportunities, etc. that favor local economies, district or cluster formed by companies.
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mote change in a complex and uncertain business and organizational environment to obtain advantages
and benefits.
TLCUE: Free Trade Agreement Mexico-European Union.
WTO: World Trade Organization.
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Chapter 15
A Profile of Foreign Nationals
in a Globalising Second-
Tier City, Suzhou, China
Hyung Min Kim
The University of Melbourne, Australia
ABSTRACT
The recent development of Chinese cities has witnessed an increasing number of foreign nationals working
in China. Foreign nationals tied up with MNEs are one of the powerful drivers for urban transformation in
the post-reform era. However, little attention has been paid to their socio-economics characteristics. This
chapter, therefore, is to analyse characteristics of foreign nationals in socio-economic, demographic and
spatial aspects. This chapter focuses on a globalising Chinese second tier-city, Suzhou as a case study.
INTRODUCTION
The recent development of Chinese cities has witnessed an increasing number of foreign nationals
working in China due to a wide range of driving forces including multinational enterprises (MNEs). Ap-
proximately 3 million foreign nationals came to China for employment purpose in 2007 (Skeldon, 2011).
Firms seek out economic opportunities in Chinese cities in favour of low-cost production sites and/or in
search of access to China’s growing markets. A strategy to control business operation at distance is to
dispatch expatriate managers to the host city. In addition to dispatched managers by the firms, language
teachers, academic staff, retailers and traders have sought out opportunities in China. Incoming foreign
nationals are one of the major sources for urban transformation associated with emerging territorial
and social inequality because foreign nationals are generally highly paid due to their professional skills,
international experiences and knowledge sets.
As seen in the global city literature, large Chinese cities are globalising by housing MNEs and in-
ternational immigrants (Chubarov & Brooker, 2013; Kang & Shouzhen, 2003; Zhang, 2014). Despite
the increasing number of foreign nationals as one of the powerful drivers for urban transformation, little
attention has been paid to socio-economic status of foreign nationals in China. How their social status is
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2673-5.ch015

A Profile of Foreign Nationals in a Globalising Second-Tier City, Suzhou, China
different from the locals? What differences can be found in different origins and industrial types? This
research pays attention to these research questions to better understand the role of foreign firms and
foreign nationals in China’s urban transformation, using a globalising second-tier city, Suzhou as a case
study. Suzhou has been rapidly urbanising and globalising by virtue of FDI-oriented growth strategies.
BACKGROUND
Two Key Players in Emerging Global Cities: MNEs and International Immigrants
Global cities are referred as globally significant cities with economic, political, and cultural dominance
in a world system. High-level command-and-control functions tend to be concentrated geographically
in global cities or world cities (Friedmann, 1986; Friedmann & Wolff, 1982). Global cities play a cru-
cial role as an international node in building international production and transport networks (Keeling,
1995). Harris (1997) pointed out that the new global economy facilitated massive flows of products
(trading), people (international migration), capital (e.g., FDI), and information along with ‘time-space
compression’ process (Harvey, 1990). Typical examples of global cities are New York, London and To-
kyo (Sakia Sassen, 2001). Emerging globalising cities have at least the two fundamental players: MNEs
and international immigrants.
Firstly, the global city literature has emphasised the significance of capital accumulation in evolving
into global cities (Sakia Sassen, 1999, 2001; Saskia Sassen, 1995). Massive presence of Foreign Direct
Investment (FDI) channelled via MNEs has been observed in global cities. Firms’ strategic approaches to
cross-border business operations have been implemented in search of low-production sites with respect
to affordable land prices and cheap labour costs and access to global markets (Dunning, 1998; Hodos,
2002). While advanced producer services are becoming a crucial element in FDI flows, manufacturing
production has been relocated to periphery of city-regions and regional areas where labour-intensive
and land-intensive industries can reduce their production costs (Glickman & Woodward, 1988; Harris,
1997). Recently, East Asian economies, such as China, Korea, and Taiwan, have evolved with growth
in FDI in technology-oriented manufacturing sectors (Chien & Zhao, 2008; Kim & Han, 2014; Yang
& Hsia, 2007). The impacts of FDI inflows are not limited simply to capital accumulation, but also as-
sociated with spill-over effects. FDI is involved with ‘a package of assets’ that include money capital,
management and organisational expertise, technology, entrepreneurship and access to global markets
(Dunning, 1993). Inflows of FDI are, accordingly, tied up with foreign nationals to manage business
operations at distance (Kim & Han, 2014).
Secondly, there has been evident presence of foreign nationals in global cities. These international
immigrants appeared in high-income countries as international migrants have sought out better economic
opportunities and liveable environments (Hugo, 2004). Diasporic networks, such as through family net-
works and shared ethnicity, have facilitated international migration (Hugo, 2005; Sakia Sassen, 2005).
Due to a variety of immigrants, global cities have witnessed cosmopolitan culture as obviously seen in
London, New York and Sydney (Friedmann, 1995). In newly emerging global cities international im-
migration was strengthened by massive inflows of FDI as MNEs have dispatched their managers. While
high income countries accommodate both highly-paid professionals and low-skilled labourers, it is rare
for less skilful labourers to immigrate into emerging global cities, in particular Chinese cities, due to
abundant labourers within the country. Rural-to-urban migrants, in general, provide labour force for
296

Chinese large cities (Fan, 2008). Spatial and socio-economic polarisation has appeared in global cities
associated with economic restructuring and globalisation process (Sakia Sassen, 2001). Co-location of
high-level professionals and low-waged jobs (or bifurcation of the labour market) has stimulated inequality
in global cities. Highly globalised service sectors have offered professional jobs mostly in global cities.
By virtue of the nature of international service businesses, global links and international experiences
are critical for these business operations. Representative examples are advanced producer services such
as financial services, insurance services, advertisement, accounting services, law firms, and real estate
investment and management (Beaverstock, Smith, & Taylor, 1999; Taylor, 2004). Due to large-scale
economic agglomerations associated with urbanisation and localisation economies, global cities better
provide opportunities for immigrants. Native labour force in high income countries is unwilling to work
for, so called, 3D occupations (i.e, dirty, dangerous, and difficult) (Hugo, 2004). As manufacturing in-
dustries are fading away from post-industrial cities, middle-income class has been shrunken triggering
socio-economic polarisation.
High concentrations of global activities are found in small part of global cities. For instance, Chinese
migrants have formed ethnic communities in declining industrial sites of Seoul (Lee, 2014). The global
CBD was established spatially separated from national and local CBDs in Mumbai and Accra (Grant
& Nijman, 2002). Despite the debate on different levels of polarisation in global cities especially in
‘developmental states’ such as Tokyo, Seoul, Taipei, and Hong Kong (Chiu & Lui, 2004; Hill & Kim,
2000; Wang, 2003), cities are evolving under the process of globalisation associated with increasing
inequality and spatial polarisation (Rhein, 1998; Walks, 2001). Growing inequality does not necessar-
ily represent how globalised the cities are, but the globalising labour market has led to more unequal
patterns. Although many Chinese cities are not yet considered as globally significant cities equipped
with high-level command-and-control functions, they are also on this process toward increasing socio-
economic and spatial polarisation (Z. Li & Wu, 2006; Ren, 2013: Ch. 5; Wu, 2006).
Globalising Chinese Cities
When China was under the socialist regime, flows into Chinese cities were regulated. However, Deng
Xiaoping’s reform and opening up policy brought fundamental changes to Chinese cities. Since 1978
the Chinese government has employed a pro-growth regime embracing the triple processes of marketi-
zation, decentralisation and globalisation (Y. D. Wei, Yuan, & Liao, 2013; Y. H. D. Wei, Lu, & Chen,
2009; Y. H. D. Wei, Luo, & Zhou, 2010). The Chinese economy has made use of market mechanisms
for resource allocation. Not only products, but land and housing have been also commoditised to the
extent to establish land and housing markets (Wu, 2001). There has been a shift of fiscal and planning
power from the central government to local governments, which is called decentralisation (Y. Li & Wu,
2012). Local governments, therefore, are active in raising revenue and keen to economic growth (Ren,
2013: ch. 2). One of the strategic approaches is to take advantage of global forces that are foci of this
research. Chinese cities were eager to attract inward FDI in favour of technology transfer and capital
investment in the reform era (Sun, Tong, & Yu, 2002). A wide range of manufacturing firms established
production plants transforming China from the ‘state factory’ to the ‘world factory’ (L. J. C. Ma & Wu,
2005). The amount of inward FDI increased markedly in China. In the mid-1990s, China became the
second largest recipient of inward FDI after the U.S.A. (Sun et al., 2002). In addition to manufacturing
industries, China has attracted FDI in service sectors, too (He & Yeung, 2011). The massive inflows of
global capital have brought local impacts to Chinese cities. For instance, the growth of inward FDI has
297

been in parallel with GDP growth; newly created plants provided jobs for both the locals and rural-to-
urban migrants; and foreign national numbers are on the increase alongside the growth in inward FDI
(Kim, 2015).
As seen in the Global Cities Index, Chinese cities have grown into emerging global cities (ATkearney,
2012). Beijing was ranked at 14th; Shanghai was at the 21st in 2012. By the Globalisation and World
City (GaWC) Research Network, Shanghai and Beijing were listed as alpha+ world cities along with
Hong Kong, Paris, Singapore, Tokyo, Sydney and Dubai after the two alpha++ cities, London and New
York in 2012. In mainland China, in addition to these two top-tier cities, Guangzhou (beta+), Shenzhen
(beta-), Tianjin (gamma-), Chengdu, Qingdao, Hangzhou, Nanjing, Chongqing (high sufficiency), Da-
lian, Xiamen, and Xian (sufficiency) were identified as key globalising cities (Globalization and World
Cities Research Network).
As Chinese cities are urbanising and globalising (Gu, Kesteloot, & Cook, 2015), nationwide uneven
development has been observed. Most economically developed cities are located in the coastal region
such as Pearl River Delta (PRD), Yangtze River Delta (YRD), and Bohai Rim Region (BRR). In 2004
these three regions produced more than half of the national GDP; accounted for 79% of trading volumes;
and accounted for 85% of the total realised FDI (Zhao & Zhang, 2007). Spatial polarisation also ap-
peared within the Chinese city, including informal settlements mostly for regional migrants (L. J. Ma,
2004; Ren, 2013: ch. 3; Wu, Zhang, & Webster, 2013), gated communities (L. J. C. Ma & Wu, 2005),
exotic residential areas (Shen & Wu, 2012) and ethnic communities revolving around foreign nationals
(Kim, 2015).
Despite increasingly growing numbers of MNEs and foreign nationals in Chinese large cities, little
attention has been paid to socio-economic status of foreign nationals working in China. In particular,
second-tier Chinese cities have been under-researched in this aspect in spite of noticeable numbers of
local and foreign populations. The purpose of this research, therefore, is to explore foreign nationals in
terms of socio-economic and spatial characteristics. The investigation of foreign nationals has signifi-
cance at least in the following three aspects. First, massive presence of foreign nationals appeared only
after the reform policy. Thus, a mix of ethnicity other than Chinese minority groups is new to Chinese
cities. Although China has relatively short history of international immigration, the process of urbanisa-
tion and globalisation shows trends in polarising patterns and cosmopolitan culture as found in highly
globalised cities. As the Chinese socialist regime had a great emphasis on socio-economic and spatial
equity, the emergence of inequality, associated with international immigrants, is against the socialist
ideal. Second, foreign nationals, as professional workers, are expected to have higher consumption
power than the locals. They may be attracted to Chinese cities after rigorous risk-return analysis at an
individual and household level in multiple aspects including career, income, family considerations and
living environments. Foreign nationals have at least equivalent income levels to their home city. China
is still ranked as a ‘less developed region’ by the U.N. and a ‘lower-middle’ income country in terms
of GNP per capita (Stephens, 2010). Thus, foreigners’ higher income levels and consumption patterns
are expected to stimulate the transforming of Chinese urban space although the detail has not been fully
addressed in the literature, which can justify this research. Third, spatial expression of foreign nationals
is distinctive as foreign nationals tend to form ethnic communities. The impact of foreign nationals is
strengthened through residential location choice. Due to ‘disadvantages of alien status (Caves, 1971)’,
location choice of firms is conservative to well-known places and residential choice is geographically
limited to small areas within the cities (Grant & Nijman, 2002; Kim, Han, & O’Connor, 2015). The spatial
concentration is found to share language-specific facilities and stick to other foreign national groups.
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MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER
Data Collection
For this research survey questionnaires were conducted with foreign nationals living in Suzhou for more
than six months for the purpose of working in 2014. The author stayed in Suzhou for two years in the
period 2013 – 2015 and an auxiliary visit was made in 2016. In this research foreign nationals refer to
people with non-Chinese nationality. International students and short-term visitors were excluded. Survey
questionnaires included a set of questions about socio-economic status including occupations, duration
of stay in Suzhou, family composition, income levels and residential location. The questionnaires were
made in three language versions (i.e., English, Korean and Japanese) after preliminary findings about
major population groups in Suzhou. This research recruited participants through on and offline expat
communities and street survey in the public space. The online link for the survey questionnaire was sent
to foreign nationals via expatriate communities and international schools. On street survey was used
to secure the participants who were possibly inactive in expat communities. This survey included 508
foreign nationals staying long-term. High numbers of respondents at 508 provide solid research findings.
This survey referred to student enrolment numbers in international schools and nationwide statistics
about foreign nationals as benchmarks. The size of samples from each origin is generally proportional
to the benchmarks.
The collected information was tabulated, graphed and mapped for analysis. The analysis in this re-
search is not inferential but descriptive. The findings outline ‘who’ they are, ‘what’ they do and ‘where’
they live in the city, which is a basic step for further rigorous research. The geographical focus of this
research is upon urban districts in Suzhou.
FDI-Oriented Urban Growth in Suzhou
Suzhou is a fast urbanising and globalising second-tier Chinese city with an emphasis on global production
links (see the location map in Figure 1). The Suzhou Industrial Park (SIP) was planned and implemented
by the collaboration between the China and the Singapore governments with a focus on a FDI-oriented
development strategy (Fook, 2014; Kim & Cocks, 2017; Pereira, 2004; Y. D. Wei et al., 2013). Wei et
al. (2013; 2009) have claimed that global-local production networks were weak in Suzhou while FDI
firms formed a spatially-mismatched satellite district from local Chinese firms. Kim (2015) has also
described the growth of foreign nationals in conjunction with FDI inflows in Suzhou, in particular, in the
SIP. As a result of large-scale investment in the SIP and surrounding city-regions, Suzhou has achieved
rapid economic growth, ranked at the 6th largest China’s economic agglomeration in terms of the GDP.
In the Suzhou urban districts, the SIP had lion’s share in terms of FDI inflows, accounting for 50.2%
of the aggregated inward FDI in the period 2003 – 2012 (Suzhou Statistical Yearly Book). Suzhou is a
leading city within Jiangsu Province, accounting for 22.2% of the total provincial GDP in 2012 (Jiangsu
Province Statistical Yearly Book).
Another platform for the inflows of foreign nationals is internationalising universities in which inter-
national academic staff and English teachers play an active role in tertiary education. In the education
town of the SIP, there were 28 universities and more than 190 R&D institutions that provided positions
for international staff members in 2013 (Dushu Lake Higher Education Exhibition Centre). Due to
299

Figure 1. Map of Suzhou

Note: Regions with grey colour are county-level municipalities
business expansion tied up with global production networks, and internationalising education services,
foreign nationals accounted for 2.1% of the total population in the SIP in 2011 (SIP website).
Profiles of Foreign Nationals
This section provides an overview of foreign nationals in Suzhou. The vast majority of foreign nationals
have stayed in Suzhou for the short-term from the result of survey questionnaires. 61.2% of the respon-
dents replied that their stay in Suzhou was less than three years. Approximately one-third of foreign
nationals have lived for 3-10 years. Only 4.5% have stayed in Suzhou for more than 10 years. On the
one hand, since the development of the SIP and the Suzhou New District (SND) began in the late 1990s,
long-term staying foreign nationals were limited. The result confirms that the inflows of foreign nation-
als are very recent. On the other hand, foreign nationals stay in a host city for the short-term. MNEs
have a policy on the human resource management of expatriate employees. After the pre-determined
terms in Suzhou, MNEs send back their managers to another office; after substantial work experience
300

in Suzhou, foreign nationals may relocate to another place voluntarily. The average stay was 3.5 years
estimated by the mid-values in Table 1.
Official statistics were unavailable for the origins of foreign nationals in Suzhou. Nationwide sta-
tistics reported that Koreans (20.3%), Americans (12.0%) and the Japanese (11.1%) were the top three
origins in 2013 (Kim, 2015). Kim (2015) displayed international students’ enrolment in Suzhou Singa-
pore International School, showing the top five origins were Korea (33%) followed by Taiwan (11%),
the U.S.A. (8%), Germany (7%) and Malaysia (4.5%) in 2014. Another international school had similar
composition of students’ enrolment with the highest number of Korean students (approximately 30%)
followed by American students (approximately 10%) according to a phone interview with the admis-
sion officer. The survey respondents in this research were composed of a wide range of origins; the top
origin countries were Korea (48.2%), USA (12.0%), and Japan (10.6%), representing a similar origin
composition in international schools.
China, Japan and Korea are located in Far East Asia and these countries have long historical interac-
tions sharing Asian values such as Confucianism although modern society has transformed the Asian
value in different ways. Moreover, Japan and Korea have advanced industries in Information and Com-
munication Technology (ICT). Most FDI in Suzhou made by Japanese, Korean and Taiwanese firms
was ICT-oriented manufacturing such as Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD), semiconductors and laptops
(Chien & Zhao, 2008; Fook, 2014; Y. H. D. Wei, Liefner, & Miao, 2011). ICT-oriented manufacturing
was manifested in occupations of foreign nationals (Table 3). Due to the increases in a production cost,
these firms chose offshore production sites. The Suzhou region provided favourable environments for
these industries by virtue of proximity to Shanghai, quality infrastructure emphasised via development
zones and industrial parks, improved administrative services trained by the Singapore government (Fook,
2014; Pereira, 2004), affordable land partially subsidised by the local governments, and cheap labour
force associated with rural-to-urban migrants. MNEs played a leading role in inflows of foreign nationals
as they dispatched their managers and engineers for offshore production management. Not only single
MNEs, but inter-related suppliers followed MNEs in search of new business opportunities to the extent
that the entire supply chain and production networks were established (Kim, 2015). Moreover, quality
living environments were encouraged in building the SIP, which has played an important role in attract-
ing or retaining foreign nationals.
The category of developed regions in Table 2 included high income nations such as the U.S.A.
(12.0%), France (5.7%), the U.K. (4.9%), Germany (2.0%) and Australia (2.0%). Proportion of Americans
Table 1. Duration of stay of foreign nationals in Suzhou
Duration of Stay in Suzhou Frequency %

Less than one year 115 22.6%
1-3 years 196 38.6%
3-5 years 92 18.1%
5-10 years 81 15.9%
10 years or more 23 4.5%
N.A. 1 0.2%
Total 508 100%
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Table 2. Origins of foreign nationals in Suzhou
Origins Frequency %
Korea 245 48.2%
Japan 54 10.6%
Developed regions 146 28.7%
Other European countries 31 6.1%
Developing Asian regions 20 3.9%
Developing regions other than Asia 5 1.0%
Others 7 1.4%
Total 508 100.0%
Table 3. Occupations of foreign nationals in Suzhou
Occupations Frequency %
1 IT related manufacturing 126 24.8%
(e.g., semi-conductor, LCD panel, and computer)
2 Other manufacturing 80 15.7%
3 Education (including kindergarten, schools, colleges, language teaching etc.) 67 13.2%
4 Car manufacturing 41 8.1%
5 Electronics manufacturing 36 7.1%
6 Higher Education or research (including academic jobs) 35 6.9%
7 Precise machine 34 6.7%
9 Business service (e.g. consulting) 23 4.5%
10 Trading 14 2.8%
11 Financial service (e.g., bank) 8 1.6%
Others 33 6.5%
N.A. 11 2.2%
Total 508 100.0%
is noteworthy same as the Chinese national level. Language teachers from English speaking countries
have added significant layers to the expatriate communities, which will be further discussed. Immigrants
from other European countries and developing regions were rare. The composition of foreign nationals
in Suzhou was different from highly globalised cities where there is evident presence of international
immigrants from developing regions (Hugo, 2004; Sakia Sassen, 2005).
The majority of foreign nationals were in their 30s (34.1%) and 40s (40.4%), accounting for 74.4%.
14.0% were in their 50s while 8.5%, in 20s. The most economically active age groups were observed.
202 out of the 508 respondents or 39.8% had school-aged kid(s). More than half of the expatriate parents
(52.5%) sent their kid(s) to international schools where only foreign nationals can attend. In spite of
expensive tuition fees for these international schools ranging US $22,000 to US $32,000 annually (Su-
zhou Singapore International School, n.d.; Dulwich International School, 2015; and Eton International
302

School, n.d.), firms provided education subsidies for expatriate children. 59.4% of the children enrolled
in the international school received education subsidies more than 80% of the tuition fees in addition to
regular salary. Only 4.7% received no education subsidy. The rest of expatriate parents received partial
support for children’s education. In addition to the international schools, ethnic-specific schools (26.7%)
and foreign language schools (19.8%) were dominant. Ethnic-specific schools meant Korean schools
and Japanese schools in the Suzhou region. Due to the increasing number of Koreans and the Japanese,
these governments established own schools with the similar curriculums to their home country. Foreign
language schools teach in Chinese mostly for international students and the Chinese can attend. Only 10
expatriate parents or 5.0% had kid(s) in a local Chinese school.
The major occupations of expatriates were manufacturing. Dominant manufacturing sectors were
knowledge-intensive manufacturing such as IT-related manufacturing (24.8%), car manufacturing (8.1%),
electronics (7.1%) and precise machine (6.7%). Massive presence of knowledge-intensive manufacturing
implies the hierarchy of Suzhou as a second-tier city among Chinese cities. Labour-intensive manufac-
turing has already faded away into even cheaper production sites such as inland Chinese regions while
high-value added manufacturing has become dominant in Suzhou (Zhou, 2013). Presence of producer
services in Suzhou was not as evident as in Shanghai (Han & Qin, 2009). While education (13.2%) and
tertiary education/research (6.9%) sectors had relatively higher numbers of foreign nationals, producer
services showed less significance as seen in the number of foreign nationals working for business services
(4.5%) and financial services (1.6%). However, although the absolute number of foreign nationals in
producer services was much lower than the one in knowledge-intensive manufacturing, the result dis-
played the evidence about emerging producer services. Due to the non-labour-intensiveness of producer
services, the small number of professionals can manage their business operations.
Most expatriate professionals were middle (25.6%) or senior-level (37.4%) managers while junior-level
managers were rare at 3.9%. Other than these managers, the rest were minor such as teachers (6.9%),
self-employed (6.1%), and academic staff/researchers (5.7%).
This section provided a brief about foreign nationals working in Suzhou. Their duration of stay was
short-term and ICT-related manufacturing was dominant for their occupations. There was a wide range
of mixture of ethnicity, but the two neighbouring countries and high income nations played a key role as
origin countries. Foreign nationals were likely to be high-level managers. The focus of the next section
turns into detailed analysis about income levels that can describe socio-economic status in comparison
with the locals.
Income Distributions of Foreign Nationals
The literature has reported increasing inequality of income distribution among the Chinese as seen in the
stark increase in the Gini coefficient from 0.16 in 1978 to 0.45 in 2001 (Stephens, 2010). Remarkable
differences in income levels between foreign nationals and the locals were observed according to the
official statistics and the survey results. While the average monthly household income of the Chinese
was RMB 12,000, the one of foreign nationals reached at 39,000 RMB per month showing more than
a 3.3-times difference (Table 4). The difference between foreign nationals and the locals was more
obvious in higher income groups, implying very high income groups were one of the primary sources
to inequality in Chinese cities. While the low income household had a 1.8-times gap, the high income
household had a 4.5-times difference. The top 20% Chinese household had income as low as the second
303

Table 4. Household income levels of the locals and foreign nationals in Suzhou
Households Locals* (2013) Foreign Nationals (2014) (B) / (A)

(A) (B)
High income (20%) 20,597 92,102 4.5
Upper middle income (20%) 13,305 40,000 3.0
Middle income (20%) 10,471 29,355 2.8
Lower middle income (20%) 8,274 19,839 2.4
Low income (20%) 6,604 11,702 1.8
Average 11,837 38,559 3.3
Gini coefficient 0.37 – 0.42 (China) 0.40
(Surveyed in Suzhou)
Source: * Urban household average monthly income estimated from Suzhou Statistical Yearly Book
lowest 20% foreign nationals. The highest 20% income group among foreign nationals reached at almost
RMB 92,000 per month (app. USD 15,000).
In addition, income inequality was found among foreign nationals. The Gini coefficient given the cat-
egorical income information among the surveyed foreign nationals reached 0.40. This inequality level was
very similar to overall China’s nationwide Gini coefficient, 0.42 in 2010 and 0.37 in 2011. (For China’s
Gini coefficient see the World Bank, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI. As the income
data used here were from the survey with foreign nationals. The calculation of the Gini coefficient was
based upon income bands instead of precise household income, which included a limitation. However,
the Gini coefficient calculated with rent that had precise amounts showed a similar result, at 0.35).
Dissimilarity was observed among foreign nationals by occupation (Table 5). Although the absolute
number of professionals in producer services was low, their income levels were the highest. As pointed
out in the global city literature, the growth of producer services stimulated to widen income gaps (Sakia
Sassen, 2001), which was also observed in Suzhou. However, income levels in manufacturing sectors
were also high. As expatriates worked with professional skills as a manager or engineer in these indus-
tries, their jobs were not routinized but specialised at management or engineering having high income
levels. As Daniels and Bryson (2002) have claimed that distinction between manufacturing and services
was becoming unclear, manufacturing jobs as professionals were highly paid. In addition to the regular
salary, substantial amounts of housing allowance were provided ranging 10% to 20% of the income.
Table 5. Characteristics of foreign nationals by occupation in Suzhou
Income Housing Duration Ratio of Average

(RMB/Month) Subsidy of Stay Singles age
(RMB/Month) (Years) (Marriage
Status)
Producer services 49,828 7,341 3.0 19.4% 43.3
ICT manufacturing 41,644 8,456 3.0 11.4% 42.1
Other manufacturing 43,286 8,492 3.8 13.9% 44.6
Higher education/research 33,281 3,798 2.7 51.4% 41.3
Education 17,344 3,191 2.3 59.1% 36.3
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Expatriates in producer services and manufacturing were mostly dispatched by the headquarters office.
Firms provide at least the same salary levels and offer for allowances to secure stable living and work-
ing environments. Often higher salaries were offered to attract qualified employees. This is particularly
the case when the host cities are less well-known. Firms try to provide housing allowances to the extent
that expatriates can stay, at least, in the same quality housing with their hometowns.
Income levels in universities and education sectors were relatively low (Table 5). Especially education
sectors, such as English teachers, had the lowest income levels. Expatriates in the education sector were
likely singles at relatively younger age staying in Suzhou for the short-term. Respondents in the educa-
tion sector had stayed in Suzhou for 2.3 years on average. Expatriates in higher education/research and
education tended to choose Suzhou voluntarily while the other groups were sent by the firm. So, instead
of large-size family, singles and small-size family were dominant as they were, in general, more globally
mobile. One possible explanation of the short-term stay is the recent establishment of the university
town in the SIP. While MNEs have been encouraged to be in Suzhou since the 1990s when the SIP and
the SND were built, a number of universities were established in the southern SIP in the 2000s. Hence,
most expatriates in education sectors relocated after the establishments of these universities.
Three major origins were identified in the previous section. Table 6 reports the differences between
these three origins. For Koreans and the Japanese, expatriates worked for manufacturing predominantly
while education sectors were very limited. However, developed countries had diverse occupations. The
highest number of expatriates worked for the education sector (31.5%) followed by knowledge-intensive
manufacturing (20.5%), other manufacturing (19.2%) and higher education/research (15.8%). Possibly
due to high demand for English education and tertiary education in the English speaking environments,
English native speakers from Anglophone countries, such as the U.S.A., the U.K., Canada and Austra-
lia, were attracted to Suzhou. In addition, growing numbers of foreign nationals created new demand
for education for their children such as international schools, ethnic-specific schools and international
kindergartens.
Demographic characteristics of these three groups were noteworthy. Most Korean expats were married
and had children. They tended to stay slightly longer than the other two groups. Koreans and the Japanese
were more homogenous than the expats from developed countries as observed in the low Coefficient
of Variation (CV) of Korean and Japanese expatriates in age and income information. Expatriates from
developed countries had a wider mixture of income groups, occupations, and demographic structure.
Higher income levels of Korean expatriates than the Japanese might present the emphasis of Korean
knowledge-intensive manufacturing on production in China. The stark difference in income levels between
Koreans and the Japanese was unexpected. Only 37.0% of the Japanese expats have brought their whole
family to Suzhou while vast majority of the Korean expats accompanied their entire family (81.2%).
Interviews with expats confirmed that Japanese firms provided dual salaries in both Chinese currency
and Japanese currency. In this survey, Japanese respondents revealed only their Chinese income, not
disclosing their Japanese income in their home country.
This section investigated income distribution of foreign nationals in a range of aspects, displaying
high income levels. Dissimilarity has been found in different occupations and origins. While Koreans
and partially the Japanese accompanied dependent children, singles at younger age were more dominant
among expats from developed countries. Homogenous demographic and socio-economic structure was
identified among Koreans and the Japanese. The next section will address spatial distribution of these
groups.
305

Table 6. Characteristics of foreign nationals by major origins in Suzhou
Korea Japan Developed

Countries
Occupational Producer services 5.3% 7.4% 5.5%
characteristics
Knowledge-intensive manufacturing 66.1% 51.9% 20.5%
Manufacturing 10.6% 29.6% 19.2%
Higher Education/Research 0.4% 0.0% 15.8%
Education 4.1% 3.7% 31.5%
Others 13.5% 7.4% 7.5%
Total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Demographic Num. of children (persons) 2.4 1.9 0.6
characteristics
Family Singles 4.1% 13.0% 48.6%
information
Entire family relocation (the married) 81.2% 37.0% 28.8%
Only expat’s relocation 3.3% 44.4% 11.0%
Part of family relocation 11.4% 5.6% 11.0%
N.A. 0% 0% 0.7%
Sub-total 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
Age Average 43.0 42.8 39.3
STD 7.2 9.5 11.0
CV 0.17 0.22 0.28
Average duration of stay 3.9 3.0 3.0
Economic Income Average 44,515 18,542 36,455
characteristics
STD 33,019 12,026 32,501
CV 0.74 0.65 0.89
Housing subsidy Average 8605 4783 6697
STD 5110 2457 6050
CV 0.59 0.51 0.90
Intra-Urban Spatial Specification
Ethnic communities were observed from the survey result. The residential location choice of foreign
nationals was highly concentrated around the Jinji Lake in the SIP (Figure 2). The observed ethnic com-
munities were the core to the SIP, co-developed by the Singapore government and the Chinese government.
The lakeside location offered for good views and access to waterfront leisure and entertainment areas.
In fact, the waterfront area of the Jinji Lake has been designed to provide high-quality cultural activities
such as the Suzhou Culture and Arts Centre, high-end restaurants, and public parks. The northern Jinji
Lake was between two major new business centres in which large-scale landmark mixed-use buildings
are under construction at the time of writing. Moreover, the first Suzhou subway was constructed to
connect these places, implying that ethnic communities were formed in the most active, well-designed
areas of newly developed Suzhou.
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In spite of overall co-location of foreign nationals, spatial specialisation was observed by different
origins. Figure 2 represents residential locations of three distinctive ethnic groups. Koreans were the most
dominant in the northern Jinji Lake with a highly concentrated spatial pattern. As the most dominant
group among foreign nationals in Suzhou, Koreans have formed well-established ethnic communities
(Kim, 2015). Their homogenous characteristics were also observed in their residential choice. At least
the following five reasons can explain their spatial concentration. First, there is a language barrier as
non-English speaking, non-Chinese speaking backgrounds. While employed expats are working, their
family members stick to this Korean community for social interactions and access to local information.
Due to relatively short duration of stay in Suzhou (3.9 years on average as seen in Table 6), Chinese
language skills could be limited to interact with the Chinese. Their English ability is likely limited to
interact with English-speaking foreign nationals. In this area Korean-written magazines including local
information, Korean social activities and advertisement were readily available from retail shops. In ad-
dition, massive co-location can have Korean-speaking services such as medical services, dental clinics,
Korean kindergartens, and religious services. These Korean-based services have been facilitated by
large-scale inflows of Korean expats and their concentration. Some service providers were relocated from
Korea in search of new business opportunities; others were the Chinese with Korean language skills.
The Korean-Chinese or Chosunjok are typical examples (Kim et al., 2015). Second, firms want their
expatriates to stay together in favour of efficient human resource management. As an industrial park,
production sites are geographically distant from residential areas. Firms generally operate shuttle buses
or vehicles for easy commuting. Agglomeration helps efficient management for commuting. Thus, Ko-
rean firms have dormitories for singles in the ethnic communities and encourage married staff to locate
in the same community. Third, foreign nationals have a concern about safety in China. Agglomeration
in a gated community offers for safer environments. Most housing complexes in expats’ communities
in Suzhou are gated with a number of security guards. From the sample in this research, the highest
number of Koreans was found in the housing complex named, Bayside Garden or Linglongwan (see the
largest red circle in Figure 2). To access this high-rise apartment complex, several steps were required
with access key cards such as access to the block (a group of apartment buildings), the building, the
elevator and each house. Also, Koreans might perceive safe psychologically when they stay together.
Fourth, as noted in demographic characteristics of Koreans (Table 6), majority of them have brought
family members to Suzhou. Thus, they have family considerations. Above all, education for children is
one of the most critical challenges among expat families. Due to lack of available land for international
schools nearby the ethnic communities, international schools are located across the Suzhou region.
However, their locations could be easily connected through school buses operated by the international
schools. Korean-speaking kindergartens were located in the ethnic community. In addition, it was easy
to find private tutoring here for languages and general subjects which are common in Korea (Kim &
Han, 2012). Fifth, Korean lifestyles are available in the Korean communities (Kim, 2015). There were
Korean grocery stores, Korean restaurants, and Korean clothing shops. Delivery of these goods could
be easily arranged due to short distance. Housing was equipped with Korean-style floor heating that
was unusual in Suzhou.
While Koreans were dominant in the SIP, Japanese communities were observed in the SND due
to massive presence of Japanese firms in the SND. There was a Japanese street where Japanese shops
and restaurants were highly concentrated; there was a Japanese school in the SND. However, Japanese
residential areas were not as obvious as Koreans due to the limited number partially associated with
307

Figure 2. Residential location distribution of surveyed expatriate families

Note: The districts marked in brown are Suzhou urban districts while the rest are county-level municipalities.
less involvement in family relocation as seen in Table 6. Moreover, their income levels in Chinese RMB
were not as high as other foreign nationals. Thus, their consumption power in Suzhou was likely lower.
Expats from developed regions were relatively dispersed possibly due to diverse socio-economic
and occupational backgrounds in Suzhou. The largest ethnic communities were Bayside Garden, where
the highest number of Koreans was found, Huzuoan and Marina Cove. Both Huzuoan and Marina Cove
were located in the western Jinji Lake. However, these two neighbouring residential complexes targeted
different groups. While Huzuoan accommodated middle-income households recognised by the aver-
age income in this complex at 23,000 RMB per month, Marina Cove housed high income household
offering luxurious housing options. There were six respondents living in Marina Cove; five were from
developed regions. The average monthly income in Marina Cove was 47,500 RMB with an average rent
at 20,000 RMB of which over 90% was paid by the firm, according to the interview with the real estate
agency working for foreign nationals in Suzhou. It had membership-only indoor gyms and indoor and
outdoor swimming pools, comprised of villas, town houses, and high-rise apartments, that were rarely
available in Suzhou housing.
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Inflows of affluent foreign nationals highly paid by MNEs will play a significant role in boosting the
local economy. By providing quality living environments, the host city may be able to attract or retain
foreign nationals who are likely global talent in the Chinese context. However, economic benefits from
their influx tend to be limited within a small geographical area as discussed in this chapter. Infrastruc-
ture development in less globalised areas are required to mitigate growing concerns of spatial-economic
inequality in globalising cities. This will be a critical task by local and provincial level governments.
This research provides evidence to display the trend of globalising Chinese territory. Although the
development trajectory of Suzhou was different from the global cities at the mature stage, growing in-
equality associated with inflows of high-income professionals has appeared in conjunction with spatial
specialisation in selected small geographical areas due to socio-economic, demographic distinctiveness.
The presence of foreign nationals was primarily led by corporate strategies at the beginning of Suzhou
urban growth. Also, this research displayed partial evidence of immigration at individual levels such as
teachers and self-employed businessmen. Suzhou may enter into more mature globalised stages if a more
diverse group of foreign nationals immigrate for the longer term, which will result in more complicated
urban structure. This result also provides implications to globalising and restructuring developing coun-
tries with respect to socio-economic and spatial polarisation. As most manufacturing firms are seeking
out cross-border production sites, the host city-regions would face with growing concerns about equity
among the locals, between the locals and foreign nationals, and among foreign nationals, which needs
further policy attentions.
CONCLUSION
This research investigated socio-economic and spatial status of foreign nationals in Suzhou which is
emerging into a global city-region associated with massive inflows of MNEs. Global city formation has
been a research focus primarily in the first-tier Chinese cities. However, the research findings displayed
the similar process taking place in the second-tier Chinese city, Suzhou. This research sheds light on the
following findings. First, foreign nationals drive growing income and spatial inequality in China. Their
average income was 3.3 times higher than the locals and the gap was wider in higher foreign national
income groups.
Second, due to the emphasis on industrial development, ICT-oriented manufacturers have played a
proactive role in attracting foreign nationals into Suzhou. Intensive influences from Japan and Korea, as
leading countries in this industry, were found in Suzhou, particularly in the two newly developed industrial
parks. The influx of relatively homogeneous industrial types in FDI firms has resulted in the growth of
Suzhou benefiting from localisation economies. In addition to the two neighbouring evident countries,
foreign nationals from developed regions were noteworthy while there were limited foreign nationals
from developing countries. The composition of international immigrants was significantly different
from global cities in high income nations that have long history of immigration. While a number of less
309

skilful labourers have permanently migrated to high income nations at an individual level in search of
better economic opportunities (Hugo, 2004), Suzhou has had temporary immigrants with professional,
international skills facilitated by corporate business strategies. (It is reported that there are increasing
numbers of irregular workers from Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries into southern China
(Skeldon, 2011), but this did not happen in Suzhou).
Third, inequality was observed among foreign nationals possibly due to occupational backgrounds.
The income gap between the lowest 20% income group and the highest 20% group reached almost
eight times. The Gini coefficient was 0.40, showing significant unequal income distributions. Fourth,
differences were found by origin groups in terms of occupations, residential choice, and demographic
characteristics. Koreans and the Japanese were homogeneous in their occupation mostly on manufactur-
ing, but foreign nationals from developed regions were more diverse possibly due to high demand for
English education in China. Although foreign nationals chose core areas with quality public facilities
and better security, minor inter-urban differences were observed in their residential choice as manifested
in Korean and Japanese communities in the SIP and the SND, respectively.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by the Academy of Korean Studies Grant (AKS-2016-R00) and 2014 Jiangsu
University Natural Science Research Programme (Reference number: 14KJB170020). I appreciate Miss.
Ting Wang and Miss. Jessica Wong who provided assistance for this chapter.
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Expatriates: People living outside their home country mostly for working purpose. Expatriates are
often dispatched by firms to manage business operation.
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): Investment made by a firm located outside the country. FDI is
involved directly with flows of capital for production and indirectly with flows of people, technology
and managerial skills.
Global City: Cities with economic, political and/or cultural significance in a world system. Global
cities are command-and-control centres where globally significant decisions/activities are made.
International Migration: Cross-border human movement. Presence of evident pull and push factors
increases the volume of international migration.
Knowledge-Intensive Manufacturing: Manufacturing products that involve high technology. A
typical example of knowledge-intensive manufacturing is to produce semi-conductors, computers, mo-
bile phones, and aircrafts.
Multinational Enterprises (MNEs): Firms operational in two or more countries over the national
boundaries. MNEs seek out global markets, low production sites, natural resources and human resources
that might not be available in their origin country.
Spatial Inequality: Heterogeneity in human activities in different places. Typical measurements of
spatial inequality are income, wealth, property prices, and ethnic concentration. Often these are systemati-
cally associated. Unequal spatial distribution of one or more of these activities is called spatial inequality.
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315
Chapter 16
Cooperation and Competition
Among Regions:
The Umbrella Brand as a Tool for
Tourism Competitiveness
Arminda Almeida Santana

Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
Sergio Moreno Gil

Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
ABSTRACT
Many brands exist within the tourism industry. Territorial brands exist at local, regional, national, and
supranational level where they overlap and are interrelated. Therefore, it is necessary that tourist des-
tinations develop and manage their brands to obtain a strong differentiated position in the competitive
market. This study analyzed relationships between destinations in the new global scenario. It aimed to
improve brand architecture and increase tourist loyalty. A comprehensive analysis considering 6,964
tourists from 17 countries was applied. The study offered recommendations to destinations in order to
expand the design of marketing activities, improve coopetition strategies, and advance competitiveness.
The results confirmed that the destinations must adapt their promotional strategies to the new global
landscape of interconnected business. In addition, they need to develop strategies for horizontal loyalty
between destinations.
INTRODUCTION
Geopolitics is becoming increasingly complex. In order to achieve a mutual benefit between regions, it
is necessary to develop an analytical and strategic management perspective. This chapter will focus on
the tourism industry. Tourism is one of the most important worldwide economic activities, represent-
ing 9.8% of world global gross domestic product (world GDP), as well as 1 out 11 jobs for the global
economy in 2015 (World Travel & Tourism Council, 2015). In the case of Spain, where the present case
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-2673-5.ch016

Cooperation and Competition Among Regions
study is located, the total contribution of Travel & Tourism to GDP was 16.0% in 2015, furthermore,
the industry supported 19.2% of total employment (World Travel & Tourism Council, 2015). The main
purpose of this chapter will be to focus on relationships that collaborators and competitors face in the
new global scenario. Thus, the promotional strategies of tourism destinations must evolve in the global
interconnected business landscape.
Tourist destinations aim to manage a “brand architecture,” which establishes a valuable relationship
between the portfolio of different brands (Harish, 2010). Brand architecture is a crucial issue for tour-
ist destinations as they work to optimize portfolio of brands and the relationships between the brands
(Datzira-Masip & Poluzzi, 2014). Strategic organization of the brands helps to avoid internal competition,
it also adds value to the brands by achieving synergy and a multiplier effect (Harish, 2010).
On the other hand, growing competition between tourist destinations is an increasingly important trend
(Mariani & Baggio, 2012). Table 1 shows a greater dispersion of tourists among “new” destinations with
a significant increase in promotional investment and competition between these destinations to capture
outbound markets. The current tourism trends show an increased number of holidays per tourist. Yet,
the length of the holidays is shorter. Both the unstoppable growth of tourism and the increased number
of destinations in the market (UNWTO, 2014) make necessary for destinations to develop strategies for
obtaining a competitive advantage. Literature highlights collaboration and cooperation between tourist
destinations as one relevant strategy (Fyall, Garrod, & Wang, 2012). In this example, the development
of loyalty plays a key role in collaboration (Weaver & Lawton, 2011).
The fact that tourists share their holiday time between several destinations supports a collaborative
and cooperative approach. It opens a discussion on the desirability of integrating various brands under
Table 1. Evolution Top 15 incoming countries
Rank 1950 1970 1980 1990 2007
1 EEUU 71% Italy 43% France 40% France 39% France 32%
2 Canada Canada EEUU EEUU Spain
3 Italy France Spain Spain EEUU
4 France Spain Italy Italy China
5 Switzerland EEUU Austria Austria Italy
6 Ireland 17% Austria 22% Mexico 20% Mexico 18% UK 13%
7 Austria Germany Canada Germany Germany
8 Spain Switzerland UK UK Ukraine
9 Germany Yugoslavia Germany Canada Turkey
10 UK UK Belgium China Mexico
11 Norway 9% Hungary 10% Switzerland 10% Greece 9% Malaysia 11%
12 Argentina Czechoslovakia Yugoslavia Portugal Austria
13 Mexico Belgium Poland Switzerland Russian
14 Holland Bulgaria Czechoslovakia Yugoslavia Canada
15 Denmark Romania Grecia Malaysia Greece
Others 3% Others 25% Others 30% Others 34% Others 44%
Total 25 millions 166 millions 276 millions 436 millions 903 millions
Source: WTO (2012)
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one umbrella to promote consistent quality among destination partners and differentiate them from
their competitors (Aaker, 2004; Keller, 2003). While destinations could increase profits through the
efficient use of their brands, in the context of tourist destinations the concept of branding is relatively
new (Blain, Levy, & Ritchie, 2005). Tourist literature has ignored the relationship between tourists to
multiple destinations at the same time. Thus, this study aims to:
Explore the relationship between tourists and the different regions they visit within a set of compet-
ing destinations. Thus, it provides guidance on which regions to compete with in the brand architecture,
with which to cooperate and how to guide the creation of an umbrella brand.
In order to accomplish the proposed goal, the consideration set was the Canary Islands (Spain). The
justification of this selection is that the Canary Islands is a leading European destination (Gil, 2003), with
more than 14 million international tourists a year, and it is a very well-known and popular destination in
Europe. The Canary Islands consist of seven islands: Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, Fuerteventura,
La Palma, La Gomera, and El Hierro, with a complex ecosystem (García-Rodríguez, García-Rodríguez
& Castilla-Gutiérrez, 2016), showing an interesting complementary relationship between them (Promo-
tur, 2012). Promotur is a destination marketing organization that manages the umbrella brand (Canary
Islands) and it has to deals with the coexistence of seven islands-brands. Furthermore, the analysis of this
complementarity has been noted for other authors, claiming for further research applied to destinations
geographically close (Shih, 2006). Thus, this study has taken into consideration a set of competitive
destinations—the seven islands (destinations) within the Canary Islands. In order to reach the set goal, a
wide survey with 6,964 questionnaires was developed, considering tourists from 17 European countries.
This chapter will analyze products (destinations) competing within an umbrella brand. It will look at
whether these products should cooperate, as well as consider an effective methodology and analysis to
meet this need. Thus the implications of this study are valuable for other similar regions that compete
and cooperate under a common umbrella brand. It can be islands destinations (e.g., Hawaii: 8 main
destinations; Maldives: several islands), but also to mainland destinations promoted under a country,
region or sub-region brand.
BACKGROUND
Coopetition
During the 20th century, the study of competitiveness was a dominant paradigm in the tourism industry
(Kylänen & Rusko, 2011). Competitiveness in tourism has been defined as a destination’s ability to at-
tract potential tourists to their region while meeting their needs and desires (Enrigth & Newton, 2004).
According to Dawes, Romaniuk, and Mansfield (2009), tourist destinations compete for an individual’s
allocated travel time or for being a traveler’s destination choice on consecutive trips.
According to Mariani, Buhalis, Longhi, and Vitouladiti (2014), in a highly-competitive tourist in-
dustry, pure competition is one of many tools used by destinations to achieve sustainable competitive
advantage. However, cooperation plays a key role for tourism destination (Beritelli, 2011). Collabora-
tion and cooperation among destinations is a relevant strategy for a destination to achieve a competitive
advantage in the longer run (Fyall et al., 2012).
In the field of management, marketing, and tourism studies, these two leading paradigms (com-
petition and cooperation) have recently been juxtaposed to a novel situation referred to as coopetition
317

(Mariani et al., 2014). Thus, the term “coopetition” is understood as the simultaneous cooperation and
competition between companies and destinations (Luo, 2007). This cooperative approach, introduced
during the last few decades (Kylänen & Rusko, 2011), will continue to change the dominant economic
landscape (Fyall & Garrod, 2005; Jorde & Teece, 1990). Coopetition strategy has important policy and
management implications influencing tourist destination marketing activities and presenting positive
stakeholder benefits. Furthermore, it is also important to highlight the key role of consumer loyalty as
a valuable tool to improve the competitiveness of tourism destinations (Weaver & Lawton, 2011). The
resulting question is, to what extent coopetition strategy can be applied to brand management and loyalty?
Defining Loyalty and Explaining Its Importance
Customer loyalty has become an important marketing strategy due to the benefits associated with keep-
ing existing tourists (McMullan & Gilmore, 2008). Financial and marketing-related benefits of tourists
revisiting a destination justifies the destination’s efforts to keep their tourists (Darnell & Johnson, 2001).
According to literature, loyalty has two dimensions: (1) behavioral and (2) attitudinal (Baloglu, 2002).
From a behavioral point of view, loyalty can be understood as a “revisit” to a holiday destination. The
“attitudinal” approach represents personal attitudes and emotions involved with an individual’s loyalty
to a destination. The intent to revisit a destination is a manifestation of the latter. Although there is sig-
nificant research on loyalty and its relationship to marketing strategies (Sivadas & Baker-Prewitt, 2000),
few studies examine loyalty to tourist destinations (Moore, Rodger, & Taplin, 2015).
Horizontal Loyalty
Previous literature on loyalty shows that customers can be loyal to more than one brand (Cunningham,
1956; Dowling & Uncles, 1997; Felix, 2014; Jacoby & Kyner, 1973; Olson & Jacoby, 1974; Sharp &
Sharp, 1997; Yim & Kannan, 1999). Thus destination can cooperate and compete at the same time,
sharing tourists that travel to multiple destinations in different trips. These relationships have been
empirically demonstrated in different sectors, such as the cigarette industry (Dawes, 2014) and mobile
phone sectors (Quoquab, Yasin, & Abu, 2014). Outside of the tourist context, loyalty to multiple brands
has been conceptualized and described in different ways. However, an individual’s loyalty to several
destinations at the same time (referred to in literature as “horizontal loyalty”) has not been thoroughly
studied within the tourist sector (McKercher, Denizci-Guillet, & Ng, 2012).
In the tourism sector, according to Dawes et al., (2009), a person may book multiple trips, either
separately or at the same time, which makes it possible to purchase different brands or repeat a purchase.
Seeking a new experience is innate in travelers (Bowen & Shoemaker, 1998). Therefore, they may find
themselves as being loyal to more than one destination (Alegre & Juaneda, 2006; Jang & Feng, 2007).
According to McKercher et al., (2012), studies on loyalty in the tourism context traditionally consider
a single unit of analysis (e.g., a single destination). They have not yet considered the complex interrela-
tionships between multiple units of analysis at the same time within the tourism system. McKercher et
al., (2012) suggest carrying out studies on loyalty from the perspective of the consumer. They propose
a horizontal loyalty approach to demonstrate that tourists may show loyalty to different providers at the
same level within the tourism system (e.g., a tourist can show a loyal behavior to two destinations at
318

once) (McKercher et al., 2012). Therefore, destinations must understand that tourists share their journeys
between different destinations; loyal behavior can be divided among several destinations at the same
time (Dawes et al., 2009). The modern traveler can choose from an unlimited range of destinations that
offer similar attractions and facilities (Bianchi & Pike, 2011).
In addition, a shared loyalty behavior is motivated by the fact that many of the goods and services
within the tourism sector are similar in quality and the provided experience (Baloglu, 2002; Campó &
Yague, 2007; Darnell & Johnson, 2001). This behavior is supported by the novelty-seeking perspective,
considered by some authors as innate to travelers (Bowen & Shoemaker, 1998). This can inhibit loyalty
toward a single destination (Alegre & Juaneda, 2006; Jang & Feng, 2007). This fact supports the coope-
tition approach among destinations and it is a challenge for tourist destinations which must be able to
manage their brands with the aim to achieve a strong position in the competitive market.
Brand Architecture
Brand architecture has been defined as an organized structure of a portfolio of brands specifying brand
roles, as well as the nature of their relationships (Aaker & Joachimsthaler, 2000; Carballo, Araña, León
& Moreno-Gil, 2015). Limited research has been conducted on the study of brand architecture (Dooley
& Bowie, 2005; Harish, 2010). There are few cases where brand architecture has been meticulously
planned so it is difficult to find examples of models for managing brand portfolios (Datzira-Masip &
Poluzzi, 2014). According to Harish (2010), there are only a few studies covering both brand architec-
ture and brand destination. It shows the need to explore the implementation of brand architecture to the
destination brand since limited studies have analyzed different forms of brand architecture (Carballo,
Araña, León, González & Moreno, 2011).
An umbrella brand serves as a quality guarantee among brand partners (Laforet & Saunders, 1994).
Through the creation of the umbrella brand of a destination, marketers can achieve economies of scale
and consistency of message in the promotion of the destination (Iversen & Hem, 2008). Moving from
many local brands to a single umbrella brand also provides substantial savings in communication costs
(Schuiling & Kapferer, 2004). In any case, the debate about the best way to integrate local brands with
regional or national brands, as well as with other brands that are geographically close, or far, but with
similar characteristics (d’Hauteserre & Funck, 2016) remains open. What should be the union of regions
that are integrated into an umbrella brand? The brand architecture design should be adapted to the pat-
terns of tourists’ behavior (Jackson & Murphy, 2006).
Thus, the research hypothesis is the following:
The brand architecture design considering tourist horizontal loyalty, and a coopetition relationship
between regions under one umbrella brand, could benefit all the regions which participate in.
METHODOLOGY
In order to reach the set goals, a structured loyalty questionnaire was used which included socio-demo-
graphic and geographic variables. The questionnaire combined open and closed questions. The study
319

used Likert scales from 1 to 7, with 1 being the minimum and 7 being the maximum. The questionnaire
was designed based on literature review and took into account the specific nature of the analyzed des-
tination (Canary Islands, Spain).
Population
Representing more than half of the international arrivals each year, Europe remains the largest traveling
region in the world (UNWTO, 2015). The population used for this study consisted of potential tourists:
• More than 16 years of age

• Either male or female
• From one of the main outgoing tourism 17 European countries, traveling to the destination being
researched: Germany, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, Finland, France, Holland, Ireland, Italy,
Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom
Sampling Selection
An internet survey (CAWI) was used to conduct the research using a panel sampling from the 17 countries
mentioned in the “Population” section. In order to guarantee the sample’s representativeness within each
country, a random selection took into account the stratification variables of the geographic location and
province, as well as the gender and age. The initial sample consisted of 8,500 tourists (500 per country).
The real final sample consisted of 6,964 tourists, including between 400 and 459 tourists per country.
The selected sample was sent a personalized email inviting them to participate in the study, finding in
the mail itself a personalized link that led them to the online survey (Table 2).
Quality Control and Data Analysis
The questionnaire was pre-tested to consider the corresponding language of the potential tourists who
were analyzed. Corrections were made after tourists found questions that were difficult to understand.
Next, the survey was launched. After being programmed, the online system revised the interviews and
monitored the time spent by participants in answering the survey. Surveys answered in less than three
were deleted as “invalid.” Once the field work was completed, and after having applied the correspond-
ing quality controls, the researchers performed a frequency analysis and binomial logit analysis using
the latest version of SPSS statistical software. In this case, the logit model based on random use theory
was chosen. The fit of the logit model was assessed by two log likelihood (LL) ratios and their associ-
ated chi-square.
Tourists were asked whether they had ever visited the Canary Islands before (no time frames were
used). Only those tourists who had visited one of the Canary Island destinations were selected (2,067
tourists). And then, they were asked which islands they had visited. Tourists who had visited the consider-
ation set (Canary Islands) twice or more were considered loyal tourists. Canary Islands is an archipelago
in the Atlantic Ocean that forms 1 of the 17 autonomous communities of Spain. This offshore region is
two and a half hours flying time from the capital (Madrid) and approximately four hours from central
Europe. It is geographically located near the African coast (see Figure 1). A leading European destina-
tion, it receives more than 13 million tourists a year. It consists of seven islands: (1) Gran Canaria, (2)
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Table 2. Sample description
Frequency Percentage
Nationality Germany 423 6.07
Austria 403 5.80
Belgium 404 5.80
Denmark 405 5.82
Spain 406 5.83
Finland 411 5.90
France 402 5.77
Holland 403 5.79
Ireland 403 5.79
Italy 402 5.80
Norway 400 5.70
Poland 402 5.80
Portugal 459 6.59
Russia 405 5.82
Sweden 431 6.19
Switzerland 400 5.74
United Kingdom 405 5.82
Gender Man 3453 49.58
Woman 3508 50.40
Age from 16 to 24 1368 19.60
from 25 to 34 1395 20.03
from 35 to 44 1375 19.70
from 45 to 54 1406 20.19
from 55 to 64 1023 14.70
more than 64 396 5.69
Fuerteventura, (3) Lanzarote, (4) Tenerife, (5) La Gomera, (6) La Palma, and (7) El Hierro. The four
larger islands (Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, and Fuerteventura) receive a greater flow of interna-
tional tourists annually. This adds up to 93% of total tourists (see Table 3). For that reason, the present
study focuses on the four larger islands.
A joint promotion of the islands under the umbrella brand “Canary Islands” is developed by the re-
gional destination marketing organization (Promotur). Each island also develops promotional material as
independent destinations. Thus, eight brands exist: one per island plus the regional umbrella brand (see
Figure 2). Each brand attempts to communicate a distinct message through differing promotional claims.
In addition, in many promotions, the Canary Islands are promoted under the brand Spain, as part of the
country. Finally, in some products (cruises, nautical tourism, etc.) it is promoted in a network with other
islands of the Macaronesian Archipelago, promoting itself as a tourist experience (Carballo et al., 2015).
321

Figure 1. Geographic location of Canary Islands
Table 3. Tourist arrivals (Canary Islands, 2015)
Islands Tourists
Lanzarote 2.740.126
Fuerteventura 2.202.974
Gran Canaria 3.681.217
Tenerife 4.945.285
La Gomera 438.867
La Palma 377.183
El Hierro 29.906
Canary Islands 14.415.558
Source: Istac
MAIN RESULTS AND IMPLICATIONS
The main analysis related to loyalty and the relationship that tourists establish with the brands are de-
veloped in the next paragraphs. Table 4 shows that 17.82% of the tourist sample are loyal to the Canary
Islands (1,241 tourists). This group has visited the Canary Islands destination at least twice. The horizontal
loyalty tourists (14.3% or 996 tourists) have visited different island destinations under the Canary Islands
umbrella brand. The horizontal loyalty tourists represent 80.25% of loyal tourists. Of these tourists, the
following are loyal to specific islands: 6.7% to Gran Canaria; 5.9% to Tenerife; 2.7% to Lanzarote; 1.1%
to Fuerteventura; 0.8% to La Palma; 0.3% to La Gomera; and 0.1% to El Hierro.
Focusing on the horizontal loyalty tourists, and with the aim of obtaining a greater understanding of
this specific sample, Table 5 shows the number of horizontal loyalty tourists who have visited each of
the Canary Islands. As shown in Table 4: 78.2% of horizontal loyalty tourists visited Tenerife; 75.2%
visited Gran Canaria; 56.8% visited Lanzarote; and 32.5% visited Fuerteventura. The four most frequented
322

Figure 2. The Canary Islands brand architecture and promotional claims
Table 4. Horizontal loyal behavior
Island Number of Tourists Percentage

Loyal tourists to Canary Islands 1,241 17.82%
Loyal tourists to Tenerife 414 5.9%
Loyal tourists to Gran Canaria 467 6.7%
Loyal tourists to Lanzarote 185 2.7%
Loyal tourists to Fuerteventura 77 1.1%
Loyal tourists to La Palma 56 0.8%
Loyal tourists to La Gomera 19 0.3%
Loyal tourists to El Hierro 8 0.1%
323

Table 5. Islands visited by horizontal loyalty tourists
Island Number of Tourists Percentage

Tenerife 779 78.2
Gran Canaria 749 75.2
Lanzarote 566 56.8
Fuerteventura 324 32.5
La Palma 206 20.7
La Gomera 132 13.3
El Hierro 32 3.2
islands by horizontal loyalty tourists are the most visited islands within the umbrella brand. This result
shows that a joint and horizontal promotion could attract visitors to the smaller islands. Additional re-
search is required prior to making decisions surrounding marketing and design of the destination brand
architecture. It is necessary to determine whether there are islands whose promotional strategies must
link more closely to the other islands in order to increase visits to a specific island destination, as well
as improve loyalty to the umbrella brand.
It is necessary to study tourist behavior patterns in order to improve the design of the destination
brand architecture. For instance, 49.2% of horizontal loyalty tourists who visited Tenerife were travel-
ing on their first visit to the Canary Islands. As shown in Table 6, a higher percentage of tourists visited
the islands of Tenerife and Gran Canaria during their first visit to the Canary Islands. The islands of
Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, La Palma, and La Gomera are usually chosen for a second visit. Additionally,
the island of El Hierro is usually visited on the fifth trip to the destination.
Table 7 shows the number of islands visited by horizontal loyalty tourists. It is observed that: 50.9%
of horizontal loyalty tourists visited two of the Canary Islands; 29.8% visited three; and 12.2% visited
four. These results confirm the destination’s need to manage and improve brand architecture related to
horizontal loyalty tourists. It is necessary to know if there are islands whose promotion strategies must
be more closely linked.
Table 8 illustrates the combination of islands visited by horizontal loyalty tourists. For example, 58.3%
of horizontal loyalty tourists visited at least the islands of Gran Canaria and Tenerife; 42.5% visited
Table 6. The order in which horizontal loyalty tourists visited the Canary Islands
TF GC LZ FV LP LG EH
First 49.2 49.9 22.4 16.0 23.8 7.6 3.1
Second 38.5 35.6 40.6 33.3 26.2 27.3 3.1
Third 9.8 11.6 29.9 23.1 19.9 26.5 18.8
Fourth 1.9 1.7 6.0 20.7 17.5 17.4 12.5
Fifth 0.5 0.7 0.7 4.6 10.7 8.3 28.1
Sixth 0.1 0.3 0 1.9 1.0 10.6 9.4
Seventh 0 0.1 0.4 0.3 1.0 2.3 25.0
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
324

Table 7. Number of islands visited by horizontal loyalty tourists
Nº of Islands Visited Number of Tourists Percentage

Two 507 50.9
Three 297 29.8
Four 122 12.2
Five 42 4.2
Six 11 1.1
Seven 17 1.7
Total 996 100
Table 8. Combination of islands (two-by-two) visited by horizontal loyalty tourists
TF GC LZ FV LP LG EH
TF 58.3% 42.5% 21.7% 15.3% 12.1% 2.9%
GC 58.3% 40.0% 22.8% 15.7% 8.9% 2.5%
LZ 42.5% 40.0% 23.5% 9.7% 7.5% 2.4%
FV 21.7% 22.8% 23.5% 6.4% 5.0% 1.8%
LP 15.3% 59.5% 9.7% 6.4% 4.2% 2.6%
LG 12.1% 8.9% 7.5% 5.0% 4.2% 2.5%
EH 2.9% 2.5% 2.4% 1.8% 2.6% 2.5%
Lanzarote and Tenerife; and 40% visited Gran Canaria and Lanzarote. The percentages highlight the need
for a common brand strategy between those islands. This result reveals the existence of a relationship
between the islands to consider in the marketing decision making and especially for the correct design
of the destination’s brand architecture, which requires more analysis in this regard.
With the aim of acquiring further knowledge related to the behavior of horizontal loyalty tourists,
Table 9 shows their most common patterns (order and sequence) when visiting different islands (see the
extended table 12 in Appendix 1). The most common patterns are visits to: Gran Canaria followed by
Tenerife; Tenerife followed by Gran Canaria; and Tenerife followed by Lanzarote. However, a deeper
analysis is required to determine whether the visit to one island influenced a visit to another island.
To achieve the goals, it was necessary to estimate four logit binomial models exploring the relation-
ship between visits to different destinations. For example, the first model attempts to explain if the visit
to Gran Canaria is influenced by a prior visit to another island. The same is explored in the case of Te-
nerife, Lanzarote, and Fuerteventura. In addition, the models included other sociodemographic variables
to explain the visit to a destination. These include: gender, educational level, and income (see Table 10).
Table 11. summarizes the estimation results of the four proposed models. It is observed that a higher
level of education shows that a tourist is less likely to visit Gran Canaria. Instead, this tourist is likely to
visit Tenerife. In addition, there is a positive relationship between income level and visits to the islands
of Gran Canaria, Tenerife, and Fuerteventura. An analysis of greater importance is the cooperation and/
or competition relationship between different destinations. The above table shows the values of the coef-
ficients of the variables so called of coopetition.
325

Table 9. Behavior patterns to visit the destination
Number of Tourists Percentage

GC TF 105 10.5
TF GC 88 8.8
TF LZ 56 5.6
GC TF LZ 37 3.7
GC LZ 35 3.5
TF GC LZ 30 3.0
LZ GC 25 2.5
TF FV 21 2.1
GC FV 20 2.0
LZ TF 20 2.0
TF LZ GC 20 2.0
LZ FV 19 1.9
GC LZ TF 18 1.8
GC TF LZ FV 17 1.7
LZ TF GC 17 1.7
FV LZ 16 1.6
LP GC 13 1.3
LP TF 13 1.3
GC LZ FV 12 1.2
TF GC LZ FV 12 1.2
FV GC 10 1.0
TF LZ FV 10 1.0
Otros 382 38.2
Total 996 100
Table 10. Variables included in the models
Variables Definition
Sociodemographic Gender Dichotomous variable
Educational level Number of years
Incomes Annual income in thousands of euros
Coopetition Previous visit to Tenerife, Previous visit to Gran Dichotomous variable
Canaria, Previous visit to Lanzarote, Previous
visit to Fuerteventura, Previous visit to La Palma,
Previous visit to La Gomera and Previous visit
to El Hierro
Endogenous Visit to Tenerife, visit to Gran Canaria, visit to Dichotomous variable
Lanzarote, visit to Fuerteventura
326

Table 11. Logit binomial models
Gran Canaria Tenerife Lanzarote Fuerteventura

β ε β ε β ε β ε
Gender - - - - - - - -
Education -.043*** .013 .029** .013 - - - -
Incomes .011*** .002 .005* .002 - - .010*** .003
Visit TF -.763*** .103 - - .294*** .111 -.260* .134
Visit GC - - -.764*** .103 - - - -
Visit LZ - - .289** .112 - - 1.255*** .130
Visit FV - - -.274** .135 1.256*** .130 - -
Visit LP - - - - - - -
Visit LG .637** .233 2.076*** .349 .737*** .229 .446* .259
Visit EH 1.083** .503 1.382* .785 .961* .497 1.098** .454
Constant .876*** .192 -.007 .195 -.980*** .210 -2.224*** .256
-2 Log likelihood 2271.4 2236.3 2061.0 1545.7
n 2067 2067 2067 2067
A strong inverse relationship was observed between visits to the islands of Gran Canaria and Tenerife.
This means that the more times a tourist visited Tenerife, the less likely it would be that the tourist would
visit Gran Canaria (and the same occurs the other way around). Moreover, it is important to highlight
the strong direct relationship between visits to the islands of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura and between
Tenerife and La Gomera. A higher number of visits to Lanzarote increases the probability to visit Fuerte-
ventura (and vice versa). The same applies to the islands of Tenerife and La Gomera.
Models differentiated by country of origin were performed in an attempt to be more specific in the
analysis of coopetition between different destinations depending on the specific target market under re-
search (Figure 3). These results show that cultural background (nationality) must be analyzed in detail to
understand the complementary relationship between destinations. It is important to highlight the strong
direct relationship between visits to Tenerife and Gran Canaria in different markets. This means that
those islands have a strong complementarity relationship. In the case of the UK, this complementary
relationship was observed between Tenerife and Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura and Tenerife, Fuerteventura
and Gran Canaria, Tenerife and Lanzarote, Gran Canaria and Lanzarote, Lanzarote and Fuerteventura,
and Lanzarote and La Palma.
To better understand relationships between destinations, future studies on geographic distance must be
considered. Short-haul vs. long-haul destinations may require a different focus. Connectivity (trans-
portation) is crucial considering the different means of transportation, as well as its cost and comfort.
Moreover, culture and country of origin must be considered. Future work should also replicate the study
analyzing different market segments. It should study destinations and tourists from other geographic areas,
327

Figure 3. Complementarity of the different islands of the Canary Islands by nationality
as well as consider alternative demographic variables. Furthermore, it should consider the differences
between loyal behavior toward the umbrella brand compared to attitudinal loyalty. Finally, development
a longitudinal analysis could also be considered. In addition to a further in depth qualitative research to
provide new insights to this topic.
This study contributes to destination marketing literature. Given the lack of current research, this study
contributes to destination branding with an emphasis on brand architecture design and its influence on
328

the development of destination loyalty. Furthermore, these results are useful to continue work on the
analysis of brand architecture and co-branded marketing between complementary destinations that may
not be geographically close but are linked around experiential loyalty.
This methodology allows destinations to find out what are the other destinations to compete or coop-
erate with, depending on the final target market. Thus umbrella brands could develop a similar analysis
in any region and make policies according to the results. Thus there is a possibility of generalization
of the study. Destinations where there is a strong direct relationship between visits (e.g., Lanzarote and
Fuerteventura in our study), requires a specific consideration within the umbrella brand. For instance, the
physical location of the destinations (representatives and stands) within a tourism trade fair, the display
and location of the destinations within the common communication content (web site, brochures, etc.).
The same applies when destinations are competing, as they might need a major differentiation within the
umbrella brand, developing a brand architecture with clear differentiated destinations sets. Subsequently,
there is a need to enforce differentiation within destinations that are competing, and enhance bundling
options when trading the brand among destinations that show complementarity.
CONCLUSION
In today’s evolving world, global managers face serious geopolitical issues. Within the tourism industry,
these challenges mean that brand architecture and country of origin are topics that need further analysis.
Traditionally, destinations have designed their marketing strategies without considering other destina-
tions to compete or cooperate with. They have not paid attention to the relationship of the tourist with
multiple destinations at the same time. This study shows that cooperation between tourist destinations
could be a strategy in which all destinations under the umbrella brand obtain benefits and improve per-
formance. Thus, destination managers can get a better understanding related to destinations to compete
or cooperate with.
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332

ADDITIONAL READING
Baldacchino, G. (2016). Archipelago tourism: policies and practices. Routledge.
Destination Branding: Activities aimed at identifying and differentiating a tourist destinations.

Brand Architecture: A valuable relationship between structuration and organization of portfolio
of brands.
Competitiveness: A destination’s ability to attract potential tourists to their region, as well as meet
their needs and desires.
Consumer Loyalty: A commitment to rebuy or repatronize a preferred product or service despite
situational influences and marketing efforts to switch behavior.
Coopetition: The simultaneous cooperation and competition between companies.
Horizontal Loyalty: Loyalty to different providers at the same level within the tourism system.
Umbrella Brand: The use of a single brand name for the marketing of two or more related regions.
333
APPENDIX
Table 12. Continued
Table 12. Behavior patterns to visit the destination Number of Percentage
(completed table) Tourists
GC FV LZ 6 0.6
Number of Percentage GC TF LZ LP 6 0.6
Tourists
LZ TF FV 6 0.6
GC TF 105 10.5
FV LZ GC 5 0.5
TF GC 88 8.8
TF FV GC 5 0.5
TF LZ 56 5.6
GC LP TF 4 0.4
GC TF LZ 37 3.7
GC TF FV LZ 4 0.4
GC LZ 35 3.5
GC TF LZ LG 4 0.4
TF GC LZ 30 3
LG TF 4 0.4
LZ GC 25 2.5
TF FV LZ 4 0.4
TF FV 21 2.1
TF GC LZ FV LP 4 0.4
GC FV 20 2
TF GC LZ LP 4 0.4
LZ TF 20 2
TF LG GC 4 0.4
TF LZ GC 20 2
FV TF 3 0.3
GC LP 19 1.9
GC FV TF 3 0.3
LZ FV 19 1.9
GC LZ FV TF 3 0.3
GC LZ TF 18 1.8
LP GC LZ 3 0.3
GC TF LZ FV 17 1.7
LZ FV GC 3 0.3
LZ TF GC 17 1.7
TF GC FV LZ 3 0.3
FV LZ 16 1.6
TF GC LG 3 0.3
TF LG 16 1.6
TF GC LZ LG FV 3 0.3
GC TF LG 13 1.3
TF LZ FV GC 3 0.3
LP GC 13 1.3
TF LZ LG 3 0.3
LP TF 13 1.3
FV LP 2 0.2
GC LZ FV 12 1.2
FV LZ TF 2 0.2
TF GC LZ FV 12 1.2
FV TF LZ 2 0.2
TF LP 11 1.1
GC FV LP 2 0.2
FV GC 10 1
GC FV LP LZ 2 0.2
GC TF LP 10 1
GC FV LZ TF 2 0.2
TF GC LP 10 1
GC LG 2 0.2
TF LZ FV 10 1
GC TF LG LP 2 0.2
LZ GC TF 9 0.9
GC TF LG LZ 2 0.2
GC LZ TF FV 7 0.7
GC TF LZ FV LP LG 2 0.2
GC TF FV 7 0.7
LG LZ 2 0.2
LP GC TF 7 0.7
LP LZ 2 0.2
TF GC FV 7 0.7
LP TF LZ 2 0.2
TF LZ GC FV 7 0.7
continued in next column continued on next page
334
Table 12. Continued Table 12. Continued
Number of Percentage Number of Percentage

Tourists Tourists
LZ FV TF 2 0.2 GC LP TF LZ FV LG 1 0.1
LZ TF GC FV 2 0.2 GC LZ EH TF 1 0.1
TF FV GC LZ 2 0.2 GC LZ FV LP 1 0.1
TF FV LZ GC 2 0.2 GC LZ FV LP TF 1 0.1
TF GC LG LP 2 0.2 GC LZ LP TF LG FV 1 0.1
TF GC LZ FV LG 2 0.2 GC LZ TF LG FV 1 0.1
TF GC LZ FV LP LG 2 0.2 GC LZ TF LP 1 0.1
TF LG LP LZ 2 0.2 GC LZ TF LP EH 1 0.1
TF LG LZ 2 0.2 GC TF FV LP 1 0.1
TF LP GC 2 0.2 GC TF FV LZ LG 1 0.1
TF LP LZ 2 0.2 GC TF FV LZ LP 1 0.1
TF LP LZ GC FV 2 0.2 GC TF LP FV LZ 1 0.1
TF LZ FV GC LP 2 0.2 GC TF LP LG EH FV 1 0.1
LZ
TF LZ GC LG FV 2 0.2
GC TF LP LZ 1 0.1
TF LZ GC LP 2 0.2
GC TF LP LZ LG EH 1 0.1
TF LZ LP 2 0.2
GC TF LZ FV LG 1 0.1
EH LP 1 0.1
GC TF LZ LG EH 1 0.1
FV GC LZ 1 0.1
GC TF LZ LG FV 1 0.1
FV GC TF 1 0.1
GC TF LZ LP FV 1 0.1
FV GC TF LZ 1 0.1
GC TF LZ LP FV EH 1 0.1
FV LP TF 1 0.1 LG
FV LZ GC LP 1 0.1 GC TF LZ LP LG FV 1 0.1
FV LZ GC TF 1 0.1 LG EH 1 0.1
FV LZ LG 1 0.1 LG GC 1 0.1
FV LZ TF GC 1 0.1 LG GC FV 1 0.1
FV LZ TF GC LP 1 0.1 LG TF LP 1 0.1
FV LZ TF LG 1 0.1 LP FV 1 0.1
FV TF GC 1 0.1 LP FV LZ 1 0.1
FV TF LG 1 0.1 LP GC LZ TF 1 0.1
GC FV LG LZ TF 1 0.1 LP GC TF FV EH 1 0.1
GC FV LZ LG TF 1 0.1 LP LG LZ EH 1 0.1
GC FV TF LZ 1 0.1 LP LZ GC 1 0.1
GC LG TF 1 0.1 LP LZ TF 1 0.1
GC LG TF FV LP 1 0.1 LP TF EH 1 0.1
GC LP FV 1 0.1 LP TF LG 1 0.1
GC LP FV TF LZ 1 0.1 LZ FV GC LP LG TF 1 0.1
GC LP LZ TF 1 0.1 LZ FV GC LP TF 1 0.1
continued in next column continued on next page
335
Table 12. Continued Table 12. Continued
Number of Percentage Number of Percentage

Tourists Tourists
LZ FV LG GC 1 0.1 TF GC FV LZ EH LP 1 0.1
LG
LZ FV LP 1 0.1
TF GC FV LZ LG 1 0.1
LZ FV TF GC 1 0.1
TF GC FV LZ LP 1 0.1
LZ FV TF LG 1 0.1
TF GC FV LZ LP LG 1 0.1
LZ FV TF LG LP GC 1 0.1
TF GC FV LZ LP LG 1 0.1
LZ GC FV LP 1 0.1
EH
LZ GC FV TF 1 0.1
TF GC LP FV LZ 1 0.1
LZ GC LG TF 1 0.1
TF GC LP LZ 1 0.1
LZ GC LP TF FV 1 0.1
TF GC LZ FV LP LG 1 0.1
LZ GC TF FV 1 0.1 EH
LZ GC TF FV EH LG 1 0.1 TF GC LZ LG 1 0.1
LP
TF GC LZ LP FV EH 1 0.1
LZ GC TF LG 1 0.1 LG
LZ GC TF LP 1 0.1 TF GC LZ LP FV LG 1 0.1
EH
LZ LG 1 0.1
TF GC LZ LP LG FV 1 0.1
LZ LG TF 1 0.1 EH
LZ LP GC 1 0.1 TF LG EH 1 0.1
LZ LP GC TF 1 0.1 TF LG EH LP GC FV 1 0.1
LZ LP TF 1 0.1 LZ
LZ TF EH LG LP FV 1 0.1 TF LG GC LZ 1 0.1
GC TF LG GC LZ FV 1 0.1
LZ TF FV LP 1 0.1 TF LG LP EH 1 0.1
LZ TF LG 1 0.1 TF LG LZ LP GC 1 0.1
LZ TF LG FV 1 0.1 TF LP GC EH 1 0.1
TF FV GC LG 1 0.1 TF LP LG LZ GC 1 0.1
TF FV GC LZ LP LG 1 0.1 TF LP LZ EH LG 1 0.1
EH
TF LZ FV LP GC 1 0.1
TF FV LZ LG GC LP 1 0.1
EH TF LZ GC FV LP 1 0.1
TF GC EH 1 0.1 TF LZ GC FV LP LG 1 0.1
TF GC FV LP LZ 1 0.1 TF LZ GC FV LP LG 1 0.1
EH
TF GC FV LZ EH LG 1 0.1
LP TF LZ LP LG EH GC 1 0.1
Total 996 100
continued in next column
336
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About the Contributors
Angelo Presenza is Assistant Professor in Management at University of Molise (Italy). He has a PhD
in Business Management. He has been Visiting in several International Universities such as University
of Calgary, Dalhousie University, Huelva University, Universitad de Gran Canarie. He teaches themes
mainly related to tourism management and tourism destination governance. He has several previous
experiences in European projects as coordinator of local unit (“Strategic support on establishment and
development of sustainable structures on quality assurance, international relations and student support
services at the newly founded Public University Haxhi Zeka in Kosova” - acronym: SD@UHZ) or member
of local units (“Modernizing the 3rd cycle at the University of Prishtina and Developing a PhD Program
at the Faculty of Economics”- acronym: MODPhD; “Network for Post Graduate Masters in Cultural
Heritage and Tourism Management in Balkan Countries” - acronym: CHTMBAL). In the same topics,
he did presentations in National and International Conferences and more recently on smart tourism. He
has around 50 publications most of them focused on tourism and related issues.
Lorn Sheehan is Professor of Strategy and Area Coordinator of Strategy for the Rowe School of
Business in the Faculty of Management at Dalhousie University. He is also cross appointed to the School
of Resource and Environmental Studies and holds a faculty appointment at the University Bayreuth in
Germany. Dr. Sheehan has a PhD in Strategy, an MBA in Finance, a Masters Degree in Environmental
Design specializing in Planning, and a Bachelor’s degree in Science. He teaches in the areas of strate-
gic management and tourism management. His research is related to tourism destination management,
stakeholder management, and entrepreneurship.
***
Tindara Abbate is Assistant Professor of Business Economics and Management at the University
of Messina (Italy). She received Ph.D. in Business Economics and Management of the University of
Messina (Italy). She is involved, as presenter and member of scientific committee, in several national
and international conferences. She participates to different research projects, as member and scientific
coordinator. Her research interests refer to open innovation and open innovation intermediaries; social
innovation; market orientation; territorial brand and destination marketing.

Arminda Almeida-Santana is part of the research staff at the University of Las Palmas de Gran
Canaria since 2013. She is part of the Institute of Tourism Studies and Economic and Sustainable De-
velopment (Tides). Her research interests focus on Loyalty, Branding, Brand Management, Consumer
Behavior, Hospitality Marketing, Destination Marketing and Management, Customer Experience and
Satisfaction, Social Media and Digital Destinations.
Vernon Bachor (Ph.D. 2008 University of Calgary’s Haskayne School of Business) is an Associate
Professor for Innovation and Entrepreneurship in the College of Business at Winona State University
and a business consultant on research based technology and innovation. He has professional designa-
tions as a Project Management Professional (PMP), an Information Systems Professional (ISP), and an
Information Technology Certified Professional (ITCP). Vern’s research is an interdisciplinary approach
to understanding the interrelations of strategy, technology & innovation management, sustainability,
technical knowledge diffusion, entrepreneurship, international business, project/program management,
and MIS. He has most recently published in California Management Review, Technovation, and Research-
Technology Management. He is the Managing Editor for the Journal of Engineering and Technology
Management, an international scholarly-refereed research journal that aims to promote the theory and
practice of technology, innovation, and engineering management. Vern is also an editorial board member
for the International Journal of Knowledge Management and the International Journal of Information
Technology Project Management.
Yongjian Bao is an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Management, University of Lethbridge.

He earned a PhD in Knowledge Management in 2000 from the University of Southern California, Los
Angeles, U.S.A. His research focuses on Trust, Ethics, and Power in TMT Decision Making; Cognitive
dimension of organization; Organizational Learning and Tacit Knowledge Acquisition; Organizational
Changes and Innovation.
Neeta Baporikar is currently Director/Professor (Business Management) at Harold Pupkewitz Gradu-

ate School of Business (HP-GSB), Namibia University of Science and Technology, Namibia. Prior to
this she was Head-Scientific Research, with Ministry of Higher Education CAS-Salalah, Sultanate of
Oman, Professor (Strategic Management and Entrepreneurship) at IIIT Pune and BITS India. With more
than a decade of experience in industry, consultancy and training, she made a lateral switch to research
and academics in 1995. Dr. Baporikar holds D.Sc. (Management Studies) USA, PhD in Management,
University of Pune INDIA with MBA (Distinction) and Law (Hons.) degrees. Apart from this, she is
also an External Reviewer, Oman Academic Accreditation Authority, Accredited Management Teacher,
Qualified Trainer, Doctoral Guide and Board Member of Academics and Advisory Committee in ac-
credited B-Schools. Reviewer for international journals, she has to her credit 5 conferred doctorates,
several refereed research papers, and authored books in the area of Entrepreneurship, Strategy, Manage-
ment and Higher Education.
Mario Calabrese, PhD, is an Adjunct Professor of Management at Sapienza University of Rome.

His main interests are about strategy, entrepreneurship, innovation and change process in new organisa-
tion and Government and Innovation Management: ‘Management of Corporate Development Process’
(strategy implementation, acquisitions management, financial strategies and valuation). He is a financial,
economic and corporate consultant whit a peculiar interest in company strategy. He takes part in research,
development and planning of business company studies.
391
Rossella Canestrino is Assistant Professor at “Parthenope” University of Naples (Italy), where She
teaches Firms’ Networks and Alliances; Business Ethics and CSR and Quality Management. She is re-
viewer for the “Journal of Business Ethics”; the “Journal of Sustainable Entrepreneurship and Corporate
Social Responsibility” and “Sinergie, Italian Journal of Management”. She has been visiting researcher
at ESADE Business School (Barcelona) and member of the GRACO research group, actively participat-
ing in the studies of knowledge-in-context, of practice-based learning, of knowledge transfer and the
use of narratives and rhetoric in economics and management sciences. From 2015 she has been selected
as a Track Organizer for IFKAD the International Forum for Knowledge Management. Her research
topics are focused on Knowledge Management, Cross-Cultural Management, International networks,
and Business Ethics. Among the underlined research fields, Her research activity focus on the way both
cultural diversities and collaborative arrangements may foster, or limit cross-border knowledge transfer.
She also investigates the role of culture in shaping firms’ propensity to social responsibility and to adopt
sustainable practices. Accepted visiting researcher at Cracow University of Economics (Poland) She
is actually involved in international collaborations and research projects about Social Entrepreneurship
and Social Innovation.
Gian Luca Casali has more than ten years’ experience in the Hospitality and Tourism industry as a
small business owner. This has given him a deep understanding of the issues that industry professionals
are facing every day. Fifteen years’ experience in the NFP and charity industry by fulfilling different roles
(board member, board advisor, club president, young professional’s coordinator). His research interests
cover Business ethics (Corporate social responsibility ethical Managerial decision making in healthcare
industry), Entrepreneurship & Innovation (innovation in the public sector, nascent firms’ business ideas,
and SMEs business venture), Strategic management and Teaching & Learning (university first years
students’ expectation, learning and satisfaction of completing higher degree students, study ethics in
higher degree, AACSB accreditation and AOL goals). Luca was given two Vice chancellor performance
awards, one on excellence in team teaching and the other on in community engagement.
Bice Della Piana holds a PhD in Public Management. She is currently an Assistant Professor at
University of Salerno in Italy. Her main research interests are focused on the cultural differences, fam-
ily business group and institutional perspective on innovation. Her current lines of research include
the impact of cultural variables on the firm’s governance mechanisms, FBG’s governance mechanisms
considering the network development research and the influence of family values on the family firms’
resilience from a cross-cultural perspective. In addition, she is also working on a research line devoted
to multi-cultural team management and dynamics. She has previously published several papers in inter-
national journals. She teaches Cross Cultural Management and Strategic Management at undergradu-
ate, graduate and PhD level and she also participates in the X-Culture Project as an instructor. She has
also been a visiting scholar at University of Burgos (Spain), at International Business School at Vilnius
University (Lithuania) and at Institute for Cross Cultural Management at Florida Institute of Technology
(US) where she is also Research Fellow. She is project reviewer for the Italian Ministry of Education,
University and Research.
392
Hasan Dincer is an Associate Professor of finance at Istanbul Medipol University, Faculty of Eco-
nomics and Administrative Sciences, Istanbul-Turkey. Dr. Dincer has BAs in Financial Markets and
Investment Management at Marmara University. He received PhD in Finance and Banking with his
thesis entitled “The Effect of Changes on the Competitive Strategies of New Service Development in
the Banking Sector”. He has work experience in the finance sector as a portfolio specialist and hismajor
academic studies focusing on financial instruments, performance evaluation, and economics.He is the
executive editor of the International Journal of Finance and Banking Studies (IJFBS) and the founder
member of the Society for the Study of Business and Finance (SSBF).
Sinem Ergun studied Beyoğlu Anatolian High School. She graduated from Marmara University,
Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, department of Business Administration. She received
Master’s Degree from Middlesex University. She completed her Ph.D in Management and Organization
(in English) at Marmara University, Social Sciences Institute in 2006. Since 2001, she has been member
of Marmara University, Faculty of Business Administration, Business Administration (in English) depart-
ment. Her research and teaching areas include entrepreneurship, strategic management, small business
management and research methods in social sciences.
Luis Fernando Escobar is Assistant Professor of International Management and Policy & Strategy at
the Faculty of Management, University of Lethbridge, Canada. He completed his PhD at the University
of Calgary, Canada. Luis Fernando current research interests are at the intersection of strategy, social
factors and multinational companies. Prior to his academic career, he worked in the oil and gas industry
in South America.
Gulruh Gurbuz studied at English High School for Girls. She graduated from Marmara University,
Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Business Administration (in English).
She received her Master’s and PhD degree from Marmara University Social Sciences Institute. Still,
she has been a faculty member of Business Administration and Director of Marmara University Social
Sciences Institute, member of Marmara University Senate, Head of Management and Organization (in
English) Department and supervisor for several MA and PhD programs.
Serkan Gürsoy is assistant professor of business and management science at Beykoz University in
Istanbul. He is also currently the director of the R&D and Innovation Center of the same institution. He
has a Ph.D. in Science and Technology Policy Studies from Middle East Technical University. Besides
his academic and entrepreneurial engagements, he has received grants from various institutions and
participated in multinational research projects involving innovation strategies, smart city applications
and supply chain networks. His main research fields cover knowledge strategies, innovation literacy
and organizational development. His recent work is aimed at combining academic and entrepreneurial
endeavors by focusing on the dynamic complexities among ICT, knowledge society, big data analysis
and online communities.
393
Umit Hacioglu is an Associate Professor of finance at Istanbul Medipol University, Faculty of Eco-
nomics and Administrative Sciences, Istanbul-Turkey. Dr. Hacioglu has BAs in Business and Interna-
tional Business from Beykent University. He received his MBA from Beykent University and his PhD
in Finance and Banking from KadirHas University. He has published extensively in major academic
journal focusing on financial markets, behavioral finance, performance evaluation, and economics of
markets. He edits and serves on several journals related to his core research areas—behavioral finance
and financial decision making.
Jeremy Hall (D.Phil., University of Sussex, MBA and B.Sc., Dalhousie University) is the Director of
the International Centre for Corporate Social Responsibility (ICCSR) and Chaired Professor of Corpo-
rate Social Responsibility/ Sustainable Business at Nottingham University Business School, University
of Nottingham. He is also Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Engineering and Technology Management.
Xhimi Hysa is Assistant Professor of Management, Leadership & Organizational Behavior at Epoka
University. He is also the Head of Business Administration Department at the same university. Dr. Hysa
has a Bachelor, a Master of Science, and a PhD from Sapienza University of Rome in which he has
previously worked as research and teaching assistant. Actually, Dr. Hysa is teaching also as a part time
staff at the Department of Management of University of Tirana. His research interests include: service
science, systems thinking applied to management, leadership, social business and sustainability, group
cohesiveness and conformity.
Guoliang F. Jiang (Ph.D., The University of Western Ontario) is an Associate Professor of Interna-
tional Business at the Sprott School of Business at Carleton University in Canada. His research interests
include firm internationalization strategy, international management and corporate social responsibilities.
His research has appeared in the Journal of International Management, the Journal of Management Stud-
ies, and the Journal of World Business, among others. He serves on the editorial boards of the Journal of
International Management and the Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences. Prior to his academic
career, he worked at General Electric and Kao in China.
Hyung Min Kim is a Lecturer in Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning, The University
of Melbourne, Australia. After he received his PhD from the University of Melbourne, he worked for
Xian Jiaotong-Liverpool University in Suzhou, China (2013 – 2015) and RMIT University, Melbourne,
Australia (2015 - 2016). His research interest is upon economic and spatial dynamics of the Asia-Pacific
cities. He has published his research outcomes to international journals such as Cities, Progress in Plan-
ning, and Habitat International.
Nathaniel C. Lupton (Ph.D., The University of Western Ontario) is an Assistant Professor of In-
ternational Management at the University of Lethbridge. His research focuses on internationalization
processes of knowledge transfer, location choice, non-market strategy and investment modes. His research
has appeared in Academy of Management Perspectives, Journal of World Business, Journal of Knowl-
edge Management, among others. Prior to his academic career, he worked in the telecommunications
and information technology industries.
394
Pierpaolo Magliocca is Assistant Professor at University of Foggia (Italy), where He teaches Opera-
tion Management, Marketing and Tourism Management. He is reviewer for “Sinergie, Italian Journal of
Management” and member of the Register of auditors for the evaluation of ministerial research programs
in the following areas: Competitiveness, Innovation, Research and Development, Marketing, Organization
Studies. From 2015 He has been selected as a Track Organizer for IFKAD the International Forum for
Knowledge Management. His research interests are focused on Firms Governance, Process Management
and International Business. Within the field of Knowledge Management and firms’ internationalization
process, He focused his attention on the conditions upon which intra-organizational knowledge transfer
may occur and corporate learning process may be fostered. With reference to firms’ internationalization
He also analyzes both risks and opportunities managers face when go abroad. The research activities
of Pierpaolo Magliocca are reinforced by his involvement in several academic research projects. Actu-
ally he is the scientific coordinator for the Project “Medical Tourism: managerial and legal dynamics”,
selected for funding by the University of Foggia. He is also business consultant and his professional
activity belong to firms’ re-organization and process re-engineering.
Stelvia Matos received her PhD in Civil Engineering from the University of Paulo, Brazil. Her
research is primarily focused on understanding the complex interactions among social, environmental
and economic factors, and specifically how they affect, and/or are affected by innovation dynamics,
entrepreneurial behavior and policy development. A large part of Dr. Matos’ research concerns the
difficult process of responding to technological and social change through innovation, which can be
conceptualized as a panacea and paradox - a main driver of social improvement but also the cause of
many problems faced by society. Her areas include technological, commercial, organizational and social
uncertainties of innovation, life cycle assessment, technical-economic cost modeling and sustainable
development innovation. It involves the agriculture, chemical, energy, forestry, and tourism sectors, with
field studies performed in Brazil, Bosnia, Canada, China, Italy, the Netherlands, the UK, and the US.
Carolan McLarney is a Full Professor who joined the faculty at Dalhousie as an Assistant Profes-
sor of International and Strategic Management in July 1999. She came to Dalhousie from Illinois State
University where she taught International and Strategic Management since 1996. She teaches the under-
graduate and graduate International Business and Strategic Management courses as well as in the MBA
(Financial Services) Program. Her research interests include the interface between small businesses and
international business strategy, and the use of strategic alliances. She has published over three-dozen
articles in a number of journals, including the Journal of Global Business, Journal of Organizational
Change Management, International Journal of Social Economics, Women in Management, The Learn-
ing Organization, Journal of Management Education and the New England Journal of Entrepreneurship.
Sergio Moreno Gil is Director of Institutional Relations UNESCO Chair of Tourism Planning and
Sustainable Development. ULPGC. Director of marketing and destination development at TIDES Tour-
ism and Sustainable Development Institute. University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. In the past, he
has worked for Hilton Hotels in Germany; TUI Group Spain, in the quality department; and as a visiting
researcher at World Tourism Research Centre (U of Calgary – Canada). He has written more than 20
books and book chapters, 25 international papers (Annals of Tourism Research, Tourism Management,
Journal of Travel Research, International Journal of Tourism Research, Tourism Economics, Journal of
Vacation Marketing, International Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing, etc.).
395
James P. Murphy is the Director, Wealth Planning at BMO Nesbitt Burns. He provides high net
worth and ultra-high net worth tax and financial advice to advisors and clients. He holds a Bachelor of
Commerce from the University of Toronto and a Masters of Business Administration from Dalhousie
University. He also holds the following designations:CFP, CIM, FCS, and CIWM.
Ninel Nesheva-Kiosseva received her Master Degree and PhD in University of National and World
Economy, Sofia, Bulgaria. Her habilitation is held at the Higher Attestation Commission to the Council
of Ministers of Bulgaria. She has published books in finance, environmental and social accounting,
economic theory and history. Teaches at the New Bulgarian University, Sofia.
Oleksiy Osiyevskyy is an Assistant Professor of Entrepreneurship & Innovation at the Haskayne School
of Business, University of Calgary. His research focuses on the process of development and growth of
innovative new ventures and corporate spin-offs, analyzed from the perspectives of entrepreneurship and
strategy literature (evolutionary economics, entrepreneurial cognition, Schumpeterian competition). Dr.
Osiyevskyy has 13 articles published in academic journals, as well as two book chapters. His academic
works have been recognized with the Killam Memorial Scholarship, and by the United States Associa-
tion for Small Business and Entrepreneurship, and featured in the business press. Dr. Osiyevskyy earned
a PhD in Strategic Management from the University of Calgary, Canada, in 2014.
Mirko Perano, Ph.D., is Vice Rector and Director of Department of Management at Reald Univer-
sity of Vlore (ASAR), Albania. In the same institution he is Professor in Management, Dean of “MAT-
TOUR”, an international Research Group on Management, Technology and Tourism, and Director of
“Reald Summer School on Methodology Research”. He was Adjunct Professor in Management and
Strategic Management at University of Salerno (Italy). He holds a double PhD, one at University of
Rome ‘La Sapienza’ (IT), and one at University of Huelva (ES). He is a member of international research
groups in the tourism field at University of Huelva (España) – GEIDETUR (Research Group on Tour-
ism) – and University of Leiria (Portugal) – GITUR (Tourism Research Group). He is editorial board
member of the following journal: “Enlightening Tourism: A Pathmaking Journal” (ISSN: 2174-548X)
and “International Journal of Markets and Business Systems” (ISSN: 2056-4112). He is co-author of a
book in Strategic Management and of several book chapters, journal papers and proceedings in the field
of strategic management, tourism, innovation, ethical decision making and value co-creation.
Bruno Silvestre is currently an Associate Professor in the Department of Supply Chain Management,
Asper School of Business, University of Manitoba. Previously, he was an Associate Professor and the
Chancellor’s Research Chair in Sustainable Supply Chain & Innovation Management in the Faculty of
Business and Economics, University of Winnipeg. Prior to that, Dr. Silvestre worked as a Research As-
sociate at the Beedie School of Business, Simon Fraser University and a Visiting Research Scholar at
SPRU, University of Sussex, UK. Dr. Silvestre’s research mainly focuses on two interconnected streams.
The first research stream is related to sustainable supply chain management, and more specifically why
and how supply chains incorporate sustainability aspects (including environmental and social aspects)
into their business practices. The second stream is related to the management of innovation, and how
innovation dynamics affect organizations, businesses, industries, operations and supply chains. Dr.
Silvestre’s research includes articles published in top tier business journals. His research has appeared
in journals such as Long Range Planning, Energy Policy, International Journal of Production Econom-
396
ics, International Journal of Production Research, Journal of Management Studies, Journal of Cleaner
Production, Business Horizons, Technological Forecasting & Social Change, Production Planning &
Control, Technovation, and others. In addition to his academic work, Dr. Silvestre has 13 years of industry
experience. His experience has been in manufacturing/operations/supply chain management, business
development and project management in the energy, mining, manufacturing and high-tech industries.
This ‘real world’ experience has provided him with powerful insights, industry contacts and interpersonal
skills that he has since used in the classroom, consulting projects and in research activities.
Begum Teraman studied at Gelibolu Anatolian High School. She graduated from Istanbul Kultur
University, department of International Relations (in English) with an honour degree. She received MBA
(in English) degree from Yasar University Institute of Social Sciences in 2011. She worked for Okan
University as a part-time lecturer and worked for Istanbul Aydın University as a Research Assistant. Then,
she worked for FMV Isik University as a research assistant in the department of Business Administration.
José G. Vargas-Hernández has a Ph.D. in Public Administration and a Ph.D. in Organizational

Economics. He has undertaken studies in Organisational Behaviour and has a Master of Business Ad-
ministration, published four books and more than 200 papers in international journals and reviews (some
translated to English, French, German, Portuguese, Farsi, Chinese, etc.) and more than 300 essays in
national journals and reviews. He has obtained several international Awards and recognition.
Murat Yücelen, PhD, is assistant professor of management, organization and strategy at Yeditepe
University Faculty of Commerce, where he is also chair of the Tourism and Hotel Management Depart-
ment. Dr. Yücelen has traveled extensively for international conferences and multipartner EU funded
projects, also spending one semester as visiting professor at University of Molise in Termoli (IT). He
was previously a team member during the establishment of two higher education institutions, where he
led vocational and executive MBA programs, while also designing and delivering e-learning courses.
His teaching duties involve the areas of strategic management, organization theory, behavioral sciences,
tourism and corporate governance. His research interests include knowledge management, organizational
learning, governance and ethics, workplace behavior and relevant industrial implementations of these
fields of study.
Serhat Yüksel is an assistant professor at Istanbul Medipol University, School of Business and
Management Sciences, Istanbul, Turkey.
397
398
Index
“moral gap” 137-138, 152-155, 157-159 communication 25, 32, 35, 40, 48, 89, 96-102, 108,
111-114, 121, 130, 174-175, 301, 319, 329
A Communities of Practice (CoP) 97, 121
competitiveness 34, 59, 62, 115, 147, 154, 194, 278,
Activity Theory 87, 95 315, 317-318, 333
ALADI 293 Constant ICT 121
alliances 27, 30, 43, 46, 102, 124, 129, 151, 226 Consumer Loyalty 318, 333
AMIA 283, 293 cooperation 11, 34, 115, 124, 160, 228-229, 274-275,
APPRIs 293 280, 288-289, 294, 315-318, 325, 329, 333
coopetition 315, 317-319, 325, 327, 333
B Corporate Social Responsibility 124, 128, 130, 138-
139, 144, 166
Banca Prossima 123-124, 128-130, 132, 136 Cost Recovery Principle 209
barrier 7, 56, 282, 307 critical success 40-44, 48, 56, 129
bonding 96, 98, 107-110, 121, 132 critical success factors (CSFs) 40, 44, 56
bonding social capital 108-110, 121 cross cultural 171, 173, 177-178, 185-189
Bourdieu 103-104, 107, 246 cross cultural management 185-186
brand architecture 315-317, 319, 323-325, 328-329, 333 Cross-cultural sensitivity 137, 155, 158-160, 166
Bricolage 89, 95 CSF identification 42-43
bridging 96, 98, 107-110, 121, 132, 137, 158 cultural context 31, 57-58, 61, 63, 69, 77, 154
bridging social capital 108-110, 121 cultural diversities 137, 139, 155, 158-160, 166
business continuity 57-59, 61-63, 66-67, 71-72, 76 Cultural Negotiating Ability 166
Business Continuity Management 57-59, 61-63, 71- cultural risk analysis 170, 185, 187
72, 76 culture 14, 32, 57-62, 64, 71-72, 77, 82, 104, 107, 115,
Business Ecosystem 76 128, 132, 137-138, 140, 142, 148-149, 151-152,
business environment 62, 64, 66, 71-72, 76, 96, 101, 154-156, 158-160, 166, 171, 177-178, 184, 186,
114, 139, 158, 289 188, 245, 284, 290, 296, 298, 306, 327
Business Ethics 137-140, 144-146, 148-149, 152, currency 9-10, 18, 29, 89, 261-262, 264-265, 268-270,
158-159, 166 273, 305
business model 19-26, 28, 30-36, 39, 133 currency exchange rate 261-262, 264-265, 268-270, 273
customs union 18
C
Capital Formation 274, 293
D
case study 124, 128, 132-133, 154-155, 295-296, 315 Destination Branding 328, 333
Cognitive Moral Development 141-142, 166 destinations 315-322, 325, 327, 329, 333
collaboration 32, 40, 90, 97, 111, 124, 126-130, 136, Destructive Entrepreneurship 252, 259
171, 185-186, 231, 299, 316-317 Detao Masters Academy 30
common market 9, 18 Dispersed Communities of Practice 121

Index
Doha Round 3, 5, 10-14 global city 295-296, 304, 309, 314

global economy 40-41, 44, 59, 72, 78, 90, 102, 224,
E 261, 273, 296, 315
globally scalable business model 19, 24, 36, 39
economic development 138, 227, 234, 244, 275, 286,
289, 293 H
Economic Union 18
economy 2, 7, 9-10, 20, 22, 24, 40-41, 44, 59, 72, 78, High-Income Entrepreneur 259
90, 102, 145, 185, 196-197, 224, 227, 242-246, horizontal loyalty 315, 318-319, 322, 324-325, 333
248, 250-253, 261-262, 265, 270, 273, 275-278,
288-289, 296-297, 309, 315 I
enabler 56, 98, 110
entrepreneurial behavior 243, 245, 248, 252 ICT 98, 103, 108-115, 121, 301
entry mode 24, 219-220, 231-233 income inequality 148, 219-234, 241, 304
entry modes 220, 231, 241 inequality 148, 219-234, 241, 243, 245, 248, 295,
environmental accounting 209, 212, 218 297-298, 303-304, 309-310, 314
EPA 276-277, 284, 289-290, 293 informal economy 243-244, 250-253
ethical dilemma 139-142, 146, 149, 151, 153, 157, information 30, 40-41, 43-44, 56, 60-61, 64, 72, 76,
159, 166 84, 87, 96-99, 101-102, 104, 106-110, 112-113,
ethical relativism 156, 284 115, 121, 130, 173-176, 182-183, 186, 188, 200,
European Union 1-3, 7, 9, 15, 18, 59, 124 205, 210, 212, 244, 246-249, 262, 266, 283-284,
executive 43-47, 52, 56, 88, 90 287, 296, 299, 301, 304-305, 307
Executive Performance Measure 56 Information Technology (IT) 40, 56
expatriates 154, 185-186, 303-305, 307, 314 innovation 35, 52, 64, 69, 83, 97, 100-102, 104, 123-
exploitation 88, 103, 109, 111, 114-115, 227, 244, 124, 126-130, 132-133, 136, 171, 231, 244,
249, 260 259-260, 282
Exploitative Form of Organizational Learning 121 Instant ICT 121
exploration 88, 103, 109, 111, 114-115, 126 institutional environment 225, 242-243, 245, 248,
Explorative Form of Organizational Learning 121 252, 259
institutional theory 231, 242-244, 275, 279, 283-284
F international experience 220, 232-233
international migration 296, 314
foreign direct investment 223-224, 229, 241, 265, 273- International New Venture (INV) 23, 39
278, 285, 288, 294, 296, 314 investment 7, 9, 11, 23, 28-30, 32, 88-89, 97, 145, 198,
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) 7, 223-224, 229, 232, 203-205, 208, 210, 219, 221, 223-227, 229-234,
234, 241, 265, 273-280, 282, 285-286, 288-290, 241, 243, 261, 264-265, 270, 273-279, 283, 285-
294, 296-299, 301, 309, 314 289, 294, 296-297, 299, 314, 316
foreign nationals 295-296, 298-310
Free Trade Area 1, 4, 18 J
FTA 1, 5, 7, 10, 13, 180, 294
full cost pricing 208 Jacob Jensen Design 26
full cost recovery 209-210 Japan 10, 182, 198, 209, 274-279, 282-283, 285, 287-
290, 294, 301, 309
G Japanese 198, 209, 274-278, 280-283, 285-290, 299,
301, 303, 305, 307, 310
global 13-14, 19-21, 23-26, 28-36, 40-41, 44, 46-47, JEL 294
52, 59, 62, 72, 78, 90-91, 97, 101-102, 123-124, joint ventures 36, 46, 220, 232, 241
137-138, 145, 148, 152-153, 155, 157-159,
170-171, 173, 177-178, 184-189, 197-200, 210, K
212-214, 224, 226, 228, 230, 242-243, 259-261,
273, 295-300, 304, 309, 314-316, 329 knowledge 20, 30-33, 44-46, 52, 59-60, 68, 77, 79,
399
Index
86-87, 96-111, 113-115, 121, 128-129, 132, 136, organizational culture 60-62, 64, 142, 151, 166
138, 158, 170, 175-177, 189, 196, 230-231, 244, organizational learning 96, 98, 102-104, 109, 111,
246, 248, 276, 278-280, 295, 325 114-115, 121
knowledge-intensive manufacturing 303, 305, 314
Koreans 301, 303, 305, 307-308, 310 P
L productive entrepreneurship 243, 252, 260
PROJECT AND RISK MANAGEMENT 170, 178
location attractiveness 219-220, 224-225, 229, 231- project management 170-171, 173, 177-179, 182,
233, 241 186, 188
location based 98, 112, 114-115
location choice 220, 225, 241, 298, 306 R
Location-Based Communities of Practice 121
Low-Income Entrepreneur 249, 260 Rate of return 204, 210
real exchange rate 264
M Recursiveness 87, 95
regional trade 1, 3-4, 6-7, 10-11, 13, 15, 18
Maastricht Treaty 9, 18 regional trade agreements 1, 3, 6, 10-11, 13, 15, 18
management 23, 28-30, 32, 34-36, 40-41, 43-48, 52, Regulator (Water Regulator) 218
57-63, 67-69, 71-72, 76-85, 88, 90-92, 97, 102- regulatory pricing 195, 199, 203, 218
103, 110, 113, 115, 138, 145, 153-154, 170-171, Regulatory Pricing of Water 199, 218
173, 175-180, 182-186, 188-189, 194-196, 198- risk management 34, 57, 77, 170-171, 178-179, 182-
199, 203, 212-214, 218, 224, 274, 280, 296-297, 184, 213-214
300-301, 304, 307, 315, 317-318
March 18, 104-105, 232 S
market entry 84
marketing 20, 25, 27, 32, 35, 149, 207, 275, 281, 315, Shkoder 57, 63-64, 71-72, 77
317-318, 321, 324-325, 328-329, 333 social capital 28-30, 96, 98, 102-103, 107-115, 121,
MARS 261-262, 264-266, 269 132, 136, 243, 246, 249
Mexico 1, 4, 7, 10, 12, 223, 274-279, 282, 285-290, 294 social entrepreneurship 123-128, 132, 136
moral gap 137-138, 152-155, 157-159, 166 social innovation 123-124, 126-130, 132-133, 136
moral standards 137-142, 146, 148-149, 151-160, 166 social network 25, 29, 35, 248, 253
moral standards, 139, 141, 148, 152 spatial inequality 309, 314
Multilateral Trading 1-4, 13-14 spillovers 274-275, 277, 279, 285-288, 294
Multinational Enterprise (MNE) 39, 241 strategic decision 59-60, 81, 110, 261, 273
Strategic Goal 56
N strategic planning 43-44, 56-60, 62-63, 68, 77, 84,
90, 184
NAFTA 1-5, 7, 9-12, 14-15, 275-276, 278, 287, 294 Strategic Planning, 57, 68, 184
national income 149, 219, 221-224, 232-234, 248, 309 Strategy as Social Practice 95
non-profit organizations 124, 126, 128-129, 133 Strategy Practice(s) 95
North American 1-2, 6, 15, 62, 277, 294 Strategy Practitioner(s) 95
North American Free Trade Agreement 2, 15, 277, 294 strategy praxis 80, 85, 88-89, 95
Strategy Text(s) 95
O subsidiaries 36, 128, 220, 231-232, 241
OECD 127, 200, 220-221, 294 T

online communities 96, 110-114, 121
Online Communities of Practice (oCoP) 121 TLCUE 275, 294
open innovation 97, 124, 127-128, 132, 136 Trade Diversion 12, 18, 277
Operational Planning 56 Transaction Cost Economics 79, 224
400
Index
transaction costs 219, 225, 227-228, 231-233, 241, W

274-275, 279, 283
Treaty of Rome 9, 18 Wanhua Industrial Group 33
True Cost 208 Water and Sewage Operator (WSO) or Water Utilities
Turkey 7, 10, 203, 261-262, 264, 266, 270 Companies 218
water price risk 195, 212, 214
U Water-Related Price Risk 197, 218
Wenger, 97, 101, 103-104
umbrella brands 329 World Trade Organization 1-3, 15, 294
Unproductive Entrepreneurship 245, 260 WTO 1-7, 9-15, 294
V Y
Vector Autoregression (VAR) 273 Yardstick regulation 205-206
401

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Geopolitics and Strategic

Management in the Global

A volume in the Advances in Business Strategy

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

For electronic access to this publication, please contact: [email protected].

Driving Agribusiness With Technology Innovations

Transcontinental Strategies for Industrial Development and Economic Growth

Risk Management Strategies in Public-Private Partnerships

Handbook of Research on Small and Medium Enterprises in Developing Countries

Entrepreneurship and Business Innovation in the Middle East

Comprehensive Problem-Solving and Skill Development for Next-Generation Leaders

Diasporas and Transnational Entrepreneurship in Global Contexts

701 East Chocolate Avenue, Hershey, PA 17033, USA

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 337

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 390

Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 337

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 390

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

Chapter 1: Regionalism and the Multilateral Trading

Chapter 2: What Makes a Global Business Model?

Chapter 3: Critical Success Factors for Executives in the Global Economy

Chapter 4: Strategic Planning, Cultural Context, and Business

Chapter 5: A Proposition of Strategy Making in Global

Chapter 6: Efficacy of Organizational Learning and Social Capital in

Chapter 7: Social Innovation in the For-Profit

Chapter 8: Managing Business Ethics in a Global

Chapter 9: Project and Risk Management in a Global

Chapter 10: Water-Related Price Risks – Implications for Firm Competitiveness

Chapter 11: National Income Inequality, Society, and Multinational Enterprises

Chapter 12: Low vs. High Income Entrepreneurial

Chapter 13: Determining Influencing Factors of Currency Exchange Rate for

Chapter 14: Economic Partnership Agreement Mexico-Japan and

Chapter 15: A Profile of Foreign Nationals in a

Chapter 16: Cooperation and Competition Among Regions – The

Systems of International Trade

Benefits and Definitions

Who is Involved in the Multilateral Trading System?

WHAT IS IT ABOUT THE MULTILATERAL TRADING

Multilateral Trading Agreements are Worthwhile but Difficult to Implement

WHY DOES REGIONALISM WORK SO WELL?

Statistics on Regional Agreements

Major Regional Trading Regions and Agreements

Table 1. Major regional trading regions and agreements

Regional Trade Agreements Percentage of world RTAs Primary Countries (2011)

NAFTA AND THE EUROPEAN UNION

Strengths and Weaknesses

Table 2. Merchandise trade by selected groups of economies, 2001-2011

North Amercia and Europe

South and Central Amercia

Andean Pact 25 26 30 39 51 65 77 94 79 99 134 430% 4.3 109 0% 1%

CACM 14 17 18 20 22 24 27 30 26 30 36 148% 1.5 21 0% 0%

CARICOM 8 7 9 11 15 20 20 26 15 18 22 180% 1.8 14 0% 0%

CEMAC 8 9 12 17 23 27 30 43 27 35 45 440% 4.4 37 0% 0%

COMESA 28 29 37 49 66 83 99 127 93 118 97 246% 2.5 69 0% 1%

ECCAS 16 19 23 32 50 62 78 111 72 92 118 641% 6.4 102 0% 1%

ECOWAS 28 29 37 54 67 78 87 112 83 113 154 456% 4.6 126 0% 1%

WAEMU 7 9 10 12 13 14 15 19 19 19 22 222% 2.2 15 0% 0%

Middle East and Asia

Source: (WTO, 2013b)

For electronic access to this publication, please contact: [email protected].