Difference Between Active and Passive

Components
- Active components are parts of a circuit that rely on an external
power source to control or modify electrical signals. Active
components such as transistors and silicon-controlled rectifiers
(SCRs) use electricity to control electricity.

- Passive components like resistors, transformers,

and diodes don’t need an external power source to function. These
components use some other property to control the electrical signal.
As a result, they only require the current traveling through the
connected circuit. Resistors impede the flow of electrons without
introducing more electricity into the system.

Kirchoff’s Laws
The two Kirchhoff’s Laws tell us about the relationships between vofltages
and currents in circuits.

Kirchhoff’s First Law i.e. the Current Law states that: The algebraic
sum of currents at a node is zero.
Two points might need further explanation:

1. A node is the technical term for a junction in a circuit, where two or more
branches are joined together. Fig. 2.1 shows a node with four branches
connected;
2. the phrase algebraic sum reminds us that we have to take account of the
current direction, as well as magnitude, when applying Kirchhoff’s Current
Law.

This Law is used in circuit analysis to define relationships between currents

flowing in branches of the circuit. For example, in Fig. 2.1 the currents
flowing in the four branches connected to the node have been defined as I1,
I2, I3, I4 and Kirchhoff’s Current Law allows us to write down an equation
relating these currents.
Looking closely at Fig. 2.1, we see that two of the currents (I1, I2) are flowing
towards the node, while the other two currents (I 3, I4) are flowing outwards.
The ‘algebraic sum’ needs to take account of this difference in relative
direction.

To apply Kirchhoff’s Current Law rigorously, we must first make an arbitrary

choice of positive current direction.

Suppose currents flowing in to the node (I 1, I2) are treated as positive

contributions to the algebraic sum (and conversely currents flowing from the
node are treated as negative contributions), then the algebraic sum of
currents would be written: + I1 + I2 – I3 – I4 , and according to Kirchhoff’s
Current Law this algebraic sum is equal to zero:

+ I1 + I2 – I3 – I4 = 0 (2.1)

The same result could be obtained with the opposite choice of positive
current direction. If currents flowing from the node (I 3, I4) are treated as
positive contributions to the algebraic sum, then the algebraic sum of
currents would be written: – I1 – I2 + I3 + I4 , and equating this algebraic
sum to zero:

– I1 – I2 + I3 + I4 = 0 (2.2)

which is the same relationship as Eqn. 2.1 with all terms multiplied by –1.

It must be emphasised that the choice of sign convention when using

Kirchhoff’s Current Law is entirely arbitrary and, of course, makes no
difference to the result obtained. However, it is good practice to be
consistent in your choice, because this minimises the chance of making a
mistake when writing down the algebraic sum.

Eqns. 2.1 and 2.2 can be re-arranged to show that:

I1 + I2 = I3 + I4 (2.3)

and referring back to Fig. 2.1 we see that this equation is showing that
current flowing into the node is equal to the current flowing out.

Worked example 2.1

Calculate the current I flowing into the node.

Solution
Choosing currents flowing into the node as positive and applying Kirchhoff’s

Current Law: +3 –2 +I = 0, so I = -1 A

The current flowing into the node is –1A, which is the same as +1A flowing
out of the node

Worked example 2.2

Calculate the current I defined in the diagram.

Solution

In this problem, there are two nodes, each with three branches connected.
Begin by defining the current I’ flowing in the branch between the two nodes.
The direction of I’ has been chosen randomly: it may turn out to have a
positive or negative value. Choosing currents flowing out of the nodes as
positive and applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law at each node:

-(-4) + 2 + I’ = 0, so I’ = -6 A

and: -I’ – 6 + I = 0, so I = I’ + 6 = 0 A

but is there any easier way? Yes! We can merge the two separate nodes into
a single supernode, shown in red in the lower diagram. The supernode can’t
accumulate charge, so Kirchhoff’s Current Law can be applied to currents in
branches connected to it.
Making the same choice of current direction: -(-4) + 2 + I – 6 = 0, so I = 0 A
Second of Kirchhoff’s Laws
The second of Kirchhoff’s Laws, the Voltage Law, states that:

The algebraic sum of voltages around a closed circuit loop is zero.

There’s the phrase ‘algebraic sum’ again, so we must recognise that the
direction of voltages matters when using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.

Fig. 2.2 shows a circuit loop, which is part of a larger circuit. The loop
involves four nodes, ABCD, between which are connected four components.
In this case the four components are resistances, but Kirchhoff’s Voltage
Law can be applied no matter what components are connected in the closed
circuit loop. The voltages across the four resistances comprising the circuit
loop have been defined as V1, V2, V3, V4 and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law allows
us to write down an equation relating these voltages. If we think about
travelling around the closed circuit loop in any direction, we note that the four
voltages will be encountered in sequence.

Two of the voltage arrows will point in the direction of travel and two will
oppose the travel. The algebraic sum of voltages needs to take account of
this difference in relative direction.
To apply Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law correctly, we must make arbitrary choices
about the direction of travel around the closed circuit loop and the
contribution which the separate voltages make to the algebraic sum around
the closed circuit loop. Suppose we travel around the loop in Fig. 2.2 in the
clockwise direction (ABCD) and that voltages opposite to the direction of
travel make a positive contribution to the algebraic sum. In travelling from A
to B the voltage V1 is encountered and it is in a direction which is opposite to
the travel. Therefore, V1 is a positive contribution to the algebraic sum.

The same comment is true of V2, which is met when proceeding from B to C.
However, travelling from C to D and back to A, the voltages V3 and V4 are
encountered and in both cases the voltages are in the same direction as the
travel, giving a negative contribution to the algebraic sum. Expressed
mathematically, the algebraic sum of voltages around the closed loop ABCD
is: + V1 + V2 – V3 – V4 and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that this sum is
equal to zero:

+ V1 + V2 – V3 – V4 = 0 (2.4)

The same result is obtained for any choice of travel direction or voltage
contribution to the algebraic sum. The other three combinations are:

Clockwise around the loop (ABCD), with the arrow positive:

– V1 – V2 + V3 + V4 = 0 (2.5)

Anticlockwise around the loop (ADCB), against the arrow positive:

– V1 – V2 + V3 + V4 = 0 (2.6)

Anticlockwise around the loop (ADCB), with the arrow positive:

+ V1 + V2 – V3 – V4 = 0 (2.7)

The four equations 2.4 – 2.7 produce exactly the same relationship between
the four voltages: all four can be re-arranged to show that:

V1 + V2 = V3 + V4 (2.8)

As with the Current Law, it is a good idea to be consistent in your choice of

direction and polarity when applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, so there is less
chance of error when writing down the algebraic sum.

Worked example 2.3

Calculate the voltage V

Solution
With an arbitrary choice of clockwise travel around the loop and counting
with the voltage arrow as a positive contribution to algebraic sum, Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law:

-6 – (-10) + V +7 = 0,

so V = -11 V
Worked example 2.4
Calculate the voltage V

Solution
This example is intended to demonstrate that the ‘closed circuit loop’ does
not need to be defined by a continuous connection of components: the
voltage V is the voltage between two nodes, which have nothing connected
between them, yet Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law is still valid.

With anticlockwise travel around the loop and counting against the voltage
arrow as a positive contribution to algebraic sum:

+ V + 2 – 10 – (-8) = 0, so V = 0 V

And finally, a brief note on notation. You will find

many books referring to the voltage between two points in a circuit, such as
A and B, using the symbol VAB.

Naturally, you will wonder how this relates to the ‘arrow’ notation used here.
As shown in Fig. 2.3, the convention is that the voltage VAB means ‘the
voltage at A relative to B’, so the arrow points at A from B.