The concept of boundary layer was first introduced by a German engineer, Prandtl

in 1904.

Boundary layer- the thin layer of fluid next to a solid surface in which effects of
viscosity may be considered concentrated.

A more precise of criterion for the existence of a well defined boundary layer is
that the Reynolds number should be large.

Re = =

For boundary layer over flat plate,

Re < 5 x 105 - laminar boundary layer

Re > 5 x 105 – turbulent boundary layer

Fig 1.1 Development of boundary layer

If the flow at the leading edge is laminar boundary layer, then it may turn in to
turbulent boundary layer at some distance where Re = 5 x 105

 Application of Boundary Layer Theory

Application areas of boundary layer theory include: aerodynamics (airplanes,
rockets), hydrodynamics (ship, submarines), transportation (automobiles, trucks),
wind engineering (buildings, towers), ocean engineering (buoys, breakwaters).

1
In regions over the surface in which the boundary layer flow is laminar, the fluid
mixing and viscous friction are low. However, such laminar flows are often
unstable and develop into turbulent flow. Turbulent boundary layers thicken more
rapidly and produce greater friction than laminar boundary layers. Thus, reducing
the extent of turbulent flow reduces the effect of drag of the fluid. The force a
flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called the drag force.

The presence of boundary layer has produced many design problems in all areas of
fluid mechanics.

Control mechanisms a) increase the length on the surface at which transition

occurs. b) Separation of the entire flow from the surface. Another means of
stabilizing the boundary layer is the use of suction. Suction may be applied either
through porous surfaces or through a series of finite slots. When applied in this
manner, suction reduces the thickness of the boundary layer by removing the low
momentum fluid next to the surface.

Influence of Boundary Layer on External Flow

Because the boundary layer is very thin, in first instance this suggests to compute
the external flow around the clean body, without boundary layer. Based on the
external free stream velocity, thereafter the boundary layer can be computed.
Finally, the external flow has to be corrected for the presence of boundary layer.

2
Fig 1.2 Boundary layer thickness

Boundary layer thickness, δ -is the distance in the y-direction from the solid
surface to the outer edge of the boundary layer. It is locus of points where velocity
in the boundary layer reaches 99% of free stream velocity.

Displacement thickness, δ* -is the distance by which a streamline is displaced due

to the boundary layer formation. It denotes how much the wall has to be shifted for
an inviscid flow past the displaced wall to have the same discharge as the viscous
flow along the original wall.

Fig 1.3 Velocity distribution in boundary layer

Discharge = velocity x Area, assuming unit width of the plate

Deficit of discharge through an element = ( − ) -----------------------------

(1.1)
3
 Deficit through whole boundary layer section = ∫ ( − ) ----------------- (1.2)

∴ U* δ* = ∫ ( − )

Thus, δ* = ∫ (1 − ) -------------------------------------------------------- (1.3)

Momentum thickness,  - it may be defined as the depth of a layer in the free

stream, which would pass a momentum flux equivalent to the deficit due to the
boundary layer. It is the additional distance over which the wall has to be displaced
such that an inviscid flow produces the same momentum.

Mass flow through element = ρudy

Deficit of momentum flux = ρudy(U − u)

Deficit through whole boundary layer section = ∫ ρudy( − )

In the free stream, an equivalent momentum flux would pass through a layer of
depth, θ, and unit width, so that

= ∫ ρudy( − )

=∫ (1 − ) -------------------------------------------- (1.4)

4
Mass rate = mass/time

Mass rate per unit

width of plate across
AD = ∫

∴ Momentum through
AD = ∫

Momentum through

BC = ∫ +
∫

Momentum through

DC= ∫

Thus rate of change of momentum of control volume = momentum rate of fluid

through BC - momentum rate of fluid through AD - momentum rate of fluid
through DC.

= ∫ ( − )

5
rate of change of momentum in the control volume ABCD must be equal to the
total force on the control volume in the same direction.

- 0 ∗ = ∫ ( − )

0 = ∫ (1 − )

0
= --------------------------------------------------- (1.5)

Eqn.(15) is known as Von Karman’s equation

Examples

1) For the velocity profile given below, compute the displacement thickness and
momentum thickness.
= ( )– ( )
Ans: δ* = , =

2) The velocity distribution in the boundary layer over the surface of highway was
observed to be = ( ) . . The free stream velocity is 20m/s and boundary
layer thickness of 5cm at a certain section. Calculate the displacement thickness
and momentum thickness at the section under consideration.
3) If velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer over a flat plate is assumed to
be given by = + + , determine its form using the necessary
boundary conditions.
Solution:
The following boundary conditions must be satisfied
A) At y = 0, u = 0
∴ = + +
0= + ∗0+ ∗0 ,
=0
B) At y = , u = U , = 0

6
 ∴ = + +

= + ∗ + ∗
=0+ ∗ + ∗
= + ---------------------------*
( + + ) =0
+ 2 = 0, b = -2 then substitute b into equation*
= −2 +
= − and again b = -2 =
Hence the form of velocity distribution is

= −

= 2( ) – ( ) ANS.

4) Repeat problem 3) if the velocity distribution is given by,

= ( )– ( ) ANS.

For a given velocity profile, it is possible to define boundary layer thickness

interms of Reynolds number and distance from the leading edge using Newton’s
laws of viscosity and Von Karman’s equation with boundary conditions of
boundary layer theory.

o= ---------------- Newton’s law of viscosity

Example
A laminar boundary layer has a velocity distribution of

= ( ) – ( ) , y 

7
Find its boundary layer thickness and shear stress at a distance of x from the
leading edge

Solution:

Using Von Karman’s equation

0
=

For an assumed distribution which satisfies the boundary conditions u = 0, y =0

and u = U, y =  , the boundary – layer thickness as well as the shear at the
boundary can be determined.

=∫ (1 − )

=∫ – 1− –

o = = ∫ ( )– (1 − ( )– )

o = 0.139 -------------------------------------- (a)

According to Newton’s law of viscosity,

o=

u=U ( )– ( )

= U( - ), for U is constant.

At y = o, = U

8
 Therefore,  0 = -------------------------------- (b)

0.139 =
.
=
.
∫ =∫
.
= + C. (at x =0, = 0, = 0)
.
∴ =

∗ .
= = 4.645 = 4.645 = 4.645 ---------------- (c)
√

∗
Rex = is a Reynolds number based on the distance x from the leading edge of

the plate.

This equation from boundary – layer thickness in laminar flow shows that 
increases as the squire root of the distance from the leading edge increases.

From equations b and c above

o= = = 0.322 √
∗ .
√

Exercises
1) Find the drag force on one side of a flat plate 15.24cm wide and 45.72cm
long, placed longitudinally in stream of water at 60℉ flowing with
undisturbed velocity of 0.6m/s. Find the thickness of the boundary layer
and the shear stress at the trailing edge of the plate. (if Re < 200,000 the
.
flow is laminar and CD = ), o = 0.322 √
√
2)

9
2.0 INTRODUCTION TO OPEN CHANNEL FLOW
Types of Flow in Open Channel

Geometric elements of open channel section

1. Depth of flow(y): it the vertical distance from the lowest point of the channel to
the free surface.
2. Top width (T): it is the width of channel section at free surface.
3. Stage (h): is the elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above a datum.
4. Wetted perimeter (p): it is the length of the channel boundary which is in
contact with water.
5. Wetted area (A): is the cross-sectional area of the flow normal to the direction
of flow.
6. Hydraulic radius (R) : it is the ratio of wetted area to its wetted perimeter
A
R=
P
10
7. Hydraulic depth (D): the ratio of wetted area to the top width,
A
D=
T

Uniform Flow in Open Channel

Force of gravity and force of resistance balance

Uniform flow is the result of exact balance between the gravity and friction force

Wsin = 0.P.L…………………………….(1)

A L sin = 0 P.L

But sin  = S, solving for 0

A
0 =  .S  R.S ………………………………… (2)
P

Where - unit weight of the water

11
 The shear stress is assumed proportional to the square of the mean velocity,

or o= fV2…………………………………..……..(3)

Therefore, from equations 2 and 3

fv2=RS


V2 = RS ,
f


is constant
f

V  C RS ----------------------------------------------- (4)

Therefore, is V  C RS known as chezy’s formula.

Where, C= chezy’s coefficient (chezy’s resistance factor)

V= Average velocity of flow

Manning Formula
1
R6
Manning simplified chezy’s coefficient to C  and velocity can be given as
N

1 2 3 12
V= R S 0 ……………………………………………… (5)
N

Then flow rate, Q can be given as;

Q= √

Q= √ where K is called conveyance of the channel, which is the

measure of carrying capacity of the channel.

12
From the following partial full pipe flow, find the wetted perimeter and the wetted
area.

Solution: wetted perimeter, P = D( ) = *D

Wetted area, A = Area of sector AOB – Area of triangle AOB

A = D2*( ) - 2∗ cos 90 − ∗ sin(90 − )

A = D2* - cos 90 − sin(90 − )

Using double angle formula, sin2 = 2sin cos

A = D2* - sin(180 − ),

A = D2* - D [ sin(180 − )], but sin(180 − ) = sin180cos -

cos180sin = sin
1
A= ( - sin )D2
8

Channel of Efficient Cross-Section

Some cross-sectional shapes used for open channels are rectangular, trapezoidal,
circular and triangular and a channel is said to be most efficient channel section or
best hydraulic section if it carries maximum discharge with minimum cost of
construction.

13
 V= f(R,S)……………………………………..(a)

Q=A*V=Af(R,S)……………………………..(b)

For open channels the section with the least wetted perimeter is the semicircle. But
this type of section is difficult to construct.

Area of flow, A = b*y ------------- (1)

Wetted perimeter, P = b + 2y --- (2)

From eqn. (1), b = , ∴ P = + 2y

For most economical cross section, perimeter must be minimum ( = 0)

( + ) = 0, implies that - + 2 = 0 or A = 2 and using eqn. (1) b = 2y

∗
or y = . Thus, hydraulic radius R = = , and substituting b = 2y, R = .

5) Design the most efficient cross section of the following trapezoidal channel.

Solution:
( )
A= * = * =
(b + ny)y ------------------ (1)
P = b + 2 √ + ----- (2)
From eqn. (1), b = – ny

Thus, P = – ny +
2 √ +

Setting = 0, ( – ny + 2 √ + )=0

- -n+2√ + = 0 and using area of eqn.(1)

14
 ( )
- -n+2√ + =0

2 √ + = + (twice of sloping side equals top width) and R = =

( ) ( )
, since 2 √ + = + ,R= = . Again, = 0 gives
2

best side slope, n =

√

Design the most economical shapes of the following channel section shown below.

Energy and Momentum Principles in Open Channel Flow

The most common application of the momentum equation in open channel flow
deals with the analysis of the hydraulic jump. However, before dealing with the
hydraulic jump, it is necessary to understand the the principle of the so-called
specific energy. We apply this principle for explaining the hydraulic jump
phenomenon.

Specific Energy

The energy per unit weight with elevation datum taken as the bottom of the
channel is called specific energy, E. It can also be defined as the energy head to the
channel bed as datum. It is a very useful concept in the study of open channel flow
2
E=y+ ----------------------------------------------- (1)
2

15
Fig 2.7 Specific energy head of a flowing liquid.

For a rectangular channel, the value of flow per unit width is = q, and average
velocity

V= = =

Therefore eqn (1) becomes:

2
q y 
 2
E  y   y  q ------------------------------------- (2)
2g 2 gy 2

A plot of specific energy versus depth of flow is a hyperbola with asymptotes E=y
and y = 0. Such a curve is known as specific energy diagram. It shows the variation
of specific energy (E) with depth of flow y.
16
Figure 2.8 Specific energy curves.

For a particular specific discharge q, we see that there are two possible values of
depths of flow for a given value of specific energy, E. These depths are known as
alternative depths.

The two alternative depths represent two totally different flow regimes slow &
deep on the upper limb of the curve (sub critical flow) & fast and shallow on the
lower limb of the curve (super critical flow)

Critical depth

17
Specific energy becomes a minimum at a certain depth called critical depth yc .
For this condition,

=0

and the flow at this point is referred to as critical flow. The depth of flow at that
point is the critical depth yc and the velocity is the critical velocity Vc. For
example, a relation for critical depth in a wide rectangular channel can be found by
differentiation of specific energy with respect to depth of flow to find the value of
critical depth for which specific energy is a minimum.

dE q2
 1  3 …………………………………………….. (3)
dY gy

And when E is a minimum y = yc and = 0, so that

q2 3
0  1 3
 q 2  gy c ………………………………. (4)
gYc

Substituting q= V*y = Vc*yc, gives

2
Vc  gyc

q
 Vc  gy c  ……………………………………….. (5)
yc

It may be expressed as:

1
Vc 2  q2  3
yc     ……………………………………….. (6)
g  g 

18
 2
Vc y
From eqn (6)  c , hence,
2g 2

2
Vc
E c  E min  y c   y c  1 y c  3 y c ……………… (7)
2g 2 2

And yc  2 3 Emin ……………………………………………………………..(8)

From eqn. (6): q max  gyc 3 ………………………………………………….(9)

For non rectangular cross section the specific energy equation

Q2
E  y …………………………………………………….. (10)
2gA 2

[V=Q/A]

To find the critical depth,

dE Q 2 dA
 1 3 ………………………………………………….. (11)
dy gA dy

Taking a small depth, dy at critical depth, then its area, dA = dy*T (at yc, T= Tc)

Therefore the above equation becomes:

2
Qmax Tc
3
 1 …………………………………………………………….. (12)
gAc

The critical depth must satisfy this equation

3
gAc
From eqn. (12) Q 2  and substitute in eqn. (10) then,
Tc

19
 Ac
Ec  y c  …………………………………………………………..(13)
2Tc

eqn.(12) can be solved by trial & error for irregular section by plotting
Q 2T
f ( y)  and critical depth occurs for the value of y which makes f(y)=1
gA 3

Critical, Sub critical and super critical flow

In open channel flow the driving force (that is the force causing the motion) is the
component of gravity along the channel bottom. Therefore, it is clear that, the
effect of gravity is very important in open channel flow. In open channel flow
Froude number is defined as:

V2
Fr = , and Fr = , or Fr =

In an open channel flow, there are three types of flow depending on the value of
Froude number.

A critical flow is a flow in a condition of minimum specific energy, a flow

corresponding to critical depth.

From eqn. (12) above if we substitute Q = AV (continuity equation), we get

Q 2T
1
gA 3

A 2V 2T V 2T
 1  1
gA3 gA

but A/T = D ( Hydraulic depth), then [ D=y for rectangular section)

20
 V2
 1  V  gy ……………………………(*)
gy

V
 1  Froude number at critical state.
gy

V
Fr  ……………………………………….(**)
gy

A flow is subcritical when the depth of flow in a channel is greater than the
critical depth yc . In this type of flow, Fr < 1.

A flow is supercritical when the depth of flow in a channel is less than the critical
depth yc . In this case, Fr >1.

Momentum principle is applied when it is not possible to apply energy principle.

One of the major situations where momentum principle is applied is during
analysis of non uniform flow, rapidly varied flow (RVF). In RVF there is an excess
amount of energy loss. Therefore, it is not possible to analyze such type of flow
using energy equation.

For example: Hydraulic Jump

2.5 Hydraulic Jump

The most common application of the momentum equation in open channel flow
deals with the analysis of the hydraulic jump. The rise in water level, which occurs
during subcritical flow, is called hydraulic jump. At the place where the hydraulic
jump occurs, a lot of energy of the flowing fluid is dissipated (mainly into heat).
This hydraulic jump is said to be a a dissipater of the surplus energy of the water.
Beyond this hydraulic jump, the water flows with a greater depth, and therefore
with a less velocity. The use of this phenomenon is sometimes made in hydraulic

21
structures such as spillway of a dam to minimize the erosive power of supercritical
flow and under sluice gates. The turbulence within hydraulic jumps has also been
found to be very useful and effective for mixing fluids, and have been used for this
purpose in water and sewage treatment plants.

y2
V2
V1
y1

Lj

Fig 2.9 hydraulic jump on horizontal bed following over a spillway

 Purposes of hydraulic jump:-

i) To increase the water level on the d/s of the hydraulic structures
ii) To reduce the net up lift force by increasing the downward force due to
the increased depth of water,
iii) To increase the discharge from a sluice gate by increasing the effective
head causing flow,
iv) For aeration of drinking water
v) For removing air pockets in a pipe line

22
 Assumptions for Analysis of Hydraulic Jump
 The length of the hydraulic jump is small, consequently, the loss of head due
to friction is negligible,
 The channel is horizontal as it has a very small longitudinal slope. The
weight component in the direction of flow is negligible.
 The portion of channel in which the hydraulic jump occurs is taken as a
control volume & it is assumed the just before & after the control volume,
the flow is uniform & pressure distribution is hydrostatic.

Let us consider the following a small reach of a channel in which the hydraulic
jump occurs.

q = V1y1 = V2y2 ------------------------------ (Continuity equation).

V1 = , V2 =
y1 y2

Pressure force

23
 y1
At section 1-1, F1  A1 y1 = (y1 ∗ 1)
2

y2
At section 2-2, F2  A2 y2 = (y2 ∗ 1)
2

Net force;

F2-F1 = (y22 - y12 )

2

According to impulse –momentum equation

Net Force = Change in Linear Momentum

(y22 - y12 ) = q (V1-V2)

2

2 1 1
(y22 - y12 ) = q ( - ) = ( - )
2 y1 y2 y1 y2

q2 1 1  y 22  y12
:.   
g  y1 y 2  2

q2 2 1 ( 2 1)( 2 1)
( )=
g 1 2 2

2q 2

y 2  y1 
gy1 y 2 1

2q 2
 ( y1  y 2 ).
gy1 y 2
2q 2
 ( y1  y 2 ) y 2
gy1
2q 2
y 22  y1 y 2   0                      (*)
gy1

This is quadratic eqn. & the solution is given as

24
 2
 y1 y  2q 2
y2    1   4 *1 *
2 2 4 gy1
2
 y1 y 8(V1 y1 ) 2
y2    1  
2  2 4 gy1

 y1 y1 8(V12 )
y2   1
2 2 gy1

y1
y2  (  1  1  8 Fr21 )
2

y1
Therefore, y2  ( 1  8 Fr21  1) ) and height of jump = y2 - y1
2

and length of jump is approximated to 5 to 7 times of height of jump

Energy Dissipation in a Hydraulic Jump

The head loss hL caused by the jump is the drop in energy from section (1) to (2)
or:

hL = E = E1 - E2

 V2   V2 
  y1  1    y 2  2 .......................................( a)
 2g   2g 

 q2   q2 
  y1     y  ....................................(b)
2 gy12   2 gy22 
2


q 2  y22  y12 
    ( y2  y1 ).......................(c)
2 g  y12 y22 

25
 2q 2
From equation (*) substituting:  y1 y2 ( y1  y2 ) in to equation (c) and by
g

rearranging:

hL = ∆E =
 y2  y1 3 -------------------------------------------(2)
4 y1 y2

Therefore Power lost =  Q hL

 Types of Hydraulic jump

Hydraulic jumps are classified according to the upstream Froude number and depth
ratio.

F1 y2/y1 Classification

<1 1 Jump impossible

1-1.7 1-2 Undular jump (standing wave)

1.7-2.5 2-3.1 Weak jump

2.5-4.5 3.1-5.9 Oscillating jump

4.5-9.0 5.9-12 Steady jump (45-70% energy loss)

>9.0 >12 Strong or chopping jump (=85% energy

loss)

Exercises

1)

26
27