Table of contents

Page.no
Chapter 1 - TheoreTical cycles…………………………….....3

Chapter 2 - Basics of Diesel Engine…………………………...4

Chapter 3 - types of diesel engine……………………………6

Chapter 4 - 2 sTroke engine……………………………………...8

Chapter 5 - bearings………………………………………………....15

Chapter 6 - chain drive…………………………………………...21

Chapter 7 - fuel pump………………………………………………27

Chapter 8 - 4 sTroke engine…………………………………….32

Chapter 9 - GAs Turbine…………………………………………...43

Chapter 10 - sTeam boilers………………………………………49

Chapter 11 - boiler mounTings……………………………....58

Chapter 12 - evaluaTion diesel engine………………….84

Chapter 13 - 2 sTroke operaTion…………………………….93

Chapter 14 - 4 STROKE operaTion…………………………….119

Chapter 15 - lubricaTing sysTem……………………………122

Chapter 16 - safe operaTion of engine…………………..127

Chapter 17 - operaTional problems……………………….133

Chapter 18 - governor…………………………………………….144

Chapter 19 - scavenging………………………………………….148

Chapter 20 - ORAL QUESTIONS……………..……………….,..….157

AJ NOTES
 MEO CLASS 4 -MOTOR
CHAPTER-1
THEORETICAL CYCLES
Internal combustion engines work on three thermodynamic cycles.
1. Otto cycle
2. Diesel Cycle
3. Dual Combustion Cycle.
These cycles use air as the working substance and the mass of air is assumed to remain
constant. The theoretical cycles consider no induction or exhaust processes, only heat is added at one part of
the cycle and rejected at another. No actual cycle operates that strictly the theoretical cycle.

OTTO CYCLE
• 1-2 air is compressed isentropically;
• 2-3 heat is added to the mass of air at constant volume;
• 3-4 air is expanded isentropically to its original volume;
• 4-1 heat is rejected at constant volume, the mass of air brought
back to its original state.

DIESEL CYCLE
• 1-2 an isentropic compression;
• 2-3 addition of heat to the mass of air at constant pressure;
• 3-4 air is expanded isentropically;
• 4-1 rejection of heat at constant volume, the mass of air is
brought back to its original state, i.e. pressure, volume &
temperature.

DUAL COMBUSTION CYCLE

• Starting from point 1, the air is compressed adiabatically to
point 2.
• Fuel injection begins at 2, and heat is added to the cycle
partly constant volume 2-3, and partly at constant pressure
3-4.
• At 3, expansion begins and continues adiabatically till point
5.
• Then the heat is rejected to the exhaust at constant volume
5-1.

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CHAPTER-2
Basics of Diesel Engines

Diesel Engine Terminology

Cycle
A cycle may be defined as a series of individual steps or events, which follow each other.
A two stroke cycle engine requires two strokes of the piston for one complete cycle. A four stroke cycle
engine requires four strokes of the piston for one complete cycle.

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Four Stroke Cycle:
The four piston strokes in the cycle are:
• Suction Stroke
• Compression Stroke
• Power Stroke
• Exhaust Stroke
The engine has air inlet and exhaust valves. Opening and closing of these valves in proper
sequence, draws in air and expels combustion products. The piston helps to draw air into the cylinder,
compress the air, transfer gas forces to the crankshaft and expel the exhaust gases.

Two Stroke Cycle:

Two stroke engines take two strokes of the piston or one complete revolution of crankshaft
for one cycle. In a two-stroke engine, suction, compression, power and exhaust strokes take place in two
strokes. This means fuel is injected and exhaust valve opened for every revolution.
The camshaft rotates at same speed as the engine crankshaft. Two stroke engine requires a
blower to supply air for removing exhaust gas and filling the cylinder with fresh air for next cycle.

2 Stroke timing diagram

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CHAPTER-3
Types of diesel engine
• Speed - high speed, medium speed, slow speed
• Usage - automotive engines, locomotive engines, marine engines
• Operation - 2-stroke, 4-stroke, single acting, double acting
• Cylinder arrangement - horizontal, vertical, vee, radial.

Diesel engines are classified based on various criteria as given in the chart.

2 - Stroke vs 4 - Stroke
2/s Cross head engine 4/s Trunk piston engine
Advantage: Disadvantage:

• More power output at same swept volume. • Less power output as one power stroke per
• Better starting efficiency as every every two rev.
revolution has power stroke. • Inefficient starting.
• Early detection of abnormal conditions, due • Abnormal condition cannot be detected
to slow speed running. easily.
• Governor required no special care, due to • Extra care for governor, since running
slow speed. speed is medium to high [300 to 800 rpm].
• Simple reversing mechanism. • Reversing is not so simple since it has two
• No reduction gear. valves and one fuel pump to reverse.
• Lower mean temperature of working parts. • Reduction gears required.
• Less crankcase oil contamination problem. • Higher mean temperature and exhaust
• Lighter flywheel. temperature.
• Low LO consumption. • Pronounced crankcase oil contamination
• Lower noise level. problem, due to open crankcase trunk type.

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• Less side thrust on cylinder liner, due to • Heavier flywheel.
crosshead effect. • Higher LO consumption.
• Easier cylinder head maintenance. • Complicated cylinder head maintenance.

Disadvantage: Advantage:

• Lower MEP for same SFOC. • Higher MEP for same SFOC.
• Poor scavenging efficiency, since no • Better scavenging efficiency, since it has
separate stroke for scavenging. one separate stroke for scavenging.
• More chances of scavenge fire. • Almost no scavenge fire.
• More air consumption and longer. • Reduced air consumption and air
• Air compressor running time during compressor running time, if reversible
manoeuvring. reduction gear is used.
• Vibration problem due to long stroke. • Vibration not considerable.
• More weight / power ratio. • Reduction in size for same power gives
• Less cargo space. less overhauling time.
• Separate cylinder lubrication. • More cargo space.
• More overhauling time.

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CHAPTER-4
2 stroke engine
Main component parts of the 2 stroke engines are:

1. Bedplate and crankcase

2. Crankshaft and flywheel
3. Connecting rod
4. Piston
5. Liner
6. A-frame
7. Entablature
8. Cylinder block

Structure
The engine structure includes fixed parts that hold the
engine together, support and keep the moving parts in alignment.
These parts resist the forces due to engine operation.

Internal forces due to engine are fluctuations in torque,

combustion gas forces or guide forces. Therefore, sufficient
strength is provided in transverse direction. A engine structure
offers rigidity and strength to:
• Ensure crankshaft stresses are minimum
• Main bearings are uniformly loaded to avoid excessive bending stresses
• Maintain perfect alignment of piston and running gear
• Resist fatigue failure

The structural elements are made of plain carbon normalised steel plates with carbon - 0.16% and UTS - 430
to 500N/mm2.

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Cylinder cover, Mountings
Cylinder cover seals the upper end of the cylinder space and carries mountings necessary for engine
operation. The cylinder cover forms a gas tight seal and prevents escape of gases from combustion space. It
is subjected to gas forces during combustion, thermal stress, pressure fluctuations during the entire cycle and
bending stresses due to tightening of cylinder cover bolts.

Cylinder cover is strong and cooled to withstand the firing pressures and combustion heat. Jacket water
circulates in the cylinder jacket and cools the cover.

The material chosen for cylinder head has good tensile strength to withstand high pressures and temperatures.
It has good fatigue strength to withstand pressure fluctuations in cylinders.

The cylinder cover is cast with 0.16 % Carbon steel having an UTS - 400 TO 500N/mm2. Cylinder cover
houses mountings such as:
• Safety valve
• Fuel valve
• Indicator valve
• Starting valve
• Exhaust valve

Cylinder Liner, Piston

The cylinder liner is tightened against the top of cylinder frame by cylinder cover. It expands freely
downwards when temperature increases during the running of the engine. The part of the cylinder liner,
located in the scavenge air space of the cylinder frame has a number of scavenge air ports. The piston
uncovers these ports when it is in its bottom position. Cylinder liner is provided with bores circumferentially
for injecting cylinder lubrication oil at regular timed intervals.

The cylinder liners are centrifugally cast to reduce porosity and other
casting defects. The typical material used is pearlitic grey cast iron with
3% to 3.5% carbon. The graphite flakes have inherent lubricant
properties.

Diesel engine pistons possess sufficient strength to withstand the

fluctuating gas forces due to combustion, inertia of moving parts and
high operating temperatures. Piston material also requires good thermal
conductivity to conduct heat, preventing thermal stresses.

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Diesel engine "Piston" are made up of two parts. The upper part is called the crown and the lower part, the
skirt. The top of crown is concave. If piston crown is flat, it will flex under the fluctuating loads leading to
fatigue failure.

Since the piston is subjected to combustion heat, it has to be sufficiently cooled. Cooling of piston is
necessary,
• To prevent excessive metal temperatures.
• To limit thermal expansion to maintain correct clearances between the piston and the cylinder liner.

In a Two stroke crosshead engine, the piston rod connects the piston to the crosshead. The stuffing box
isolates the scavenge space from the crankcase. The piston crown and skirt are made of cast steel and piston
rod is made of forged steel. Crown houses piston rings, whose function is to seal the combustion space. The
piston rings are made of grey cast iron.

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Crosshead, Connecting Rod
In a marine two stroke diesel engine, due to angularity of connecting rod, the side thrust by the piston is
high. The side thrust, increases with the increase in cylinder liner wear. Crossheads are used in large two
stroke marine diesel engines to ease this side thrust and reduce the liner wear.

Crosshead allows concentric piston movement in cylinder liner. The side thrust is transmitted from crosshead
to crosshead guides. Crosshead guides are attached to a frame of the engine. They are subjected to fluctuating
load from the transverse components of connecting rod. The ends of the crosshead are fitted with guide
shoes. The centre of the crosshead is designed as a bearing journal, which is accommodated in the crosshead
bearing. The bearing surfaces are white metal lined bearing shells. The piston rod foot rests on the crosshead.
To match different engine layouts, shims are inserted between the piston rod and the crosshead. The piston
rod is fastened to the crosshead by hydraulic studs and nuts. The nuts are tightened by hydraulic tools.

A telescopic pipe mounted on top of one of the guide shoes, supplies lubricating and cooling oil to crosshead,
crankpin and piston. The guide shoe is fitted with a counterweight to balance the weight of the telescopic
pipe. The outlet pipe for piston cooling oil is mounted
on top of the other guide shoe.

The outlet pipe slides within a slotted pipe inside the

engine frame. Oil is led through a control device for
each cylinder. The control device checks the
temperature and flow before the oil is passed onto the
luboil sump tank. The crosshead has bores for
distributing the oil supplied through the telescopic
pipe. The connecting rod connects the crosshead to
the crankshaft. The crankpin bearings are white metal
lined shell bearings.

Crankshaft
The working of other components of the engine, such as camshaft for fuel timing, firing order of units etc;
depends upon the correct rotation of the crank shaft Failure of the crankshaft can stall the engine /ship.

The material for construction: Slow speed marine diesel engines have crankshafts forged of plain carbon
steel (0.2 to 0.4% of carbon) but the medium and high speed engines use Alloy Steel.

The crankshafts on the large modern 2 stroke cross head engines can weigh over 300 tons. They are too big
to make as a single unit and so are constructed by joining together individual forgings. Crankshaft
manufacture is a complex and elaborate process and the exact procedure would vary with the type and size
of the crankshaft.

The marine diesel engine crankshafts can be classified as,

• Fully built
• Semi built
• Welded Crankshaft
• Solid single piece-used in very small engines

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Fully built
Are those in which all the various components are shrink-fitted after separate fabrication. On older engines
the so called fully built method was used. This consisted of forging separate webs, crank pins and main
journals. The crank pins and journals were machined and matching holes bored in the webs, which were
slightly smaller in diameter. The webs were heated up and the crank pins and journals fitted into the holes
(which due to the heat had expanded in size). As the webs cooled down, so the diameter of the bored holes
would try and shrink back to their original size. In doing so, the crank pins and journals would be gripped
tightly enough to stop them being able to slip when the engine was being operated normally. One way to
ensure that the shrunk fit is stable is to have a dowel pin but this would act as a stress riser and is
unacceptable. The image below shows various parts.

Semi built
Are those in which several parts such as crank-throw and pins are case out of a single piece. Today,
crankshafts for large 2 stroke cross head engines are of the Semi built type. In this method of construction
the crankshaft "throws" consisting of two webs and the crank pin are made from a single forging. The webs
are bored to take the separately forged and machined main journals which are fitted into the webs using the
shrink fitting method. The advantages of this method of construction is that by making the two webs and
crank pin from a single forging the grain flow in the steel follows the web round into the crank pin and back
down the other web. Because the crank pin and webs are a single forging, the webs can be reduced in
thickness and a hole is sometimes bored through the crank pin as shown, reducing the weight without
compromising strength. But the hoop stress developed due to shrink fitting of main journals, can lead to
cracks if enough material is not there. Hence there should be a balance.

After the main journal is fitted in the crank web, witness marks are marked in journal and web. These should
be checked during crankcase inspections.

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These types are assembled from separate journal pins and complete crank throws. A crank throw comprises
of crank pin and webs. Shrink fits are used for assembly. These types are also found in some of the larger
medium speed engines. The crank throw is manufactured by continuous grain forging methods.

Welded crankshafts
In this type, each forging is made up of webs with crank pins and half of main journal on both sides. Based
on the Units, number of such forgings are made. These forgings were then welded together using a
submerged arc welding process and stress relieved then machined to form the crankshaft. These have the
advantage of continuous grain flow, the webs could be made thinner, leading to a lighter shorter crankshaft.

Due to high Capital costs, only a few crankshafts of this type were made and used successfully.

Solid single Piece

These crankshafts are forged or cast as a single piece. These are used in small medium speed engines as well
as high speed engines.

Another version tried out is For engines with more number of cylinders, it is made in two or three parts and
bolted together with fitted bolts at integral flanges.

The crankshafts are designed to withstand the load during firing and cyclical stresses. The crankshaft is
stressed due to
• Misalignment of main bearings.
• Torsional vibrations.
• Axial vibrations

Crankshaft deflection
Crankshaft deflections are measured to detect the misalignment of main bearings. The misalignment occurs
due to bearing wear or deflection of crankshaft. The horizontal and the vertical misalignment are checked.

"Crankshaft deflections" are measured by measuring the distance between the webs of a throw at various
positions of the crankshaft using a dial gauge. The deflections measurements are taken when the ship is in
even keel. The trim of the ship affects the deflection readings.

The webs open out or close in depending on the bearing height. The opening of the web is recorded as
positive values and the closing as negative values. The maximum values obtained are compared with the
maximum allowable values given by the engine manufacturer.

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Crankshaft Misalignment: Reasons
➢ Damage or wipe-out of the main bearing
➢ Loose engine foundation bolt leading to vibration
➢ Deformation of ship’s hull
➢ Crack in the bearing saddle
➢ Loose main bearing bolt leading to damage of main bearing
➢ Very high bending moment on the crankshaft due to excessive force from piston assembly
➢ Grounding of the ship
➢ Crankcase explosion or fire
➢ A defective or worn out stern tube or intermediate shaft bearings
➢ Loose or broken chokes in the foundation
➢ Bearing pockets cracked
➢ Bedplate deformed – transverse girder damaged
➢ Tie bolts slack or broken
➢ Weakening of structure due to corrosion.

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CHAPTER-5
Bearings
The focus here is mostly to discuss the MAN B&W engine bearings fitted on large 2 stroke engines and for
smaller medium speed engines fitted with gudgeon pin bearings. Engines' reciprocating and rotary motions
happen smoothly via these bearings and the lubrication principle moves from boundary to hydrodynamic
based on engines' rotational and reciprocating motions and also the engine speeds. Certainly, these bearings
are heavily loaded and must sustain the load under pressure for uninterrupted trouble-free running for a long
period as the ships travel across the seas.

MAN B&W: Guide shoes

The guide shoes, mounted on the fore and aft ends of the cross head reciprocate in the guides and
transfer the side component of thrust into the engine frame. Due to this, the reciprocating motion of
piston/piston rod via the connecting rod is converted into a rotational movement of the crankshaft.

The guide shoe has a screwed locating pin, which protrudes into a hole in the crosshead pin, restricting the
rotational movement of the crosshead pin.

The inner side of the guide shoes has the guide bolted
guide strips to ensure that the piston rod is in correct
position in the fore-and-aft direction. with the shims, this
alignment and the clearance between the guide & guide
strips, is adjusted. White metal with machined oil supply
grooves is used on the sliding surfaces of the guide shoes
and the guide strips.

Cross-head Bearing (or, Top end Bearing)

Due to the swinging movement of the cross head, it is difficult to lubricate and maintain a true
hydrodynamic lubrication. To start with the boundary lubrication occurs, with the increase in rubbing speed,
the hydrodynamic lubrication starts, but recedes, when the cross head decelerate after the midway point and
then the boundary lubrication takes over. Due to this, maintaining an oil film to separate the metal layers has
always been difficult. Previously an oil pump driven by the cross head to inject high pressure oil in the lower
bearing with some success.

Due to the oscillating motion, only the lower half of the bearing takes the load. The cooling oil must be
injected between shaft (cross head pin) an lower bearing at the correct time when the load on the bearing is
low--approximately 20 degrees before the TOC of the crank angle.

To help with the distribution of oil over the loaded half of the bearing, grooves are machined in the shell
which also assists with the build-up of a hydrodynamic film. Sometimes the grooves with reduced section at
the edge of the bearing is used to maintain the oil pressure to keep the surfaces apart.

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To ensure minimum wear, the pin is ground and highly polished for a very smooth finish. The pin is made
of larger diameter to have a point contact. The bottom half of the bearing is made continuous, to have a large
surface area hence reduce load per unit area Cross head bearing shells are of tin aluminium on a steel backing
with a white metal overlay. Modern cross head bearing clearances are non-adjustable. The bearing is replaced
when the clearance reaches a maximum.

SULZER ENGINE BEARINGS AND LUBRICATION

The RTA engine has a continuous lower bearing, the housing formed by the top of the connecting
rod. Only a lower bearing shell is fitted, the top bearing housing being lined with white metal. Oil is supplied
by a booster pump at pressure of 10 - 16 bar and supplied via the swinging arm. The arm also carries oil at
system pressure (4 bar) for piston cooling.

Bottom end bearing: MAN B&W

The Oil supply to the bottom end bearing comes down a drilling in the connecting rod from the
cross-head oil supply. It is led into the bearing via drilled passages.

The engine uses thin wall bearing shells lined with white metal or shells lined with tin-aluminium and a fresh
layer of tin for upper and lower bearing halves.

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The shells are manufactured with a circumferential over length (crush/nip), when the shells are mounted and
tightened up, will produce the required radial pressure between the shell and the bearing housing. The crank
pin bearing shells are retained in position by means of screws fitted in the bearing housings.

Manufacturer's guidelines to be followed before tightening the studs, to avoid the twist of bearing caps with
the mating face of the connecting rod. The bottom end bearings for a modern trunk piston engine will be thin
wall tin aluminium or lead bronze shells with an electroplated or galvanized overlay. The top half of the
bearing is loaded for the majority of the cycle, although for a short period between inlet and exhaust strokes
the load is transferred to the lower half.

Oil is supplied to the bearing from the oil supply to the main bearing which is led along drilling in the
crankshaft and exits onto the crank pin surface via a drilling in the crank pin journal. The oil then exits the
bearing through the holes in the shells, and is feed round a groove in the bearing housing.

Main Bearings for MAN B&W Crosshead Engines

Thin shell bearings have a wall thickness between 2% and 2.5% of the journal diameter. The
steel back does not have the sufficient stiffness to support the cast-on white metal alone. The bearing must
therefore be supported rigidly over its full length to prevent fretting between shell and housing and failure
of the bearing material.

The bearing is manufactured with a circumferential over length to produce the required radial pressure
between the shell and the bearing housing. The maximum/minimum top clearance in thin shell bearings is
predetermined and is nonadjustable.

Plain bearings are manufactured as steel shells with a bearing surface of white metal or tin aluminium.
The bearing surface is furnished with a centrally placed oil supply groove and other design features such as
tangential run-outs and bore reliefs. The tangential run out prevents an oil scraping effect and reduces the
resistance to the flow of oil towards the loaded area of the bearing.
The bore relief is to compensate for misalignment which could result in a protruding edge of the lower shell's
mating face to that of the upper shell. Such a protruding edge can act as an oil scraper and cause oil starvation.

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The lower bearing shell rests in bed plate transverse girder, the upper bearing shell is held down by the
bearing cover. Shoulders on each end prevent axial shifting. Possible rotation of the bearing shell is prevented
by screws in the transverse girder (see sketch opposite) or by a locating pin in the bearing
cover.

The lubrication of the bearings is through the oil connection on the bearing cover-through a pipe to the
bearing cap. The oil is distributed to the whole diameter by a radial groove in the bearing cover, reaches
the bearing through bores in the bearing shells and lubricates bearing & journal.

Main Bearing-for 4 stroke trunk piston Engine

Medium speed trunk piston engine main bearings that hold the crankshaft use thin walled tin
aluminium or lead bronze bearings with an electroplated or galvanized overlay. The top half of the bearing
has a circumferential oil groove with a series of holes that leads a flow of oil into the bearing. Oil is carried
round to the loaded lower half and runs out tangentially. The lower bearing half is positioned in the bearing
cap with locating lugs which prevent rotation of the shell. The oil supply is via holes drilled on the engine
block going to the top bearing housing.

Gudgeon/Piston Pin Bearing (for trunk piston application)

As in cross head bearing, the main load is at the bottom half and also difficult to maintain a
continuous, hydrodynamic lubrication.

The load carrying lower half of the bush is of greater surface area than the top and has machined grooves to
assist with the spread of the oil and to assist in building up a hydrodynamic film. The bush is an interference
fit in the connecting rod and is fitted by freezing the bush.

Oil from Bottom end bearing goes through the connecting rod, to the topside of the pin bush, where the oil
enters the lower portion through a machined groove or oil from the piston cooling can also used for this
lubrication.

The floating piston pin is a common feature of medium speed marine diesel engines. This allows better
alignment of the small end bearing with decreased wear. The pin is a clearance fit in the skirt and retained
by circlips or an end plate.

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The bearing consists of a bush lined with tin aluminium or lead bronze. On a piston fitted with a floating
piston pin, the oil scraper ring will be fitted at the top of the skirt, to remove the excess oil passing through
the ends of combustion chamber.

Thrust Bearing
The thrust bearing or Thrust block is situated just aft of the main engine. Its purpose is to transmit the torque
produced by the rotating propeller down to the ship’s structure. Thus, thrust bearing transmits the axial thrust
of the propeller coming down via the propeller shaft (and, intermediate shafts when fitted), to the ship's hull.
The thrust received at the collar gets transmitted to the thrust block housing which is firmly attached to the
strengthened foundation via holding down bolts on to the ship structure.

On a 2-stroke direct drive reversible engine the thrust bearing is situated at the driving end of the engine bed
plate. The thrust bearing is also called as tilting-pad bearing and of the Michell type.

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There are seven or eight pads (segments) placed on each of the forward and aft side of the thrust collar which
is an integral part of the crankshaft. The pads which have white metal cast on the wearing faces are mounted
from thrust shoes on either side of the thrust collar. The thrust shoes rest on the thrust bearing housing. The
shoes are held in place around the circumference by stops. The pads can be compared to sliding blocks and
are pivoted in such a manner that they can individually tilt and create the angle of approach for a lubricating
wedge. The lubricating/cooling oil is sprayed directly on to the forward and aft sides of the thrust collar by
means of nozzles positioned in the spaces between the pads. The nozzles are mounted on a semi-circular
delivery pipe supplied from the sumps by the main engine LO pumps. The Thrust bearing has its own sump
underneath and may have some submerged cooling coils to keep the lub oil temperature low.

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CHAPTER-6
Chain drives
For a marine Diesel engine, the exhaust valve / fuel pump camshaft, cylinder lubricator, starting
air distributor, engine governor etc. are directly or indirectly driven by a gear-train or chain-drive from the
crankshaft. The figure below shows a typical chain-drive of a large marine Diesel engine.

BASIC CONSTRUCTION / OPERATION

The roller chain usually comprises roller-links and pin-links, alternately as shown in the figure-
Y below. Each pin-link has two pins riveted between two side plates. A roller link has two rollers free to
rotate on two respective bushings. The pins fit within the bushings of two adjacent roller links.

INSPECTION OF CHAIN DRIVES:

➢ Check wears in rollers and links
➢ Check freeness of rollers
➢ Check freeness of links moving on the pins and bushings and if any cracks / abrasive wear, are
visible.
➢ Search for loose bolts from the lubricating oil supplying nozzles/spreaders
➢ Effectiveness of lubricating oil spray and indications of scuffing / galling due to lack of proper
lubrication.

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➢ Assess the extent of wear/displacement in the rubber-clad guide ways
➢ Examine the teeth of the sprocket wheels and assess the wear, if required, by using a profile gauge

Camshaft chain with rollers & bearings

Camshaft
Cams are positioned on camshaft by shrink fit, integral or keyed for positive positioning. They are carried
by a series of camshaft bearings. It comprises of a number of camshaft sections. The sections are assembled
by means of flange couplings, which are joined together with fitted bolts and nuts.

The cams for fuel pump and exhaust valves are mounted on the camshaft. The indicator drive cams are also
mounted on the camshaft in engines where indicator drive is provided for taking indicator cards.

The camshaft rotates at the same speed of the crankshaft. Crankshaft drives the camshaft through a chain or
gear drive, which is fitted at the end of the camshaft.

The chain wheel or the drive gear is fitted at the aft end of the camshaft. The camshaft drives the cylinder
lubricators and the starting air distributor.

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The gear drive consists of sequential arrangements of gear train with idler gears in between. Drive wheel
gear is attached to the crankshaft and it is connected to camshaft through idlers and gear train. Lubrication
is affected by lubricating oil sprayers, which are fed by main lubricating oil circuit.

If the engine camshaft is built for axial or rotary displacement for reversing, a spur gear train drive is
convenient. Chain wheel drive is used in engines where the cam roller is shifted for reversing.

Charge Air Cooler

The charge air cooler is an important device fitted in all turbocharged diesel engines to reduce the
temperature of the charged air before its entry to the engine in order to increase the efficiency of engine.
This topic deals with purpose, location, and maintenance of charge air coolers. The charge air cooler fitted
between the turbocharger and the scavenge air manifold in all modern four stroke and two stroke engines.
Once you understand the concept of charge air coolers, and their operation, construction, and maintenance.
It is then easy find reasons for cooler fouling, its location on engine, and methods of cleaning the charge air
cooler.

Purpose of Charge Air Cooler

The exhaust gas from the engine is utilized in the turbocharger for compressing fresh air to charge the engine
with a positive pressure greater than ambient conditions. This compression causes the temperature of the air
to increase, When the air is hot, its density is less and thus the mass of air charged into the engine is less
when compared to the mass when the air is cold. Thus, the charge air cooler improves the charge air density
and its temperature.

The compressed charged air at the outlet of charge air cooler will have a reduced temperature of about 40 to
50*C. Increased air density of the charge air will rise the scavenge efficiency and allow a greater mass of air
to be compressed inside the engine cylinder so that more fuel can be burned inside the combustion chamber,
giving an increase in power. Also, the engine is maintained at a safe working temperature. The lower
compression temperature reduces stress on the piston, piston rings, cylinder liner, and cylinder head. The
charge air cooler has another advantage in that it reduces the exhaust gas temperature. But if very cold air
enters the cylinder liner, it would cause a sudden thermal shock, leading to cracking of liner. In short, the
Purpose of charge air cooler on ships

• To reduce air temperature & increase density of charge air.

• More fuel can be burnt and more power can be obtained.
• Reduce exhaust temperature and engine thermal load.
• Increase scavenging efficiency, safe working temperature.

High air temperatures from the air cooler: Discharge air temperature should not exceed 55°C the exhaust
temperatures will increase, with loss in efficiency due to reduction in air density. Under cooling of air occurs
when it is cooled to a temperature below the dew point at that pressure. To prevent under cooling and
excessive condensation, air temp should not be taken below 20 – 25o C.

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Location of a Charge Air Cooler
Charge air coolers are located between the turbocharger compressor side outlet and the engine
inlet manifold or scavenge manifold. The air cooler should be located as close to the engine cylinder as
possible. Also, the air duct between the charge air cooler and the engine inlet manifold should be insulated
to avoid increase in the temperature of the air.

Contamination of the air side occurs due to atmospheric particulate contained in the vast volumes of air that
are pulled in by the turbocharger and sent through the air cooler. The finned cooler acts as a filter where the
particulate can deposit. This results in a mixture of oil, carbon and dust on the surfaces. The effect of this is
reduction of the rate of heat transfer from the air to the sea water and an increase of the pressure drop across
the cooler resulting in less air reaching the engine. Contamination of the sea water side occurs as scale builds
up on the surface. This scale can quickly build up when tubes get blocked or partially blocked by marine
growth. As water flow is restricted, the wall temperature increases and more scale deposits on the surface.

The sketch illustrates a charge air cooler. The cooling water makes two passes to maximise cooling effect;
the air makes a single pass to keep the pressure drop to a minimum. A manometer connected across the
cooler will give an indication of any fouling on the air side.

The moving tube plate allows for expansion. Sacrificial anodes may be fitted in the water boxes to reduce
corrosive attack, especially if the cooling medium is sea water. The flow of cooling water through the cooler
is automatically controlled to keep the air inlet to the engine at optimum temperature.

It is necessary to maintain the correct charge air temperature for the following reasons:

1. So that the correct mass of air is allowed into the cylinder for combustion of the fuel. (the higher the
temperature the greater the specific volume)
2. To keep the exhaust gas temperature at acceptable levels. (will rise if air temp is too high)
3. To prevent water depositing on the liner surface destroying L.O. film if temp is too low.
4. To prevent thermal shocking of liner if temp is too low.

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 MEO CLASS 4 -MOTOR
Checking cooler efficiency:
1. Check sea water in/out temperature difference. Less difference means poor efficiency of cooler (must
be high)
2. Check coolant medium in / out temperature (Difference temperature: should be low)
3. Feel over cooler shell, upper hot, middle warm, down cool is normal.
4. Check pump and by pass valve.

Purpose of division plate in cooler:

1. Provided to increase numbers of pass.
2. This increase the cooling efficiency.

Purpose of baffle plate in coolers:

1. To support the tube stack.
2. To guide the flow of fluid
3. To increase cooling surface area
4. To minimize the tube vibration

Seawater is usually used as the cooling medium and so high-quality materials are needed to ensure a long
serviceable life. Leaking or damaged charge air coolers can cause loss of power, increased emissions,
increased fuel consumption and increased exhaust temperatures leading to excessive engine wear/damage.
The air cooler is therefore an integral part of any turbo charged diesel engine.

In earlier days, spiral wound finned tubes were used in Charge Air Coolers, but this results in a huge pressure
drop and starves the engine at higher loads, but in modern days, single fin encompassing several tubes is
assembled and used. This method is quick to manufacture, cost effective, extremely efficient and offers
superior mechanical strength. Once tested, the thermal properties can be used to accurately predict the air
cooler characteristics when in service. Because dimensions are fixed, each type of block fin will have
individual heat transfer characteristics the coolers are fitted with full intermediate support plates within the
fin block to give additional stability against vibration.

The NOx emissions of your engine are effected by the condition of the charge air cooler. The performance
of this Charge air cooler is important with regard to NOx emissions. The air velocity is increased after the
charge air cooler by having the outlet convergent. Reduction of air velocity before the charge air cooler: The
air makes a single pass through the cooler and for efficiency cooling, its velocity should be low and cooling
area large. This is obtained by making the air inlet connection divergent; the outlet is convergent to restore
air velocity after cooling.

At the charge air condensate drain, it can be indicated the amount of moisture being removed from the air or
if a cooling water leak has occurred. The air seal is maintained at the free end of the charge air cooler by
means of a rubber joint ring.

Where engines operate close to or below the dew point then water separators are fitted to remove entrained
water droplets from the air side. Grid type separators consisting of a pair of angled blades and relying on the
higher inertia of the water droplets can remove up to 85% of the water.

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Charge air coolers tubes material: The cooler consists of a tube stack of aluminium brass rubes rolled and
solder-bonded into two brass tube plates. Cast iron water boxes are attached to the tube plates and allow salt
water circulation within the tubes to make two passes.

Corrosion plugs are fitted in Charge air cooler water space

Flat sided tubes are soldered into the tube plates whilst round tubes are expanded.

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CHAPTER-7
Fuel Pump
The pressure of the fuel supplied to the injector is sufficient to lift the fuel valve. The fuel injection pressure
varies between 200 to 400 bar depending on the type of the engine. A cam activates the fuel injection pump.

The quantity of the fuel supplied vary depending on the engine load. Suction and spill valves or ports controls
the metering of fuel. In marine large two stroke diesel engines, two types of fuel injection pumps are used.
They are Valve controlled and port-controlled fuel pumps.

• Valve controlled
• Port controlled

Valve controlled fuel pump

The fuel pump comprises of a suction valve, spill valve, pump plunger, pushrods and levers. The plunger
stroke is constant and is raised and lowered by the follower. The follower is pressed on the cam by the
plunger spring. The push rods operate the suction and spill valves. These rods are operated from the plunger
drive through levers. A set of control eccentric act as pivot point for these levers.

When the plunger is raised upwards, the spill valve is closed. But, push rod holds its suction valve off its
seat. As the plunger continues to rise, the suction valve returns to its seat as its push rod moves down.

Once the suction valve is seated compression begins as the plunger continues to move upwards. Fuel is
pushed into the cylinder, through the high-pressure fuel delivery pipe and fuel injector. Whilst the plunger
is moving upwards and injecting fuel, the spill valve push rod also moves upward. Injection stops as soon as
the spill valve is lifted off its seat by its pushrod.

On the downward stroke of the plunger, fuel is drawn from the suction space. The suction valve is lifted by
the suction effect of the plunger and the fuel transfer pressure in the suction space. In the lowest part of the
plunger's downward stroke, the suction valve is lifted by its pushrod.

The actuating levers of the suction and spill valves' push rods are pivoted at eccentric shaft. The fuel injection
time is varied with the rotation of these eccentric shafts.
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Under normal operation the suction valve timing and start of injection is fixed. The spill valve timing is
varied to control the quantity of fuel delivered. Varying the suction valve timing controls the beginning of
fuel injection to compensate for ignition quality of fuel without adjusting the fuel pump cam.

Helix and port-controlled fuel pump

Fuel enters the pump from the supply system through the inlet connection and floods the fuel chamber
surrounding the barrel. When the plunger is at the bottom of its stroke, the fuel flows through the barrel
ports. It fills the space above the plunger, the vertical slot cut in the plunger and the cut away area below the
plunger helix (scroll).

As the plunger moves upward, the barrel ports are covered and compression begins. As the plunger continues
to move upward, fuel is discharged through the lifted delivery valve into the high-pressure pipe. Fuel delivery
stops when the plunger helix uncovers the spill port. The delivery valve returns to its seat and closes.

The quantity of fuel delivered is regulated by the vertical length of the helix where it is in line with the
suction port. This setting is altered as required by rotating the plunger. A rack is fitted to the pump to engage
with a pinion machined on the outside of a sleeve. The sleeve fits over the plunger and has slots engaging
with keys.

In this way, movements of the rack rotate the plunger. Relative angular position of the cam peak to the
crankshaft controls the injection timing. It is adjusted by radially moving the cam with respect to the
crankshaft. Adjustment is also be done by raising or lowering the barrel with respect to the plunger.

VIT Pump
FUEL PUMP FOR MAN B&W ENGINES WITH VARIABLE INJECTION TIMING

The earlier Bosch type jerk pumps had the disadvantage where although the end of injection is variable, the
start of injection is fixed by the position of the spill ports, injection commencing after the ports are covered
by the top edge of the plunger.

As well as having the normal fuel quantity control (rack which rotates the plunger in the barrel), the fuel
pump is fitted with an adjustable barrel which has a large pitch thread machined on the bottom. The threaded

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barrel is located in a threaded sleeve which is rotated by a second rack. As the sleeve cannot move axially,
and the barrel is prevented from rotating, then as the sleeve rotates, the barrel moves up and down, thus
altering the position of the spill ports relative to the plunger, and varying the start of injection.

Part Load running with efficiency

The Super Variable Injection Timing system, is developed to fulfil the requirement of maintaining the MCR
under part load conditions, in order to save fuel.

This is achieved by a mechanism which automatically adjusts the commencement of fuel injection, such that
the MCR- is kept constant as the engine load is reduced from 100% MCR to a certain pre-specified part-
load, known as the break-point.

In the earlier VIT system (using a profile-plunger principle: GB and L35MC + L42MC engines) the break-
point is fixed in relation to the pump index – that is to say, the "break" always occurs at the predetermined
pump index.

In the super-VIT configuration, used on the larger MC engines, the fuel pump plunger is not profiled (i.e.
has no extra oblique-cut) but instead, the start of fuel injection timing is determined by altering the vertical
position of the pump barrel, thus in this system the break-point is adjustable.

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The pump barrel is moved up and down (relative to the plunger) by means of a rack and pinion, in
combination with a double-thread.

The VIT-rack setting itself is controlled via the regulating shaft position, according to the engine load.

When running at the break-point, the pump cylinder will be at a low position, thereby giving early injection
and create the specified design MCR- Pmax for the engine.

Electronic VIT
The Super VIT is available in both a mechanical and an electronic version. In the electronic version an I/P
converter supplies the pilot air pressure to the individual servo cylinders, instead of the pilot valve activated
by the fuel rack used in the mechanical version. The I/P converter receives its pilot signal from the governor
system.

The advantage of the electronic version is that the break-point is calculated from the actual conditions, why
the ambient conditions are taken into account. The engine load is calculated from the engine speed and the
fuel index, while the compression pressure is calculated from the scavenging air pressure. Based on these
calculations the governor calculates the output to the I/P converter.

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With the CRIS the HP pump delivers fuel to the rail which is common to all cylinders. Each injector is
actuated in sequence by the ECU as a function of the crankshaft angle. The injector opens when energized
and closes when de-energized. The amount of fuel per cycle is determined by the time differential and the
in-system pressure. The actual in-system pressure is transmitted to the control unit via a pressure sensor and
the rail pressure is regulated by the ECU via the actuator in the fuel supply to the HP pump.

With this system the injector incorporates several functions. The nozzle needle is relieved by a solenoid
valve and thus opened by the fuel pressure. The amount of fuel injected during the ignition delay period is
regulated by the nozzle opening speed. With this servo-assisted injector the opening and closing
characteristics can be adjusted individually and effected extremely precisely. It is capable of extremely high
reaction speeds for controlling minimum fuel quantities during idle operation or pilot injection.

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CHAPTER-8
Four stroke engine
Diesel engines are sub-divided into three categories: slow, medium and high speed. Slow speed
are considered to be up to 300 rpm such as most big two stroke engines commonly found on ships.

Medium speed engines dwell in the 300 - 900 rpm range. They are most common on smaller ships and power
plants driving electrical generators and / or the propeller.

High speed engines are the most common. Their high revolutions are ideal for driving vehicles such as buses
and yachts. All Diesel trucks and vehicles on our roads use this class of Diesels, having an rpm over 900.

Both 2-stroke as well as 4-stroke engines are used in the marine industry. The engines used for the main
propulsion or turning the propeller/s of the normal ships are usually slow speed 2-stroke engines while those
used for providing auxiliary power are usually 4-stroke medium speed diesel engines.

Exhaust valve

Why 4-stroke?
4 stroke engines are favoured method of propulsion on ships where head room is a minimum, for instance,
on ferries and passenger vessels, and where, as is the current trend for these ships, diesel electric propulsion
is utilized. Diesel electric propulsion allows the engines to be placed wherever is most suitable, as they no
longer have to be aligned with reduction gearing and shafting as is the case with conventional installations.

Generally, medium speed engines run at between 250 - 850 RPM. Above this range they are defined as high
speed engines. Although not as powerful as their 2-stroke crosshead, the largest 4 stroke engines are
delivering just over 2,000kW per cylinder. Medium speed engines have a higher power to weight ratio than
the slow speed two strokes, but due to the higher speeds tend to have reduced maintenance intervals.

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Auxiliary Engine layout and Components
Components of auxiliary engine are broadly classified into

• Fixed components
• Moving components

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Man vee-type trunk piston Engines

M.A.N turbocharged 4 stroke engine Articulated connecting rod

Designed for residual fuel operation

As is the case with their large-bore crosshead engines, M.A.N. will accept residual fuels up to 380cst in their
larger trunk-piston engines. But from an overall economic standpoint, taking all aspects of cleaning, heating
and engine maintenance into consideration and balancing them against the initial lower cost of the most
viscous residual fuels, M.A.N. recommend that fuels of up to 180cst are the best compromise for use in their
engines.

Cylinder pressures
The engine has been designed to obtain maximum combustion efficiency. With the high degree of
turbocharging employed (1.5kg/) the peak cylinder pressures are of the order of 105kg/cm2 with a bmep of
17.3kg/cm2, giving an output per cylinder of 900bhp at 400rpm. Appreciably higher outputs, up to
1100bhp per cylinder at 430rpm have been obtained, with a corresponding bmep of 19.7kg/cm2 and peak
pressures of 118kg/cm2.

In common with other high output engines of the trunk-piston type, these high operating pressures impose
severe loads on the engine components, such as the cylinder head, liner, piston, tie rods, engine framework
and, particularly important from the lubrication point-of-view, on the gudgeon, crankpin and main
bearings, in addition to greater side thrust on the pistons. Thermal stresses on the combustion chamber
components also becomes increasingly high.

Bearings
With the short length of the VV 40/54 and VV 52/55 crankshafts, great care has been taken with the main
bearing and crankpin bearing design. M.A.N. have calculated that bearing loads caused by inertia forces,

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 MEO CLASS 4 -MOTOR
with their longer-lasting effects, are even greater than the loads caused by high peak pressures which exist
only for a fraction of a second each revolution.

In the VV 52/55 engine, M.A.N. have continued with their well- proven master connecting rod and
articulated slave rod arrangement, which permits a short stiff crankshaft. Both connecting rods for each pair
of cylinders are rigidly bolted to a common crankpin bearing. Steel backed thin-shell type bearings, lined
with lead-bronze and a soft metal flash, are used for both crank pin and main bearings.

Cylinder head and liner

The cylinder head has been carefully designed to minimise thermal stresses by using a thin combustion space
top plate which permits efficient heat transfer to the cooling water. The mechanical loads are absorbed by
cross web internal ribs. The head itself is designed with a high degree of rigidity. It has a relatively thin
lower part. The stiffening element, a double ribbed cross, is in the upper area, which is not subject to high
thermal stresses. The intake and exhaust valves are fitted in cages. On the VV 52/55 engine, fuel and cooling
water have been completely separated from the rocker arm lubricating oil. As there are also water
connections in the lubricating oil space of the valve drive on the cylinder head, the rocker arm lubrication
circuit is separate from the systems lubricating oil circuit. Water inlets and outlets for the exhaust valves are
located outside the oil space. Fuel is led to the injection valve from the side through the cylinder head and
not from above. This also applies to the coolant for the fuel injection valve. A new feature of the VV 52/55
engine is that a water-cooled cast steel support ring is fitted between the cylinder block and the underside of
the liner top flange. The liner itself is fitted with a cooling water jacket for most of its length, with internal
supporting ribs at intervals.

Inlet and Exhaust valves

The inlet and exhaust valves are installed in cages so that they can be replaced without removing the
cylinder head. This simplifies maintenance work considerably. Intensive cooling of the exhaust valve seats
in the cages reduces the valve seat temperatures to a point where, in heavy fuel oil operation, undesired
vanadium and sodium deposits can be reduced to a minimum. This extends time between valve overhauls
considerably. Cooling the cages instead of the valve cones not only results in desired low temperatures but
also avoids unnecessary complications in the supply, treatment and control of the coolant, as well as
danger of lubricating oil contamination and the risks relative to the stresses in welds on the valve cones.
Moreover, it is possible to rotate the valves in operation with the aid of a special device called the roto cap
arrangement.

Fuel Injection
In special cases, where very small and accurate amounts of fuel must be injected over a fairly long period,
the injection pump will be fitted with two plungers of different diameters, the plungers being in tandem
arrangement. When such pumps are used in fast ships, for instance, when such ships must sail at low speed
for a long time, speed ratios of 1:4 to 1:5 can easily be reached without the need of electrically controlled
slip clutches, as are required for other engine types. In periodically or permanently unattended engine rooms,
the fuel needle valves and the fuel injection pipes are protected in casings by which any leakage oil is
collected and discharged separately with alarms fitted.

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Piston design
A similar piston design to that of the VV 40/54 engine is used, consisting of an alloy steel crown and upper
side walls carrying the two top compression rings, and a bolted-on light alloy skirt. Internally, the thin piston
crown is supported by a circumferential ring or flange, butting against a similar flange on the inner part of
the skirt. This arrangement forms an annular shaped cavity into which cooling oil is supplied via the gudgeon
bearing from the main system. After cooling the upper side walls and periphery of the crown, the oil passes
across the centre of the under crown, then returns to the crankcase through a central hole in the inner skirt.
Maximum cooling is ensured by the usual 'cocktail shaker' action.

The articulated connecting rods

The pistons in these vee type engines are arranged directly opposite each other driving an articulated
connecting rod. In effect it offers an appreciable saving in engine and engine room length as well as short
symmetrical paths of forces in the frame. This is due to the articulated connecting rod. Calculations revealed
that the extra design and production work for this connecting rod is balanced out by the 12-13 percent saving
in engine length. A 16-cylinder engine with the master and slave rods is over three feet shorter than an engine
with side-by-side connecting rods. At the same crankpin bearing the master bank connecting rod sits with a
flat palm bolted arrangement while the slave bank connecting rod connects with articulated arrangement of
hinge pins.

Lubrication of Trunk Type Engines

The engine is of the dry sump type, with independent circulating oil pumps, filters and oil cooler. Oil is
supplied under pressure in the usual way by leads from a common rail to each main bearing, drilled passages
in the crankshaft to the crankpin bearings, then through passages in the connecting rods to the gudgeon
bearings and for piston cooling.

Separate oil feeds are taken from the common rail to the timing gears and bearings, the camshaft bearings,
the crankshaft detuner and the overhead valve rocker gear. The SAE 30 type detergent crankcase oil is also
used in the Woodward hydraulic governor and servo-motor controlling the fuel pump outputs. Crankcase oil
is also circulated through the bearings of the two M.A.N. turbochargers.

Four oil feed points are provided for each cylinder, located about half way up the liner, the cylinder oil being
supplied by engine-operated mechanical lubricators. The oil supply arrangement is somewhat unusual, in
that the entry point is through passages drilled vertically in the liner, from the lower uncooled end, which
connect with short horizontal holes in the liner wall leading into the cylinder.

A problem which can be troublesome, especially in engines operating on distillate fuel, is leakage of fuel
connections on the cylinder head which passes back into the crankcase with oil drains from the rocker gear
bearings. This is also true, to a lesser degree, if there are any leaking water connections within the rocker
box cover. This has been overcome in the VV 52/55 engine by entirely separating the rocker gear lubricating
oil system from fuel and water connections. Oil tight covers are fitted, with direct drains to the crankcase.
The exhaust valve and fuel valve water cooling inlet and outlet pipes, also the high-pressure fuel pipes to the
fuel valves are kept outside the rocker box cover, being led to their respective valves from the side through
the cylinder head itself.

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CHAPTER-9
Gas Turbine
The use of gas turbines for generating electricity dates back to 1939. Today, gas turbines are
widely-used in Air crafts & power generating industries. Gas turbines are a type of internal combustion (IC)
engine in which burning of an air-fuel mixture produces hot gases that spin a turbine to produce power. It is
the production of hot gas during fuel combustion that gives gas turbines the name. Gas turbines can utilize
a variety of fuels, including natural gas, fuel oils, and synthetic fuels. Combustion occurs continuously in
gas turbines, as opposed to reciprocating IC engines, in which combustion occurs intermittently.

The marine industry has seen the demise of steam turbine in preference to slow-speed and medium-speed
diesel propulsion. While there are some LNG ships that are still propelled by steam turbines and other
combined cycle designs, the dominance of 2 stroke slow speed engines have been well established. Gas
turbines are finding a scope for revival as evidenced by a number of initiatives undertaken by turbine
manufacturers including the shipyards and the class societies.

How Gas Turbine works?

Gas turbines are comprised of three primary sections mounted on the same shaft: the compressor,
the combustion chamber (or combustor) and the turbine. The compressor is normally an axial flow type, due
to the higher air flow rates and efficiencies. Axial flow compressors are comprised of multiple stages of
rotating and stationary blades (or stators) through which air is drawn in parallel to the axis of rotation and
incrementally compressed as it passes through each stage. The acceleration of the air through the rotating
blades and diffusion by the stators increases the pressure and reduces the volume of the air. Although no
heat is added, the compression of the air also causes the temperature to increase.

The compressed air is mixed with fuel injected through nozzles. The fuel and compressed air can be pre-
mixed or the compressed air can be introduced directly into the combustor. The fuel-air mixture ignites under
constant pressure conditions and the hot combustion products (gases) are directed through the turbine where
it expands rapidly and imparts rotation to the shaft. The turbine is also comprised of stages, each with a row
of stationary blades to direct the expanding gases followed by a row of moving blades. The rotation of the
shaft drives the compressor to draw in and compress more air to sustain continuous combustion.
Approximately 55 to 65 percent of the power produced by the turbine is used to drive the compressor. The
remaining shaft power is used to drive a generator which produces electricity, where as in Aircrafts, the
balance power is used to create Thrust to move the Aircraft forward. To optimize the transfer of kinetic
energy from the combustion gases to shaft rotation, gas turbines can have multiple compressor and turbine
stages.

The initial momentum is imparted to the turbine rotor from an external motor, static frequency converter, or
the generator itself. The compressor must be smoothly accelerated and reach firing speed before fuel can be
introduced and ignition can occur. Turbine speeds vary widely by manufacturer and design, ranging from
2,000 rpm to 10,000 rpm. Initial ignition occurs from one or more spark plugs (depending on combustor
design). combustion is continuous, and the starter system can be disengaged.

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Gas Turbine Performance
The thermodynamic process used in gas turbines is the Brayton cycle. Two significant performance
parameters are the pressure ratio and the firing temperature. The fuel-to-power efficiency of the engine is
optimized by increasing the compression ratio. This compression ratio is in the range of 18:1 in power
generation whereas in Aircrafts it is up to 30:1. They offer higher fuel efficiency and lower emissions.

The temperature at which the turbine operates (firing temperature) also impacts efficiency, with higher
temperatures leading to higher efficiency. However, turbine inlet temperature is limited by the turbine blade
metal alloy and is normally in the range of to, but can be increased to about by blade coatings and cooling
systems to protect metallurgical components from thermal damage.

Because of the power required to drive the compressor, energy conversion efficiency for a simple cycle gas
turbine power plant is typically about 30 to 40 percent. A large amount of heat remains in the exhaust gas,
which is around 600ºC as it leaves the turbine. By recovering that waste heat to produce more useful work
in a combined cycle configuration, gas turbine power plant efficiency can reach 55 to 60 percent. However,
there are operational limitations associated with operating gas turbines in combined cycle mode, including
longer start up time, purge requirements to prevent fires or explosions, and ramp rate to full load.

Comparison of Steam Turbine and Gas Turbine

➢ Steam turbine uses high pressure steam as the working fluid, while the gas turbine uses air and gas
as the working fluid.
➢ Steam turbine is basically an expander delivering torque as the work output, while gas turbine is a
combined device of compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine executing a cyclic operation to
deliver work as either torque or thrust.
➢ Steam turbine is only a component of the steam plant executing one step of the Rankine cycle, while
gas turbine engine executes the whole Brayton cycle.
➢ Gas turbines can deliver either torque or thrust as the work output, while steam turbines almost all
the time delivers torque as the work output.
➢ The efficiency of the gas turbines is much higher than the steam turbine due to higher operating
temperatures of the gas turbines. (Gas turbines ~1500 degree C and steam turbines ~550 deg C)
➢ The space required for the gas turbines is much less than steam turbine operation, because steam
turbine requires boilers and heat exchangers, which should be connected externally for heat addition.
➢ Gas turbines are more versatile, because many fuels can be used and working fluid, which has to be
fed continuously, is readily available everywhere (air). Steam turbines, on the other hand, require
large amounts of water for the operation and tend to cause problems in lower temperatures due to
icing.
➢ Gas Turbines use lighter and thus more expensive fuel in comparison to the lower grade and cheaper
fuels used in steam turbine plant boilers.
➢ Stationary gas turbines can reach an efficiency of about 40%; They can be particularly efficient when
waste heat from the gas turbine is recovered by a conventional steam turbine in a process known as
a combined cycle. Efficiencies of 60%+ can be realized.
➢ Steam turbine efficiency is limited to 30-33%.

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Table of comparisons:

Comparisons Steam Turbine Gas Turbine

Efficiency 30% 40%

Fuel Type Low Grade HFO High Grade Gas Oil

Operating Costs Higher Lower with

combined cycles

Reliability Factor Moderate High

Cost of Maintenance High Low

Readiness in Starting Slower Quicker

from Cold

GT Constructional Features
Gas turbine functions in the same way as the internal combustion engine. It sucks in air from the atmosphere,
compresses it. The fuel is injected and ignited. The gases expand doing work and finally exhausts outside.
The only difference is instead of the reciprocating motion, gas turbine uses a rotary motion throughout.

There are three main sections of the Gas Turbine.

1. Compressor

The compressor sucks in air form the atmosphere and compresses it to pressures in the range of 15 to 20
bar. The compressor consists of a number of rows of blades mounted on a shaft. This is something like a
series of fans placed one after the other. the pressurized air from the first row is further pressurized in the
second row and so on. Stationary vanes between each of the blade rows guide the air flow from one section
to the next section. The shaft is connected and rotates along with the main gas turbine.

2. Combustor

This is an annular chamber where the fuel burns and is similar to the furnace in a boiler. The air from the
compressor is the Combustion air. Burners arranged circumferentially on the annular chamber control the
fuel entry to the chamber. The hot gases in the range of 1400 to 1500oc leave the chamber with high energy
levels. The chamber and the subsequent sections are made of special alloy steels and designs that can
withstand this high temperature.

3. Turbine

The turbine does the main work of energy conversion. The turbine portion also consists of rows of blades
fixed to the shaft. Stationary guide vanes direct the gases to the next set of blades. The kinetic energy of the
hot gases impacting on the blades rotates the blades and the shaft. The blades and vanes are made of special
alloys and designs that can withstand the very high temperature gas. The exhaust gases then exit to exhaust
system through the diffuser. The gas temperature leaving the Turbine is in the range of 500 to 550oc.

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GT Auxiliary Equipment
1. Air Intake System

Air Intake System provides clean air into the compressor. During continuous operation the impurities and
dust in the air deposits on the compressor blades. This reduces the efficiency and output of the plant. The
Air Filter in the Air Intake system prevents this. A blade cleaning system comprising of a high pressure
pump provides on line cleaning facility for the compressor blades. The flow of the large amount of air into
the compressor creates high noise levels. A Silencer in the intake duct reduces the noise to acceptable levels.

2. Exhaust System

Exhaust system discharges the hot gases to a level which is safe for the people and the environment. The
exhaust gas that leaves the turbine is around. This includes an outlet stack high enough for the safe discharge
of the gases. Silencer in the outlet stack reduces the noise to acceptable levels. In Combined Cycle power
plants the exhaust system has a ‘diverter damper’ to change the flow of gases to the Heat Recovery Boilers
instead of the outlet stack.

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3. Starting System

Starting system provides the initial momentum for the Gas Turbine to reach the operating speed. During
starting the speed has to reach at least 60 % for the turbine to work on its own inertia. The simple method is
to have a starter motor with a torque converter to bring the heavy mass of the turbine to the required speed.
For large turbines this means a big capacity motor. The other method is to use the generator itself as the
starter motor with suitable electrics. In situations where there is no other start up power available, like a ship
or an off-shore platform or a remote location, a small diesel or gas engine is used.

4. Fuel System

The Fuel system prepares a clean fuel for burning in the combustor. Gas Turbines normally burn Natural
gas but can also fire diesel or distillate fuels. Many Gas Turbines have dual firing capabilities. A burner
system and ignition system with the necessary safety interlocks are the most important items. A control
valve regulates the amount of fuel burned . A filter prevents entry of any particles that may clog the
burners. For liquid fuels high pressure pumps pump fuel to the pressure required for fine atomization of the
fuel for burning.

5. Lubrication and Lubricating System

The lubrication oil for gas turbine is subjected to a wide range of harsh conditions. Such as extreme heat,
high contamination, inadvertent mixing with different substances and more. These effects can degrade the
oil base stock and deplete any additives, causing irreversible molecular changes and hence changes in the
lubrication oils. Most gas turbine trains use relatively low viscosity oil (compared to that used by gear units
and reciprocating machines), for example, ISO viscosity grade (VG) 46.

A lubrication oil with optimum viscosity reduces the power wastage for operation, because frictional power
involved in bearings and other lubricated parts would be reduced. The usual expectations is relatively low
make up oil for the gas turbine lubrication oil. (5 to 10% to add per year). This low makeup requirement is
a factor that encourages, high quality, long life lubricant applications in a gas turbine. Usually the oil in a
gas turbine train, if selected properly and maintained correctly, does not need to be drained and replaced and
thus could last for a relatively long time. It is hard to state an exact time, but it could last a few years. The
gas turbine oils, should be well maintained (such as avoiding possible contamination by water and another
fluids using good seals and so on) to extend their life and simultaneously provide the maximum performance.

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Generally, for gas turbines operating at high temperatures, oxidation of lubrication oil could be an important
issue. High temperature directly effects the oxidation, heat also reduces the oil life. The oxidation rate is
usually doubled for every 10-degree Celsius increase in the oil temperature. Lubrication oils can also fail
because of contamination. A good solution is to use correct sealing system to eliminate the potential for gas
leakage to the oil. The key to an excellent lubrication oil is to retain the desired properties. Essentially the
Lubrication oil should have satisfactory level of oxidation and good thermal stability.

AJ NOTES 48
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CHAPTER-10
Steam Boilers
A boiler is a closed pressure vessel in which water is heated to generate steam. A marine auxiliary boiler is
designed to suit the marine environment. Correct functioning of boiler and uninterrupted steam supply is
critical for running main engine, generators and other auxiliary machinery.

Steam supplied by the auxiliary boiler is used for heating fuel systems of main engine and auxiliary engine,
fuel tanks and purification systems. It also supplies steam for domestic hot water systems and air
conditioning of accommodation areas.

As a watchkeeping engineer, you should be able to operate the boiler, monitor the parameters and rectify
faults. From the examination point of view classification of boilers, their construction, feed water system,
combustion system, maintenance carried out in boiler burners, and waste heat recovery
system require more attention.

Use of Steam on Motor vessel

➢ Heating duties: ME Fuel oil heater, Purifier heater, Oil tank heating, Air conditioning & heating
plant, Purifier/Calorifier, Galley supply; sea-chests, tracer lines for pipeline heating etc.
➢ Run Turbine Generators
➢ Run Cargo pump turbines in Tankers
➢ Drive steam driven deck machinery like winches etc.
➢ Operate bilge, stripping and other steam driven pumps
➢ Drive boiler feed pump turbines
➢ Evaporator/Fresh water generator heating media
➢ Tank washing in tanker ships and general cleaning
➢ For boiler Soot blowing and for the steam atomised burners
➢ Firefighting as used in steam smothering system
➢ Used as pre heater in J.C.W and heating Lube oil tanks
➢ Use in incinerator, slop tank and cargo tank heating.

Principle of Steam Generation and Heat Transfer in Boilers

Principle of heat transfer in boilers
A boiler is a closed pressure vessel in which a fluid is heated for use external to itself by the direct
application of heat resulting from the combustion of fuel or by the use of electricity.

In a fuel fired boiler, chemical energy in the fuel is converted into heat in the furnace and the function of the
boiler is to transfer this heat to the water in the most efficient manner. Once a boiler is designed to absorb
the maximum amount of heat released in the process of combustion. This heat is transmitted to the water in
the boiler by radiation, conduction and convection.

"Radiant" heat is heat radiated from a hot medium, i.e. the flame, to a cold body, i.e. the boiler tube, and it
depends on the difference in absolute temperature to the fourth power and the colour of the body which
receives heat.

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"Conduction" heat is heat which passes from the hot medium, i.e. the boiler gas, to cold body, i.e. the tube
by physical contact. The heat then passes from molecule to molecule of the metal with no displacement of
molecules and it depends on the temperature difference across the tube thickness and
the tube material.

"Convection" heat is heat transmitted from the hot medium, i.e. the boiler gas, to the cold body, i.e. the
boiler tube, by movement of the hot medium and it depends on the heat transfer coefficient and the
temperature difference.

In the boiler furnace, the radiant heat waves are transmitted from the hot flame and gases, to the boiler
heating surfaces such as the plates and tubes. On striking these surfaces, most of the radiant heat is absorbed
and passed by conduction to the water inside the tube. Convection current in the water
itself complete the transfer of the heat from the burning fuel to the water and steam. Hence all three forms
of heat transmission occur simultaneously. The amount and arrangement of heating surfaces determine the
size, shape and form of the boiler. The gases can be made to flow through flues or tubes
surrounded by water, hence the name fire-tube boiler, or they can be arranged to flow over the tubes with
water circulating through them, hence the name water-tube boiler.

Principle of Steam Generation in boilers

To remove heat from the boiler surfaces, it is necessary that adequate and positive water and steam
circulation be provided (in a predetermined direction) throughout the boiler circuits. The flow of water,
steam, or other fluid within the boiler is called circulation.

When heated, water decreases in density and tends to rise to the top of the vessel; conversely, cooler water
tends to drop to the bottom. When water is heated to the boiling point, small steam bubbles form on the
heated surface. These bubbles cling to the metal (because of surface tension) until they become large enough
to overcome the tension or until they are swept away by water circulation.

Steam is much lighter than water and rises rapidly. At the surface the steam bubbles burst, releasing the
steam. The movement of steam through the water creates turbulence and circulation. Water in a large
container, such as a fire-tube boiler, has a relatively sluggish movement until circulation is established.
Staggering of the tubes and proper arrangement of gas flowing through the tubes, - cause greater water
turbulence and circulation. Circulation in a water-tube boiler is fast, beginning as soon as the heat is sufficient
to create steam in the tubes, because the steam bubbles cause turbulence and agitation within the confines of
the tubes. The action of steam and water rising in a hot tube is sufficient to cause water to flow down in
another tube that is subjected to less heat.

Proper circulation is a necessity. The rate of steam release is directly related to the circulation rate of the
water. Sluggish or stagnant circulation permits large bubbles to form, resulting in blistered or burned-out
tubes. The point of entry of the feed water marks the end point as well as the beginning of boiler water
circulation. The relatively cool water must return to the boiler at a point that will not interfere with natural
circulation.

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Type of Boilers
Main Boiler
Propulsion of the vessel. These are high pressure Water Tube Boilers going up to pressures beyond 100 bars
and temperatures of 513-degree C.

Auxiliary Boiler
Aids the propulsion in some way; e.g., heating of heavy fuel oil using a steam heater, necessary for
propulsion would qualify the supplying boiler to be referred to as an auxiliary boiler.

Donkey Boiler
A boiler which is used only for the "hotel" needs of the ship; e.g., supplying hot water to the galley.

Tank Boiler
A boiler with large water carrying capacity where the shell is being used as the pressure vessel. Most low-
pressure auxiliary boilers will come into this category.

Vertical Boiler
Any boiler where the shell is upright and the furnace is usually contained within the shell at the lower half.

Horizontal Boiler
This is also referred to as cylindrical boiler; here, the boiler cylindrical shell is lying across its length parallel
to the structure of the ship or the ground level.

Exhaust Gas Boiler

Boiler operated by hot gas from engine or other exhaust gas sources.

Package Boiler
Fully automatic, low capacity boilers packaged inside a box type casing, capable of quick steam production
and flexible in being positioned anywhere; could be coil type or firetube type.
Boilers are classified depending upon the flow of flue gases. They are:
• Water tube boilers
• Fire tube boilers

Water tube Boilers

Water tube boiler consists of a series of tubes through which water flows. Hot flue gases pass over the tubes.
The heat from the flue gas is transferred to Water tube boilers are classified according to their operating
pressures:
• Low pressure boilers (0 to 7 bar)
• Medium pressure (7 to 18 bar)
• High pressure (18 to 64 bar)

Fire tube boilers

In a fire tube boiler, the flue gases flow through the tubes and water flows over the tubes. They are also
called the smoke tube boilers or scotch boilers.
In a fire tube boiler, flue gas is produced by combustion of fuel. Flue gas flows through fire tubes, which are
surrounded by water. The heat from the flue gas is transferred to water and steam is generated. Fire tube
boilers are low pressure boilers ranging up to 7 bar.

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Cylindrical Scotch Boiler

The Scotch Boiler design is more than 200 years old and found themselves on ships during the 19th century.
Now that the days of steamships are over, the basic design continues to be used on board as auxiliary boilers
and also on land-based use, with 2 variations, Wet-back and Dry-back type designs.

The smoke tube boiler is robust and can be used with a wider tolerance of not-so-good quality feed water.
They are now of welded construction. In fire tube boilers, the flue gases from the combustion chamber pass
through the tubes to the uptake. The water surrounding the tubes are heated for steam generation. The main
components of a fire tube boiler are shell, end plates, furnace, combustion chamber, tubes and stays.

Shell is the outer plating of the boiler. Depending on the availability of space the shell may be arranged
vertically or horizontally. Furnace is an enclosed space provided for fuel combustion. Pressure acts on the
outside circumference and full length of the furnace.

Stiffening plates or corrugations are used to provide additional strength, higher endurance, and longitudinal
flexibility. They prevent furnace collapse and increase heat transfer area. Adjacent to the furnace is the
combustion chamber. The combustion of fuel starts in the furnace and is completed in the combustion
chamber.

Tube plates are fitted at both ends of the tubes and are exposed to the boiler pressure. They hold the tubes in
position. Fire or smoke tubes carry flue gases from combustion chamber to boiler uptake. They support the
boiler front tube plate and combustion chamber front plate. Steam space stay tubes provide support to the
front and back plating of the boiler.

The front and back plates is made of individual steel plates with welded cross seams. Combustion chamber
stays provide support front and back plating of the combustion chamber. The front and back plates are made
of individual steel plates with welded cross seams. Refractory protect the boiler shell from overheating and
distortion.

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The detail of a Cylindrical scotch boiler, both wet-back and Dry-back type is shown

Cochran Vertical Boiler

Cochran vertical boilers became popular on board from the
time the diesel ships became a common sight. The large diesel
engines had sufficient waste heat to produce steam for
auxiliary purposes and in its composite form, became a
standard on all cargo ships. They took lesser floor space and
could accommodate exhaust gas recovery within the compact
design.

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Cochran Spheroid Boiler
Cochran boilers became popular on board from the time the diesel ships became a common sight. The large
diesel engines had sufficient waste heat to produce steam for auxiliary purposes and in its composite form,
became a standard on all cargo ships. They had, however one problem: the neck of the furnace; this area was
susceptible to failures because of heat stress that accumulated in a narrow neck area, surrounded by water
that did not flow very well to take away the heat concentration. In the Cochran spheroid boiler, a Japanese
design, it was overcome; here, the spheroid was surrounded by water on all sides, and the streamline design
allowed good flow velocity around the furnace to reduce temperature stresses and improve heat transfer.

Sunrod oil fired boilers

Many of the modern cargo ships and tankers utilize the Sunrod boilers due to their water-cooled furnace
designs (with generating tubes) and element-like studded water tubes with the ability to extract heat from
relatively lower temperature flue at the uptake. This boiler utilizes a good circulation using a bottom header
and riser and down comer tubes; this also keeps the furnace area temperature well controlled.

Advantages of water tube boilers over smoke tube boilers can be summarised as under:

• Efficiency over 85% hence reduced fuel consumption;

• High pressures and temperature of steam production;
• Capable of very high output (high evaporative rate);
• Compact and light weight;
• Steam can be raised very quickly from cold condition;
• Wider safety margin in the event of explosion (small amount of water)

AJ NOTES 54
 MEO CLASS 4 -MOTOR
The most commonly encountered types of water tube boiler on board are Foster Wheeler, Babcock and
Wilcox, combustion Engineering, Kawasaki and Aalborg.

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Water Tube Boiler
The basic design of a typical water tube boiler consists of two drums, the larger steam drum being placed
above a smaller water drum, with a water-cooled furnace placed to one side in a manner similar to that of
the two drum, bent tube boilers. The furnace has water walls consisting of close-pitched 50 mm diameter
tubes at roof, side, and rear. The lower headers for these water walls are of rectangular section, and are
supplied with water from the water drum by means of underfloor tubes. External down comers, 130 mm in
diameter, supply the water drum. The gases leaving the furnace pass over eight rows of 50 mm diameter
screen tubes before reaching a multi-loop type superheater placed in the lower part of the uptake. This
superheater consists of mild steel elements, expanded and bell mouthed into the headers. Up to a temperature
of above this temperature, alloy steel tubes welded to alloy steel headers are used. These superheater
elements are suspended from beams cast from heat-resistant steel, and supported at their inboard ends by
water cooled support tubes.

The gas flow is directed to the bottom of the superheater by baffle plates. The side of the baffle plate facing
the furnace is lined with the refractory. After leaving the superheater the gases enter the economiser section
so heating the incoming feed water. Refractory material is used on the furnace floor and front burner wall.
It is also used behind the water walls, etc.

The temperature of the superheated steam is controlled by an air-cooled attemperator. The steam from the
primary superheater coils flows through the attemperator to the secondary superheater coils.

The air attemperator is located in the forced draft air supply ducting to the boiler and the air for the
combustion is used as the cooling medium. Air bypass and shut off dampers are provided and linked together
so that by varying the settings the air flow across the attemperator surface is regulated to attain the desired
superheated steam temperature.

After leaving the attemperator, the heated combustion air passes through the air registers into the furnace
where combustion takes place. Internal access to tubes etc. is obtained by means of manholes in steam and
water drums, and by handholes in the water wall headers. The drums are of all-welded construction; the
headers are solid forged, with welded ends. All the tubes are solid drawn.

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D-type Boilers
D-type boilers are built to produce steam up to 60 bar pressure and temperature up to 510 C with evaporation
rate up to 52,000 kg/hour.

The function of various components in this boiler is explained below:

1. Water Drum: Main function of the 'Water Drum' is to distribute the water entering it from the down
comers, to the screen and generating tubes and in the same cases to the water wall headers. It also provides
a space for the accumulation of suspended solids that may be precipitated from the boiler water. The blow
down connection enables to remove these as required.

2. Steam Drum: Provide a reservoir for the water and a space for the separation and collection of steam. In
natural circulation boilers the motive power to provide a positive circulation is achieved by the difference in
density of water at different temperatures. Steam drum receives the incoming feed water and provides for
distribution to water drum and headers through down corners.

3. Headers: These perform a similar duty to that of the drums, but are of smaller cross-sections, cylindrical
or rectangular. Access for expanding the tubes into the headers is arranged by having numerous access plugs
or doors in the headers opposite to the tube holes. Headers are constructed and tested in similar way as drums.

4. Tubes: These provide almost all the heating surface in the boiler and are manufactured to suit the
requirements. Size, material and attachment to headers and drums depend upon the location, temperatures
the tubes may be subjected to during operation and the fluid (water or steam) within the tube. The small bore
tubes demand pure feed condition as the thin metal thickness gives little allowance for corrosion, and care
must be taken to reduce this to a minimum on both, gas and water sides of the boiler.

Drum Type Water Tube Boiler

A typical water tube boiler for tanker ship is included here.
These are replica of their larger high-pressure counterparts,
but operates at much lower pressure ranges, typically
limited to 20 bars. On tankers, with a large steam demand
for running cargo pump turbines, the steam demand could
be very high and unless there are boilers that can raise steam
faster and at a reasonably higher pressure and temperature,
the cargo load cannot be carried.

Many of these boilers use roof-fired steam atomized

burners with sophisticated control systems for maintaining
the steam temperatures in meeting the high demands of the
cargo turbines. The modern ones are constructed with gas-
tight membrane walls to make those efficient, while
demanding utmost care in feeding it with quality feed-water
which is oxygen-free.

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CHAPTER-11
Boiler Mountings
The boiler is fitted with essential mountings on the shell for safe operation. The list of mountings is given
below:

• Safety valves
• Water level indicators
• Water level controller
• Water level alarms & cut-out assembly
• Remote water level transmitter
• Main steam outlet valve
• Pressure gauge & Pressure switches
• Feed water valves
• Burner assembly
• Air vent
• Water sampling valve
• Manholes, Mudholes & peepholes
• Bottom blowdown valve
• Defoaming (Scum) valve
• Furnace drain valve
• Soot blowers
• Steam stop valve
• Feed check valves
• Water level gauges
• Air purge valve
• Pressure gauge valve
• Scum blowdown valve

The air purge valve is mounted on the steam drum and is used for purging the air during cold start. The
pressure gauge valve facilitates replacement of pressure gauge during operation.

The scum blowdown valve is mounted on the steam drum and bottom blowdown valve is mounted on the
water drum. The outlet of the valves are connected to the same pipe which in turn is connected to the ship
side blowdown valves.

The scum blowdown valve is used for removing the lighter contaminants like oil which floats on the top of
water. The bottom blowdown valve is used for removing the heavier impurities which tend to settle down in
the water drum.

Cochran Vertical Boiler Mountings

1. Pressure Gauge and Cock - shows the steam pressure, normally has 2 red lines marked on the dial.
Lower line shows normal working steam pressure, the upper, the maximum permissible pressure of the
boiler. A 3-way cock on the gauge and another cock on the boiler connected with a syphon pipe is a standard
arrangement.
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2. Water Level Gauges - are situated at either side the smoke box, complete with steam, water and drain
cocks.

3. Smoke box - has hinged, gas-tight doors which are opened for cleaning.

4. Stop valve- is the steam outlet to the process. normally fitted at the highest point of the boiler, and of an
ordinary screw-down type.

5. Blowdown valve- enables feed water sediment to be discharged

6. Scum valve - enables contaminants from the water surface to be removed.

7. Feed Check Valve - one screw down isolating and another non-return anti-suction valve is fitted either
in one common or separate valve housings.

8. Safety Valve - lift at a pressure above the maximum working pressure and is pre-set and locked to prevent
unauthorised interference. It is basically a spring-loaded valve and ensures boiler safety by releasing steam
to atmosphere by lifting off whenever there is a case of abnormal rise in boiler pressure.

9. Salinometer Cock - It is used to draw off a sample of water from the boiler which is then tested for its
Quality.

10. Air Cock - This is provided for venting purposes and fitted on the highest point at the shell to get rid of
the trapped air either in service or when filling the boiler. Care to vent is important, to avoid corrosion in the
zone where air and water lie in contact. An open-air cock also avoids vacuum condition when boiler is blown
down.

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Safety valve
The function of a safety valve is to prevent excessive pressure from building up in a steam boiler, thus
guarding the boiler against possible explosion. The safety v/v is set at a pressure not exceeding 3% of the
approved boiler working pressure. When the boiler pressure exceeds the set value, the excess steam is
released through a waste steam pipe. The set pressure of a safety valve is adjusted by varying the spring
tension.

The valve lift is designed such that sufficient amount of steam is released to reduce the excess pressure. The
valve disc has a lip on the periphery to provide additional lift. The additional lift counteracts the increase in
spring load due to compression. Depending on the lift, the safety valves are classified as high lift and
improved high lift valves.

The pressure drop after the release of excess pressure is called blowdown. The lifted safety valve should
reseat promptly to control the loss of usable steam. A blowdown ring is screwed on to the valve body and it
encircles the valve seat. This determines the amount of blowdown and the prompt reseating of the valve.
The vertical position of the ring can be adjusted through a plug hole, while the valve is under pressure.

Types of Safety Valves

• Ordinary lift
• High lift
• Improved high lift
• Full lift
• Full bore
• Pilot-operated
• Electro-magnetic safety valve.

Important definitions
Set Pressure: The boiler pressure at which the safety valve begins to lift.

Closing pressure: The boiler pressure at which the valve closes.

Valve lift: The axial valve disc travel from closed to the open position.

Blowdown: The difference between the opening and the closing pressures.

(Too much blowdown causes wastage of steam, whereas too little blowdown would give an unstable
condition; The recommended range: 2 - 5% of design pressure)

Description of a low lift safety valve

In a spring-loaded valve, the valve lid is subjected to boiler pressure, which tends to open it against the
compression of a heavy spring, the tension of which can be adjusted by a compression nut. When boiler
pressure exceeds spring pressure, the valve opens and waste steam escapes to atmosphere.

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The lip on the periphery of the valve disc gives additional uplift once it is raised from the valve seat by steam
pressure. This additional uplift helps to counteract the increase in spring load as the spring is compressed by
the valve lifting.

Even then, the lift of a spring-loaded valve would be small and the valve would have to be very large to
compensate the lower lift capacity. A large lift capacity would reduce the valve diameter, thus minimizing
the distortion and leakage problems of the valve. Various designs have been developed to fulfil the above
requirements.

For lower pressure auxiliary boilers, with moderate evaporation, an improved high lift type would be most
common. Auxiliary boilers capable of superheated steam supply, may require full- lift valves with
blowdown control.

The low lift valves available, are, ordinary, High Lift and Improved High Lift valves and the essential
constructional differences between these safety valves are:

• Ordinary - Winged valve, No waste steam piston

• High Lift - Winged valve, Waste steam piston, No floating ring
• Improved High Lift - Wingless valve, Waste steam piston, Floating ring

Design features of a low lift valve

➢ Lift of this type of safety valve will be 1/16 of its throat diameter.
➢ A split compression ring is fitted to fill the gap between the collar of the adjusting nut (compression
screw) and top of the valve cover bush. This prevents any alteration of the valve setting.
➢ Through slots in the cap and spindle, a cotter can be pad locked in place, to discourage
unauthorised tampering with the valve adjustment.
➢ An easing gear fitted enables the valve to be lifted manually from either a local or remote position.
➢ Adequate clearances are provided in the assembly so that the valve can open freely.
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➢ A drain from the valve chest avoids the possibility of hydrostatic loads acting on the valve and
prevents possible seizure of the valve due to corrosion.

Improved High Lift Safety Valve (For boiler pressure up to 25 bars)

This design is originated from the ordinary spring-loaded valve and have the following features in difference
to the ordinary spring-loaded valve.

1. The valve has no wings and the problem from correct maintenance of wing clearance and valve seizure is
eliminated; as a matter of fact, the shape actually helps in a guided flow of waste steam which further
improves upon the lift. Problems with uneven thermal distortion of valve lid due to the irregular shaped wing
is also removed.

2. The valve uses a waste steam piston. The piston connected to the valve spindle is acted upon by the waste
steam pressure and aids the lift of the valve. The waste steam which is actually detrimental to the lift of an
ordinary safety valve is made 1:0 assist the lift here.

3. A floating ring is used inside which the waste steam piston moves -- the loose ring reduces the risk of
seizure.

Valve Materials
Sliding surfaces such as guides and disks shall be of corrosion resistance material. Springs of corrosion
resistance metal is used.

Valve disk of G.M., Ni-alloy with a matching guide plate of G.M. would be common for moderate pressure.
For higher pressure and temperature applications, a. Ni-Copper alloy (platinum) with 54% Ni, 33% Copper
may be used for the valve lid, valve and the seat guide. Valve spindles subjected to compressive force and
torsion, stainless steel would be the most commonly found material. The body would be generally cast steel
or for low pressure, cast iron or G.M.

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Safety Valve and Relief Valve - Definition and Terms
The function of any safety valve or relief valve is to prevent an undue rise in pressure in the vessel or the
system to which it is fitted.

Relief devices are required for steam or vapour, air or liquid systems where pressure exceeding the design
pressure may be developed.

Examples are the Steam Boilers, Air Receivers, pump systems with positive displacement characteristics,
etc.

A safety valve is a pressure relief valve actuated by inlet static pressure and characterized by rapid opening
or a pop action.

A relief valve is a pressure relieving valve actuated by inlet static pressure which opens in proportion to the
increase in pressure over the opening pressure.

The terms 'safety' and 'relief' are really synonymous; the 'safety valve' appellation is generally applied to
valves protecting any vessel which could explode and endanger life and limb whereas the 'relief valve'
appellation is more appropriate to the valve protecting system containing non—expansible fluid, such as oil,
water, etc, a burst causing no violent explosion.

From the design point, all safety valves bring more valve area under the inlet static pressure as the valves
start to leak to facilitate the 'pop' action; the relief valves do not offer the increased area and so is a gradually
opening valve, the degree of opening depending on the difference of the inlet and the spring pressure plus
any back pressure present at the valve outlet.

In the American practice, there is another classification for the pressure relieving valves. A Safety Relief
Valve is a pressure relief valve characterized by rapid opening or pop action, or by opening in proportion to
the increase in pressure over the opening pressure, depending on application. These may be a valve where
the function is influenced by the back pressure fluctuation as the spring housing is vented to the discharge
side of the valve. These could also be a balanced type valve where the effect of discharge side back pressure
is minimal.

With the above definitions, it is clear that the valves fitted on the boilers are 'safety valves' but valves on the
Air Receivers or Air Compressors are not strictly belonging to any categories clearly; a question of danger
involved would signify the use of a 'safety valve' but the valves that are normally fitted are gradually opening
valves and are usually called 'relief valves' on board.

The classification (Lloyd's) regulation for Air Compressors, however, require that compressors must be fitted
with 'safety valves' so proportioned that pressure accumulation with the outlet valve closed will not exceed
10% of the maximum working pressure.

So, it may actually be convenient to refer to the valves fitted on the compressors and air receivers as 'safety
relief valves', the appellation satisfying both the 'safety' and the 'design' feature.

The other valves which should be mentioned are the pilot operated pressure relief valves where the major
relieving device is combined with and is controlled by a self—actuated auxiliary pressure relief valve.

AJ NOTES 63
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Most safety and relief valves of today are spring loaded and the design principles are virtually the same.
These valves must operate independently of human agency or automatically, opening promptly at the
approach of an undue rise in pressure and promptly closing when normal pressure is restored due to
discharge.

There are however some non-re-closing pressure relief devices such as the Rupture Disk Device. This is a
device actuated by inlet static pressure and designed to function by the bursting of a pressure containing
disk. Rupture Disk Devices are common in Air Compressor c.w. system where any intercooler tube leakage
could raise the c.w pressure very quickly requiring release of the dynamic energy of the system.

Another protective device is the 'Fusible Plug', normally found on the air receivers to protect the system
from a temperature exceeding 150oC.

Spring Loaded Relief Valve

These are commonly employed in various pump and tank systems. The valve lid is normally mitre faced
with a guide wing, loaded by a spring on top of the lid. The spring compression can be adjusted to regulate
the relief pressure.

All positive displacement pumps for lubricating oil, fuel oil and water services are fitted with such relief
valves. These effectively limit the pump discharge pressures within the design pressure of the system. They
are arranged to discharge back to the suction side of the pump or fitted on a closed circuit.

Such relief valves are also fitted on the oil side of an oil
heater and normally operate at a pressure of 3.5 bar above
the supply pump relief valve.

Relief valves fitted on crank cases open at a pressure not

greater than 0.2 bar, to protect the crankcases of pressure in
the event of an internal explosion and to prevent any in rush
of air thereafter.

The relief valves on main diesel engine cylinders are loaded

below 40% of the maximum design pressure. There are
many more examples of such relief valves which are fitted
at various points on board.

So long as the valve mating surfaces are maintained in a

wear and corrosion free state, these valves generally offer
trouble free operation.

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Classifications and Definitions
Boiler Safety Valves these can be classified into 4 basic types.

➢ Lever and weight type.

➢ Deadweight type.
➢ Direct spring-loaded type.
➢ Torsion bar type.

The first two types of valves are more or less obsolete, particularly when considered on a marine application.
The 'torsion bar type' has been developed to overcome the problems associated with using a 'spring' in a
conventional spring-loaded valve. But their use in the marine industry is by no means common and,
henceforth we shall remain only with the Spring-Loaded safety valves.

The spring-loaded valves are available in various categories:

1. Ordinary lift safety valves in which the valve member lifts automatically a distance of at least one
twenty fourth of the bore of the seating member, (or, the lift = D/24), with an overpressure not
exceeding 10% of the set pressure.
2. High lift type, with lift = D/16 — overpressure not exceeding 10% of the set pressure.
3. Improved High lift type, with lift = D/12 — overpressure not exceeding 10% of the set pressure.
4. Full lift valves with lift = D/4 — overpressure not exceeding 5% of the set pressure.
5. Pilot Operated safety valve — a safety valve, the operation of which is initiated and controlled by
the steam discharge from a pilot valve which in itself is a direct operated safety valve. Two
independent pilot device systems shall be provided for each main safety valve. The lift of the main
valve shall be achieved with an overpressure not exceeding 5% of the set pressure.

Seat diameter - The smallest diameter at which the disk touches the valve seat.

Lift - The axial travel of the disk from closed position to open position when the valve is relieving.

Throat Area - The smallest area on the pressure side of the seat diameter measured at an angle of 90 degrees
from the axis of the throat. For bottom guided valves, deductions must be made for area of vanes and/or
stem.

Start to Leak Pressure or 'Simmer' Pressure

The pressure at the valve inlet at which the relieved fluid is first detected at the downstream side of the seat
before normal relieving action takes place.

Set Pressure or Opening Pressure

The pressure measured at the valve inlet, at which there is a measurable lift, or at which discharge becomes
continuous as determined by seeing, feeling or hearing. It is actually the pressure at which the valve disk
moves in the opening direction a larger amount as compared with corresponding movements at higher or
lower pressures.

'Opening Pressure' and 'Set Pressure' are equivalent when testing valves against atmospheric back pressure
or a constant back pressure.

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Closing Pressure (Re-seat Pressure)

The pressure, measured at the valve inlet, at which the valve closes, flow is shut off and there is no
measurable lift.

Blowdown - The difference between the opening and closing pressures.

Flutter - Rapid, abnormal reciprocating variation in lift during which the disk does not contact seat.

Chatter - Rapid, abnormal reciprocating variation in lift during which the disk contacts the seat.

Procedure to Set a Safety Valve of the Improved High Lift Type

1. Consider that the valves have been assembled correctly without the top hood and the easing gear.
Check the drains and waste steam pipes and make sure that those are clear.
2. Steam pressure is raised and boiler put on light load, if required to maintain steady pressure during
setting process.
3. Screw down each compression nuts a few more turns than the previous setting.
4. Raise the boiler pressure and maintain the blow off pressure at which the safety valves are required
to be set.
5. Adjust one valve at a time. Hold the slotted spindle in position by inserting the other end of a file
into the slot which prevents possible turning of the spindle; now keep slackening the compression
nut slowly till the valve on test lifts under the set steam pressure.
6. Stop firing immediately as soon as the valve lifts. Screw down the compression nut a little and keep
tapping the spindle top softly for the valve to sit back smartly and remain seated in place. This
pressure would be slightly less than the lifting pressure.
7. Restore water level if necessary and start raising the boiler pressure back.
8. Try out again for lifting and sea if the pressures at which the valve is lifting and sitting back is correct;
if not, reset again with the same
1. procedure. The valve disc should not be turned on the seat. So, the lifting pressure should be adjusted
when the valve is blowing, or remains within 5% of the actual popping pressure, that is, staying
within the simmering range.
9. The setting is done with a bit of trial and error procedure but with some practice can be achieved
fairly quickly.
10. The difference between the lifting boiler pressure and the pressure at which the valve closes is called
the "blowdown". Too much blow—down causes wastage of steam, too less would give an unstable
con condition and it should be limited from a minimum of 1 to a maximum of 44 of the blow off
pressure. If the blowdown is not correct, it is possible that the valve is sticking somewhere, the spindle
may be slightly bent, the clearances incorrect or a weak spring is in use. If all parts are correctly
assembled, a right spring is used and all the clearances are right, the valve should not have an unusual
blowdown, the minimum blowdown (ASME code) should be not less than 2 psi (14 K Pa).
11. Once set, the valve adjusted, should be gagged (by means of a cross—bar clamp, bearing puller, etc)
and the other valve should now be set and adjusted with the same procedure as the 1st one. The gag
should only be finger tight on the spindle and should never be fitted when the boiler is cold to avoid
any chance of the spindle bending due to thermal expansion as the temperature rises.
12. The gag from the 1st valve is now removed.

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 MEO CLASS 4 -MOTOR
13. Distance from the bottom of the compression nut to the top of the safety valve cover bushes is
measured by a calliper and a split ring is made and fitted in that space.
14. Next comes the hood which is locked to the spindle with a cotter key the easing gear is now fitted in
place.
15. Safety valves are now manually lifted by means of the easing gear to ensure its correct operation.
16. One end of the hood cotter key is then locked by a padlock.
17. For safety valve setting, the surveyor brings along his own pressure gauge this helps in checking
whether the boiler attached pressure gauge is defective or not.
18. During the s/v setting under steam, the surveyor also checks the operation of the gauge—glass by
blowing through to his satisfaction.

Main Steam Stop Valve

The main stop valve fitted to an auxiliary boiler shell is normally a
right-angled cast-steel globe valve with a pressed-in pinned gunmetal
seat. The top of the valve seat is ground to match a plug-type valve
disc.

The screwed spindle is attached to the valve by a nut and collar,

working in an external bridge on the chest cover. In the return type
valve shown, the valve disc does not move up or down on stem and
closes with a right-hand or clock-wise motion when facing the end of
the stem. Indication at a glance as to their open or close position
should also be arranged. The stem line to which a stop valve
discharges must be adequately drained.

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Feed Water Valve
The feed check valve is a gunmetal, right angle non return globe valve, the chest spigotted into the boiler
end plate. Some boilers have a combined shut off and feed valve in the same valve chest. The shut off valve,
a screw lift valve is between the feed valve and the boiler. The boiler pressure is exerted on the screw lift
valve.

The screw down non return feed check valve shown in the graphic has a spindle extending downwards. The
valve can be opened or closed from the platform. The valve and spindle form a dashpot and cushions the
action. The valve has a spiral groove in its bore which allows it to rotate slowly while working. This
eliminates uneven wear and keeps it free for operation.

Feed check valve

The basic duty of the feed valve is to shut off the flow of water
to the boiler when necessary but there must also be an
arrangement to prevent reversal of flow through the feed line
from the boiler towards the pump side which may cause serious
damage to the line. So, there are two types of designs available
one is a stop valve which includes a device for preventing a
reversal of flow even when the valve is open and another
comprises two valves, one shut-off and one check valve, all
housed in one single chest.

In the Combined stop and Check valve, a dash pot arrangement is provided. When the valve is opened, the
valve head, not being connected to the spindle, is lifted from its seat by the water pressure at the inlet and is
free to re-seat itself independently in the event of a reversal of flow. It is very important that the contact of
the valve and seat is fluid tight and very accurate machine work and fitted with the spindle vertical so that
there will be less chances of misalignment. These could be either angle-type or straight-type valve. With two
independent valves in one chest, care should be taken when overhauling the valves to see that the attachment
of the shut-off valve lid to its spindle is good since if the v/v becomes detached it will stop any feed entering
the boiler.

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Water Level Gauge
Water level gauges are mounted on the steam drum to indicate the water level. It consists of two-gun metal
bodies which holds the glass tube. The ends are sealed with tapered sealing rings and tightening nuts.

Isolating cocks are fitted to the steam and water side. The gauge glass is connected to the boiler by cocks
and pipes. A drain cock is fitted at the bottom to drain the gauge glass.

The gauge is directly fitted to the boiler shell. It can be fitted to an external pipe or to a hollow column whose
ends are connected to the boiler shell through pipes and isolating cocks.

Glass tubes are fitted in low pressure boilers. A rectangular section box with thick plate glass at the front
and back is fitted in high pressure boilers.

The lower end of the gauge glass has a ball valve. In case the gauge glass fractures this ball shuts off the
water. When high pressure boiling water leaks, due to reduction in pressure, it will flash off into large
volumes of steam and may injure the personnel. The steam leaking from the top will not increase in volume.
However, in some gauge glasses restricting orifices are fitted in the steam side to reduce the quantity of
steam blowing out in the event of failure.

Plate guards are fitted to prevent injury in the event of glass tube shattering. Plugs are fitted in the gunmetal
bodies to facilitate renewal of glass tubes.

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Type of WL gauges
There are two types of Water level gauges, they are:

➢ TUBULAR GAUGE GLASS

➢ REFLEX PLATE GAUGE GLASS

Must be fitted with high-low water level safeguards. All such equipment is to be capable of operating
audible and visible alarms and also of automatically shutting off the fuel supply to the burners when the
water level falls to a predetermined low level.

Magnetic Float Switch Type

➢ The float assembly of this detector carries a permanent magnet which is opposed by a similar
magnet in the switch assembly. This principle is employed to change over switch contacts with a
snap action under the control of the water level float.
➢ In addition to its main function of fuel shut-off, the assembly can also be designed to control water
level by controlling the feed pumps.
➢ As an improvement, a tertiary magnet is added to each switch assembly (as shown) to lock the
contacts in either position.

TUBULAR TYPE GAUGE GLASS

➢ Suitable for low pressure boilers operating below 17.5 bar.
➢ Safety features include a steel ball valve on the water-side connection to shut off the water in the
event of glass breaking and a wire-insert glass cage to prevent injury to the personnel.

REFLEX PLATE TYPE GAUGE GLASS

➢ Suitable for boilers of design pressure below 34 bar.
➢ Makes use of the refraction of light so that when illuminated, the series of ribs at the back of the
glass plate cause the light rays to be reflected back from the steam space and absorbed in the water
space. This gives a bright silvery appearance to the steam space while the water space appears dark.
The strong contrast between the two enables the engineer to see clearly the position of water level.
➢ To prevent etching of the glass plate by hot steam, a sheet of mica is to be placed between
steam/water space and the glass. Due to the ribs on this glass, the reflex type can not make use of
this form of protection, and therefore is not suitable for higher pressures.

Why do you blow through the gauge glass?

The water level gauge is blown down periodically to clear the passages and ensure that the gauge shows
the correct level. It is difficult to see whether the steam or air is blowing through the drain. However, a
strong blow will indicate that passages are clear.

Blowing-through procedure

• Ensure proper Personal Protection Equipment is used while blowing through gauge glasses

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• Close the steam and water side cocks and open the drain cock. Contents of the glass gets emptied.
If water or steam continues to drain, then
• steam/water cock might be leaking.
• Blow through the steam side by opening the upper steam cock for 5 seconds and close it.
• Blow-through the water side by opening the lower water cock for 5 seconds and then close.
• Close the drain valve.
• Open the water cock and let water rise up to fill up the gauge. Check that drain cock is holding.
• Open the steam cock and the steam pressure will bring the correct level of water in the gauge,
similar to what you have inside the boiler drum.
Note:
• If automatic steel ball shut-off valves are fitted, the above procedure must be followed by turning
the upper and lower valves only through 45° to the left, to avoid the actuation of the ball valves.
• While blowing-through the gauge glasses, always remember that there is a chance for the glass to
break due to thermal stresses. You should keep away from the assembly throughout the operation
and make use of remote handles if fitted to the valves.
• While the boiler is in operation, if one of the level gauge glasses shows normal level and the other
shows an abnormally lower level, then the gauge glass which is showing a lower level must
immediately be blown-through and the correct condition ascertained.

Reasons for a false water level indication by a gauge glass:

• Choked valves and passages on the steam and/or water side by sediment, scale, packing or use of a
round glass which is too long.
• Leaky drain valve or excessive steam and/or water leakages from the gauge assembly.
• Foaming condition inside the boiler.
• Sudden changes in steam demand.

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High-Low Level Alarm and Burner Cut-off Systems

The float chamber is prone to get choked on scale, sludge etc., if no blowing-through of this assembly is
carried out regularly. Its operation also must be checked at least once a week.

Remote reading water level indicators

Difficulty is often experienced in observing the water level from a direct reading water level indicator and it
is usually considered necessary to provide an additional means of indicating the water level at some
convenient place for operators.

The Igema distance boiler water level indicator consists basically of a U-tube, the two legs connected to
the steam drum as shown in fig. Red indicating fluid; which is insoluble in water, fills the lower end and
remains there since its density is greater than that of water.

Above this fluid the two legs of the U-tube are filled with water one being kept filled to constant head by
means of steam condensing in the unlagged condenser. The level in the other leg corresponds to that in the
boiler drum. Thus, the heads supporting the indicating fluid vary. As the water level in the drum rises, it
tends to balance the constant head and the indicating fluid rises in the glass. The opposite happens when the
drum water level falls, the level of the indicating fluid in the glass also falls.

The sharp contrast between the red indicating fluid and the water enables the operator to see the indicated
water level at a glance. A completely empty or full glass is immediately obvious.

Water level control and safety cut-outs

Operation

A primary permanent magnet ‘A’ attached to the float rod sides vertically inside a non-magnetic SS centre
tube and transmits the movement of the float to a secondary magnet ‘B’ in each switch unit. There are two
pairs of contacts which are operated with a snap action and held by repulsion between the secondary magnet
‘B’ and the secondary magnet ‘B’ and the tertiary magnet ‘C’ of the switch unit assembly.

Used in boilers for:

• Feed pump operation

• High level alarm
• Low level alarm
• Burner cut-out

Remote Water Level Indicator

A modern remote reading water level instrument, as
illustrated, is similar to the Igema gauge discussed earlier. In this arrangement, the two legs of the U-tube
are connected to each side of a diaphragm actuator as shown. The flexing of the diaphragm is converted into
a pneumatic signal by the actuator.

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 MEO CLASS 4 -MOTOR
This pressure signal of between 0.2 to 0.1 bar is fed into a spring-loaded brass bellows.

Actions for abnormal water level indication

Drum level in a boiler indicates the level of water in the drum available for steam generation. Low-level trips
in a boiler must always be responded to quickly and correctly. Maintaining a high drum level has its own
problems like carryover of salt to superheaters etc., but low drum level operation has much more serious
effect on the boiler tubes. Whenever this happens, the operator is warned by alarm to take corrective action.
If this is not responded to and the drum level goes further down to a dangerously low level, the boiler trips
on auto to protect the boiler.

Specific causes
One feed pump trips, Mal-operation of feed control auto, Mal-operation of feed pump scoop, Mal-operation
of feed control / regulating valve, Sudden reduction in load, Sudden tripping of one or more mills, Tube
failure in water wall with large opening, Mal-operation of emergency drain valve, Maloperation of low point
drain.

Plant response
• Low drum level alarm
• Very low drum level trip

Immediate boiler desk operator action

• Start reserve feed pump if needed
• Change to manual feed water control if required
• Never by-pass the very low drum level trip
• Trip the unit if the visible level goes out even if auto did not act

Immediate local operator action

• Check the tripped pump, rectify cause and inform boiler desk operator that it is ready for restart
• Check for possible tube leak in furnace first and other areas if needed
• Check drum drain and low point drain for possible opening
• Check the feed water auto controller in local and inform condition, also arrange for rectification
• Check feed controller for any link failure.

Combustion and Control

Boiler pressure is maintained constant under varying load demands. This can only be achieved by controlling
fuel quantity burned within the combustion space. That will require controlling the fuel/air getting into the
combustion process; obviously that requires automatic control system that reads the pressure and adjusts the
combustion of fuel and air. The other issue is maintaining a constant water level while the boiler is operating.
That also needs information of WL monitoring and adjustment of feed valves. All these are part of the Boiler
Control system.

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Combustion Process
In boiler furnace, chemical energy in the fuel is converted into heat by the process of combustion.

The forced draft fan supplies the primary and secondary air required for atomisation and combustion. The
primary flame heats the heavier constituents of the fuel to their ignition temperature. The larger oil droplets
are heated in their passage through the primary flame zone, vapourised and burnt.

The swirl vanes in the air register create flow patterns in the secondary air stream. This provides heat to the
surrounding furnace for the generation of steam. Complete combustion requires continuous vaporization of
the fuel. The process takes place in four stages namely, heating, customization, hollow cone and suspended
flame.

• Heating- Heating of oil is carried out in steam or electric fuel oil heater. Heating reduces its viscosity
and makes it easier to pump and atomise.
• Atomisation- The heated oil passes through the burners where it is sprayed as fine particles. As a
result, oil with a large surface area is produced for combustion.
• Hollow cone- The burner imparts rotational energy to the fuel so that fuel leaves the burner tip as a
hollow, rotating cone of fine oil droplets.
• Suspended flame- A stream of oil and air particles enters the combustion zone at the same rate at
which the products of combustion leave it. Therefore, actual flame front remains stationary, while
the fuel undergoes combustion.

Air Register
Explain the working principle of an air register.

An air register is the assembly of swirler vanes and vortices plates, it is placed in the boiler double casing
along with the burner, the air register supplies the right quantity of air and mixes the air and fuel oil to
facilitate efficient combustion in the boiler furnace.

The air register is fitted in the boiler casing. An air register is an assembly of vanes, air swirled plates, etc.
which performs the following functions:

• Inducts incoming combustion air to the furnace

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 MEO CLASS 4 -MOTOR
• Divides combustion air into primary and secondary air streams
• Directs and promotes efficient mixing of air and fuel oil to facilitate efficient combustion
• Regulates the amount of air supply

Types of Burner
Burners are classified depending on the way fuel is atomised for combustion. They are classified as:

• Pressure jet fuel oil burner

• Rotary cup fuel oil burner

Pressure jet fuel oil burner

Pressure jet fuel oil burner consists of a burner barrel, which is attached to swirl and orifice plates. The
assembly is held in place by a cap nut. The unit is clamped into a burner carrier that is attached to a boiler
casing.
The pressurised fuel oil is supplied to the burner. As the oil passes through angled holes in the swirl plate,
rotational energy is imparted. The rotating oil stream is forced through a small hole in the orifice plate. This
causes the fuel jet to break up into fine droplets. A fine hollow rotating cone of oil leaves the burner.

Rotary cup fuel oil burner

Rotary cup burner supplies rotational energy to the oil and atomises oil by breaking it into fine particles. A
hollow cone of fine oil droplets is formed at the burner tip.

A V belt connected to an electric motor drives the rotary cup shaft of the burner.

The cup is attached to the rotating shaft mounted on ball or roller bearings and rotated at 5000 rpm. Fuel oil
is supplied to inner surfaces of the cup, through the hollow end of the spindle.

Due to high rotational speed, the centrifugal force causes the fuel to spread out evenly into a thin film. The
fuel then moves along the taper to the end of cup. As it passes into the surrounding air stream, the fuel is
atomised and broken into very fine droplets.

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 MEO CLASS 4 -MOTOR
Rotary cup burner does not require high fuel supply pressure as in pressure jet burner. Hence, it can be used
with gravity type fuel oil supply system.

Auxiliary Boiler Safety

Auxiliary boiler can be operated in manual or automatic mode. In manual mode, an operator stops the boiler
when the steam pressure reaches maximum working or operating pressure and starts it when the steam
pressure falls to 10-20% below the operating pressure, based on the pressure of the boiler. For a 10 bar boiler,
generally the operator can wait until pressure falls to 8 bar before lighting up. This will be true where boiler
is used primarily for heating duty and no turbo generator is working out of the steam plant.

In automatic mode, a pressure switch senses the steam pressure. The boiler starts and stops as the steam
pressure reaches the set value. Here also, there will be a band or range of pressure within which the start and
stop function will work. For example, boiler will stop at 10.5 bar and restart when pressure falls to 8.5 bar.
If the boiler fails to fire during any auto start, an alarm is sounded so that the operator can attend to the fault.

Safety Devices
The boiler is fitted with alarms and trips to ensure safe operation and safety of the personnel operating the
boiler. Alarms warn the operator in case of any deviation in the parameters, so that the operator can identify
the fault and take corrective action. Trips in extreme conditions stop the boiler. This prevents damage and
injury to personnel.

The high-water level alarm is activated, when the water level in the boiler increases above the set value.
The low water level alarm is activated, when the water level in the boiler decreases below the set value. Low
water level trip will stop the firing of boiler if the boiler water level falls below the set limit.

The high steam pressure alarm is activated when the steam pressure increases above the set value. The low
steam pressure alarm is activated, when the steam pressure decreases below the set value.

If the forced draft fan fails it actuates the trip and boiler firing is stopped.

Low fuel oil pressure trip is actuated if fuel oil pressure decreases and the operation of the boiler is stopped.

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In case of flame failure, the boiler will be tripped to avoid fuel getting accumulated without burning in the
furnace and post purging starts. The burner assembly is secured properly in place. Otherwise, the boiler will
not start.

Forced Draft system

The boiler combustion system which includes the forced draft fans or blowers (at times along with the
induced draft fans), the burner fuel oil service system, the burners and the combustion control are imperative
to an efficient and reliable boiler plant. To obtain the best combustion with minimum of excess air, the
stoichiometric ratio of air required for combustion is the main consideration. With usual burner adjustments,
on an average about 14 cu m of air is often required per kg of fuel oil (this gives about 14% in the flue gases).
The usual installed capacity of forced-draft blowers is based upon approximately 16 cu m per kg of fuel oil
burned at the maximum boiler rating. Continuing research has been applied to develop burners to reduce the
excess air and obtain the efficiency of stoichiometric combustion.

The Boiler Fans and The Boiler Draft System

The term “draft” (also spelled as draught) has many different meanings. In the current context it is defined
as a “current of air.” Associated with this meaning is its definition as an air or flue gas pressure that is
slightly negative with respect to atmospheric pressure. When in a conduit connected to atmospheric
pressure, such negative pressure would create a current of air or flue gas. The common definition of draft
loss is the difference in draft or pressure resulting from the flow of the air or flue gas. These terms are used
in connection with pressure and flow measurements of boiler flue gas and combustion air. Boiler
combustion air and flue gas flow through a system that includes the boiler furnace, ductwork, and various
types of heat transfer surface. The driving force for this flow is an air or flue gas pressure or draft. The
combustion air originates in the atmosphere and eventually its derivative, the flue gas, is exhausted to the
atmosphere. The total draft or pressure is divided up by all those elements in the flow path that tend to
resist or obstruct the flow. The amount of the pressure differential for each of these elements is called its
draft loss.

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When air and flue gases are heated, they become lighter and tend to rise. In boilers this is known as the stack-
effect. The amount of this stack effect in each case is affected only by the temperature (and thus specific
volume) of the flue gases. Natural draft is a term used when the air flow through the boiler as a result of the
stack-effect in a chimney or stack. The stack is connected to the flue gas passage of the boiler. If the flue gas
density (primarily due to its temperature) is less than that of the outside atmosphere, the flue gases at the top
of the stack will rise, creating a suction that will induce combustion air flow through the boiler. The draft
that will be produced by a stack is a function of the height of the stack and the flue gas temperature.

Here you need to understand that a column of hot flue gases of lesser density will be displaced by the outside
colder and denser column of air.

Theoretically, the draft produced is independent of the stack diameter. In practical terms, however, the stack
diameter must be sized so that the draft produced by the stack is not appreciably used by friction from the
flow of the flue gases up the stack.

From the above it follows that some stack draft will always be present and can be used alone or in
combination with a combustion air fan or fans.

Generally, natural draft alone produces much less draft and is available for much lower draft losses than
those available with mechanical draft. The result is poorer heat transfer and lowered boiler efficiency. On
very small boilers natural draft may be used. On an economic basis, natural draft should be used as a
supplement to, rather than as a substitute for, mechanical draft. Mechanical draft is that produced by
combustion air fans. In the case of boilers, a fan or air blower that takes suction from the atmosphere and
forces combustion air through the system is called a ‘forced draft fan’. A fan at the end of the boiler flow
system path that takes its suction from the boiler flue gas stream and discharges the flue gas to the stack is
called an ‘induced draft fan’.

The static pressure and flow characteristics of fans result from the specific design of the particular fan.

Pressure-Fired Boilers
This system will be most commonly
encountered by a marine engineer for
shipboard boilers. A boiler system
that has only the ‘forced draft fan’ and
contains no induced draft fan and
whose furnace may operate under a
positive pressure over some portion
or all of the load range is called a
pressurefired boiler. In this type of
boiler, the pressure in the furnace
varies as the load is changed. Figure 1 represents the physical arrangement of such a boiler system. A key
point with such boilers is that the furnace must be airtight or flue gastight. This is necessary so that the very
hot flue gas of the furnace cannot leak to the atmosphere. A small leak under such circumstances will
deteriorate the material around it, eventually destroying the furnace walls and creating an operational hazard.
Such furnaces are made pressure-tight with a welded seal between the furnace wall steam generating tubes.
Such furnace walls are also called membrane walls.

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Balanced Draft Boilers
In many cases furnaces cannot be operated under pressure because of leakage around the fuel burning
equipment. An example of this is stoker firing of solid fuel(most common in coal fired boilers). Thus some
systems have been designed for negative furnace pressure operation to reduce furnace maintenance. It may
also be noted here that negative pressure furnaces were designed and constructed before pressure furnace
technology was developed. Such boiler systems usually rely on the use of an induced draft fan in combination
with a forced draft fan. In these cases the induced draft fan is used to reduce the furnace pressure and assure
that it is always negative with respect to atmospheric pressure. Such systems are called balanced draft
systems and have an arrangement as shown in Figure 2. In the balanced draft system, operating the furnace
under a negative pressure assures that any leakage will be relatively cool combustion air leaking into the
furnace instead of very hot combustion gases leaking out. In normal practice the furnac pressure or draft is
controlled to a very slightly negative pressure set point by regulating either or both the forced and the induced
draft fans. In this way any atmospheric air leaking into the furnace or boiler is minimized. In the balanced
draft boiler, the forced and the induced draft fans share the load of moving the combustion air and flue gases
through the system. The balance point is the pressure or draft in the furnace. This pressure level is determined

by the relative amounts of “push” and “pull” of the forced and induced drafts, respectively. The furnace draft
is slightly negative for all boiler loads.

Adding a heat recovery combustion air pre-heater to the system adds additional draft losses to both the
combustion air and the flue gas sides of the furnace but does not change the controlled furnace draft set point
(i.e. the desired furnace pressure)

Forced Draft Fans Classification and Types

Forced-draft blowers are of two types, centrifugal and axial-flow. Forced-draft blowers (sometimes
referred to as "fans") are used to develop a relatively low pressure, as contrasted with compressors. The
term "blowers" normally refers to those equipment’s which are used for a push of air from inlet to outlet
resulting in an increase of density of up to seven percent. For practical purposes, the air is considered to be
incompressible under these conditions.

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Centrifugal blowers consist of a runner or impeller having blades. The impeller is enclosed in a casing. The
blades may be radial, backward curved or forward curved. Centrifugal blowers are further classified as
single-inlet (where the air enters the impeller from one end of the casing) and double-inlet (where the air
enters at both ends of the casing).

Axial-flow blowers are usually of the multi-stage type (generally two or three stages) consisting of
alternate rows of stationary and rotating blades having an air foil shape. The casing and rotor are arranged
for single inlet and through-flow in the axial direction. The required rotative speeds are relatively high,
making -them adaptable to direct-coupled high-speed prime movers.

Volume Control and Performance

The volume flow requirements of forced-draft blowers -depend primarily on the air necessary for efficient
combustion plus a margin for leakage losses.

Allowances must be made for deviations in air inlet temperature, pressure, and relative humidity and the
composition and heating value of the fuel. In machinery spaces, the interaction of the ventilation supply
and exhaust fans must be considered, as the blower inlet pressure has a significant effect on the blower
capacity. The effect of natural draft due to the temperature of the stack gases is relatively small.

Inlet vane control is generally used with blowers driven by either single-speed or multi-speed a-c motors.
Vanes at the blower inlet are positioned in such a manner as to vary the rotational velocity of the air
entering the impeller, thus modifying the flow characteristics of the impeller to suit the air requirements of
the system. When the blower flow is controlled by means of inlet vanes, a opposed to the alternative of
throttling the discharge air with an outlet damper, the horsepower requirement of the motors are reduced.

Description of Forced Draft Fan Type

AXIAL FLOW FANS - the flow of the gases is parallel to the fan shaft.
• Tube axial
• Vane axial
• Propeller

CENTRIFUGAL FLOW FANS- the flow of gases depends upon the centrifugal action of the impeller or
rotor.
• Radial or Straight blades
• Forward curved blades
• Backward curved blades

Types of axial fan

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Types of radial fans

Types of centrifugal fans

Waste heat Boilers

Waste heat recovery is commonplace today. With engines getting bigger and more powerful, the WHR
units are getting larger and more complicated.

Maintaining them at the uptake is another challenge. The S-oxide, NOx and SOx has created new issues and
additional design of a scrubber unit on top of the WHR makes it even more complex to operate and keep
clean.

Composite Boilers
Composite boilers are waste heat recovery equipment that receive heat required for steam generation from
the main engine exhaust gases. They are also designed to receive heat by the burning of oil in boiler furnace.

Main engine exhaust enters through the inlet manifold and escapes through the exhaust uptake. A gas change
valve directs or bypasses fully or partially the exhaust gas flow of main diesel engine in to the boiler or to
the atmosphere.
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The steam generation is maintained by oil firing when exhaust gas temperature falls due to engines running
on low load or in port.

Any standard smoke tube auxiliary boiler can be modified into composite boiler by adding an additional tube
nest. The main engine exhaust gases pass through these tubes to provide heat for steam generation.

The engine exhaust gases can take two passes through the boiler so that maximum heat energy from the
exhaust can be utilised.

The changeover valve allows the boiler to be isolated from the engine exhaust if required. This will be
necessary during low load running to prevent fouling of the tube surfaces.

In alternatively fired boilers, the main engine exhaust gas pass through the boiler furnace and take the same
path of the flue gases.

This arrangement is simple but the main engine exhaust gases have to be completely bypassed before firing
the boiler. The firing should be stopped before allowing the exhaust gases.

Water tube composite boilers are used where large quantity of steam is required. The tube banks are
partitioned with gas baffles, so that exhaust gases can flow through one side.

In one arrangement, the forced circulation multi loop water tube is placed in the main engine uptake. A
separate combustion chamber is provided for burning the oil and the flue gases pass through the main engine
uptake. The combustion chamber is pressurised with its own air supply so that engine exhaust gases will not
interfere with the combustion of oil. Composite boilers have the advantage of being in operation at port and
at sea. This avoids prolonged shut down which can led to corrosion.

Exhaust Gas Economiser

The exhaust gas economiser is fitted in the main engine uptake in ships where large quantity of steam is
required. Separate oil-fired boilers are required to supply steam when main engine is not running.

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The exhaust gas heat exchanger is a forced circulation multi loop type, of all welded construction. Water is
circulated from the water drum of auxiliary boiler through the tubes by a circulating pump. The steam is
separated in the auxiliary boiler steam drum.

In ships equipped with high power engines where the exhaust mass flow rate is high, these waste heat
recovery systems provide superheated steam for driving the turbo alternators. The turbo alternators are
capable of supplying the ship's electrical power requirements at sea.

The amount of steam produced is controlled by regulating the amount of exhaust flowing through or dumping
the excess steam produced into the condenser.

If bypass arrangements are not provided, then fouling of tubes will be more as exhaust passes through the
boiler even when running on low load. This will increase the cleaning frequency and chances of soot fire.

The boiler water circulating pump should be started and water circulated through the tubes at least two hours
before starting the main engine. Dry running should be allowed only in emergency cases and every possible
precaution must be taken to prevent soot fire.

The exhaust gas boiler should be periodically soot blown to remove the accumulated dry soot when the main
engine is running. It should be water washed periodically in ports to remove the sticky soot which cannot be
removed by soot blowing.

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CHAPTER-12

characteristics evaluation of Diesel Engines

The criteria of performance:

To assess the performance of the engine the hull effect must be introduced in the system along with the
relationship between the engine and propeller.

The power delivered to the propeller is converted into useful thrust to move the ship in water at a certain
specified speed against a calculated resistance of the hull.

Therefore, the loading of the engine indicated by the fuel pump position index and exhaust gas temperature
at outlet of cylinder is related to speed of revolution of output shaft and ship's speed. Condition extraneous
of powering system of ship are the draught, trim and hull condition of the ship.

Considering clean hull, normal trim and a matched propeller, there should be a definite relationship between
the following performance parameters with engine load.

• Mean indicated pressure

• Compression pressure
• Maximum combustion pressure
• Fuel pumps index position (or load indicator position)
• Exhaust gas pressures
• Exhaust gas temperatures
• Scavenge air pressure
• Scavenge air temperature
• Turbocharger revolutions
• Exhaust gas pressure in pipe after turbocharger

The key performance parameters are expressed in a typical curve shown. Performance record should be
evaluated frequently by observing and recording the data. It will monitor a continuous record of
completeness of combustion and satisfactory cylinder condition.

Definition and Measurement of Power

Engine Power
The main performance criteria for studying the performance of an internal combustion engine are:

• Indicated Power
• Brake Power
• Specific Fuel Oil Consumption
• Mechanical Efficiency
• Thermal Efficiency

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Measurement of power developed by an internal combustion engine is vital during the service. The power
available at the output shaft is less than the power developed in the cylinders due to friction and other losses.
The graphic given below shows the factors involved.

Power Measurement
Indicated power is the power developed in the cylinder of an internal combustion engine by the burning of
the fuel. In order to determine indicated power, it is necessary to know the working conditions which exist
in the cylinder. A scaled down pressure volume diagram of the engine cycle can be obtained from an engine
indicator. As this diagram represents work, then the work done in the cylinder can be obtained.

Procedure
1. Check whether the spring fitted on the indicated instrument will meet the peak pressure (maximum
combustion pressure) to be expected
2. Stretch diagram paper firmly over the drum.
3. Before taking diagram, open indicator cock, allow two or three firing strokes, to blow out soot and
combustion residues in the cock.
4. After drawing atmospheric pressure line, hook the cord to indicator drive, open indicator cock, take
power card and shut off the cock.
5. Make sure that the instrument is not exposed to high temperature for long time. This may affect its
accuracy.
6. Remove the hook, turn the drum by hand to a place clear from the power diagram, take compression
pressure line with the fuel cut off.
7. After taking indicator cards from all the cylinders, open the instrument and clean all the parts, and
lubricate the same.
8. The indicator diagram is very important to know the combustion in the cylinder and also to adjust
the engine.
9. The diagram is taken periodically from the indicator valve equipped on he cylinder head and
combustion condition is to be confirmed.
10. The compression pressure and maximum pressure in the cylinder can be presumed from the indicator
diagram.
11. Engine indicator is the device used to take the indicator diagram, which can be considered as a
‘stethoscope’ for diesel engines.
12. Indicator diagrams give efficiency of combustion in the cylinder, condition of the running gear,
irregularities in fuel pumping and injection and a lot of things.

Precautions While Taking Indicator Cards

1. Always lubricate indicator instrument parts to prevent seizure at high temperatures.
2. Tightness of the indicator piston inside the cylinder to be checked. It should be a free sliding fit.
3. The cock to be free from accumulated carbon particles.
4. Do not apply much pressure on the stylus while taking the diagram.
5. Allow sufficient cooling time for the instrument after taking diagrams from each unit.

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Calculations
Area of the indicator diagram = a [mm2]

Average height of the diagram = a [mm2] / l [mm]

Average mean indicator pressure = a [mm2] / l [mm] x k [bar / mm]

or Pm = (a / l) x k [bar]

where k = spring scale in bar per mm

= Mean Indicated Pressure X Area of the Piston x Length of stroke

To obtain the power of this unit, it is necessary to determine the rate at which work is done,

i.e., multiply work by number of power strokes in one second.

Now, Indicated Power of Unit [ ip] = Mean Indicated Pressure [Pm] × Area of Piston [A] × Length of Stroke
[L] × Number of Power Strokes per Second

[N]

or

Indicated Power of Unit = Pm L A N

Unit of Final Result

Indicated Power = Pm L A N

= (a / l) x k [bar] x L [m] x A [m2] x N [1/s]

= [bar] x [m] x [m2] x [1/s]

= 105 N/m2 x m x m2 x 1/s

= 105 Nm/s

NOTE

• When the mean effective pressure is in N/m2 the power obtained by the above expression is in watts.
• If the mean effective pressure in kn/m2 is inserted, the result will be power in KW and this is usually
more convenient.
• The value of n, the number of power strokes/sec, depends upon the working cycle of the engine (2-
stroke or 4-stroke), its rotational speed, and whether its single or double acting engine.
• Referring to single acting engines, wherein the cycle of operations takes place only on the top side
of the piston.
• In the 4-stroke cycle, there is one power stroke in every 4 strokes, that is, one power stroke in every
two revolutions, hence, n = (rev/s)/2

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• In the 2-stroke cycle, there is one power stroke in every two strokes, that is, one power stroke in
every revolution, thus, n = rev/s.

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Power and Efficiency
Now that you have learned about indicator diagrams, you will see other ways it can be of help provided the
cycle operations are correct. Power balancing of an engine can be carried out by comparing the areas of the
diagrams from each cylinder. With respect to power, you should know the following:

Indicated Power
Put in simple terms, it is the theoretical power of an engine, calculated from the indicated mean effective
pressure.

• Indicated mean effective pressure (imep) is the average pressure in the engine
• Indicated power is measured by taking an indicator diagram from the engine cylinder

Mathematically the indicated power can be represented as:

Work done = (Force) X (Distance)

= (imep x area of the piston) X (length of the piston stroke)

= Pm x A x L

Where,

Pm = imep

A = area of the piston

L = length of the piston stroke

For N working strokes per second, the power developed by the engine is indicated power = Pm x A x L x N

Brake Power
Brake power is the measure of engine power at the engine flywheel, available to do effective work. It is less
than the indicated power by an amount equal to the power necessary to overcome the engine’s internal
friction. It can be measured by using a hydraulic dynamometer or torsion meter.

Efficiency
There are two different terms we have to understand here:

• Mechanical efficiency
• Thermal efficiency

Mechanical efficiency
Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of the power delivered by the engine, to the total power generated within
the engine. In other words, it is the ratio of the engine brake power to the indicated power and can be
mathematically represented as follows: Mechanical efficiency = BP / IP x 100%

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Thermal efficiency
Thermal efficiency is the ratio of the work done by gases in moving the piston to the thermal energy of the
fuel injected for combustion. In other words, it is the ratio of the engine output to the energy available from
the fuel used to produce this output. The output considered can be indicated as power or brake power as
follows:

Indicated thermal efficiency = (IP / fuel oil consumed per sec x calorific value of fuel) x 100%

Brake thermal efficiency = (BP / fuel oil consumed per sec x calorific value of fuel) x 100%

Assessment by Indicator Cards

Indicator diagrams indicates, simultaneously, the pressures and the relative position of the piston for a
particular engine cylinder. They are taken for every voyage, both in loaded and ballast condition. It is a
practice to take indicator cards after every major overhaul.

Purpose
• To calculate indicated power of the engine
• To determine peak pressures and compression pressures
• To evaluate the process of combustion inside the engine
• To evaluate scavenging and exhausting conditions

Types of Indicator diagrams

Typical indicator diagram for a 2-stroke engine is shown in figure below. This power card or pv diagram
can be used to measure indicated power in diesel engines. The area within the diagram represents the work
done within the cylinder in one cycle.

Pcom – Compression Pressure

Pmax – Maximum Pressure

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There are 4 types of indicator diagrams that can be taken from the engine cylinder to know the condition
and performance of the engine.

• Power card / Power indicator diagram

• Compression diagram
• Draw card / Out of phase diagram
• Light spring diagram

The area of indicator diagram is calculated by

• planimeter (Usually used on board)

• Mid Ordinate Method

Power Card
• Power card is taken with the indicator drum rotating in phase with the piston movement
• The area within this diagram represents the work done during one complete cycle to scale
• Mean Indicated Pressure (MIP) is obtained from this diagram to calculate power produced in the
cylinder

Compression Diagram
• Compression diagram is taken in similar manner to the power card but the fuel shut off in the cylinder
• The height of this curve shows maximum compression pressure
• If the compression and expansion line coincide, it indicates that indicator is correctly synchronized
with the engine
• Reduction in height of this diagram shows low compression which may be due to worn cylinder liner,
faulty piston rings, insufficient scavenge air or leaky exhaust valve

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Draw Card / Out of Phase Diagram
• Draw card is taken in a similar manner to power card with fuel pump engaged but with the indicator
drum 90 degree out of phase with the piston stroke
• This diagram illustrates more clearly the pressure changes during fuel combustion. Fuel timings or
injector faults may be detected from its shape

Light Spring Diagram

• Light spring diagram is taken similar to the power card and in phase with the engine and with a light
compression spring fitted to the indicator
• This diagram shows pressure changes during exhaust and scavenge to an enlarged scale
• It can be used to detect faults in these operations

Compression diagram

Power card

Draw card Light spring diagram

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Evaluation of engine performance by Indicator Diagrams
• To calculate indicated power, also gives peak pressure and Out of Phase Diagram
• Required for accurate determination of the compression pressure.
• To evaluate peak pressure (more accurately), compression pressure and ignition delay period.
• It shows combustion process (early or late combustion).
• To evaluate injection, fuel quality, ignition delay, combustion, loss of compression, expansion, fuel
pump timing and after burning.

Running Adjustments to Maintain performance

The exhaust gas outlet temperature for each diesel engine cylinders, be it the main engine or the auxiliary
engine, is a quick indication of power balance as well as health condition of individual power units.

From the indicator cards, the following faults can be identified

• Leaky Fuel Valve

• Improper opening or valve timings for exhaust and inlet valves
• Choked Exhaust Valves / passage, etc.

In the next available opportunity these have to be corrected and adjusted to improve the engine performance.

On board the ship, a set of pre-adjusted and tested Fuel Injection Valves and Exhaust valves are maintained
and kept as spares to take care of situations of a leaky fuel valve, burnt exhaust gas valve seat or when an
exhaust valve may be sticky and not opening correctly. Many of these situations will have to be handled very
quickly while at sea by stopping the engine momentarily and do a quick replacement. The engines cannot
and should not be operated with defective valves or injectors, which could not only create power imbalance,
but can cause fire and other accidents.

Power imbalance between units can be adjusted by fuel pump settings and adjusting cams on the camshaft,
but other than the auxiliary engines, this kind of adjustments are not recommended to be undertaken for the
main engine when the vessel is at sea.

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CHAPTER-13

2 STROKE OPERATION
Before starting
The main propulsion plant engine can be operated from any of the following locations:

➢ Bridge
➢ Engine control room
➢ Emergency control station

The propulsion plant has to be prepared before starting. The various ancillary systems are checked and the
required pumps are started well in advance. Normally, two hours’ notice is given for making the plant ready
for operation.

Air system
Ensure both the compressors are in working order and charge both air bottles to the required pressure. Drain
water from the starting air system and open the system valves. Drain water from the control air system and
ensure air pressure after reducer is normal. Check the control air drier system for proper functioning.

In case of pneumatic exhaust valves, check whether the air system valves are open and system is pressurized.
The control air for exhaust valve should be available before starting the lubricating oil pumps. This is to
prevent exhaust valves opening too much.

Lubricating oil systems

Check the oil level in lubricating oil sump tank, cylinder oil tank, turbocharger and governor. Start the
lubricating oil pumps for the engine. Start the purifier from sump to sump. Check the oil pressure and oil
flow through sight glasses for piston cooling and turbochargers. Operate the cylinder lubricators manually.

Cooling water systems

Check the level of water in main engine expansion tank. Start the jacket cooling water pump and check the
pressure. The jacket cooling water is preheated and the temperature is maintained above 50°C. Check all the
system valves to and from coolers are open. Start the main cooling seawater pump and check the pressure.

Fuel oil system

Check level and temperature of fuel in the settling and service tank and start purifier if necessary. Start the
fuel oil supply pump, circulating pump and check the pressures. Start the viscosity regulator. Open the steam
valves for heater and maintain the temperature above 130°C. The injection temperature depends on the
viscosity of the fuel being used. The viscosity of fuel at the injection should be maintained as recommended
by the engine manufacturer.

In engines where heavy fuel oil is used for manoeuvring the fuel oil is circulated and temperature is
maintained even when the engine is stopped.

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Drains
Check the air-cooled drains, scavenge air drains and turbocharger drains are closed.

Turning and blow through

Take propeller clearance from the duty officer before turning the engine. The engine is turned slowly using
the turning gear with the indicator valves open. The main bearings are lubricated hydro dynamically and
turning the engine will ensure lubricating oil is distributed properly in the bearings.

Disengage the turning gear and turn the engine with air to blow through any accumulated fuel or lubricating
oil inside the cylinders.

Turning the engine and blowing through the engine should be carried out within thirty minutes before
starting. Now, the engine is ready for starting. Inform second engineer or Chief engineer as per the Chief
engineer’s standing order.

Turning gear, properly engaging and disengaging

Bear in mind that when the turning gear is engaged, the coupled propeller turns too, hence take clearance
from Deck watch keepers as per your shipboard procedures before engaging the turning gear (danger in
surroundings).

Check carefully, that no personnel as well as components (tools devices) are situated in the danger area
(crankcase, piston underside, propeller shaft etc) When using the turning gear, the indicator valves in the
cylinder covers must be opened. In case the air spring system is not under pressure, the indicator valves may
remain closed. If possible, the lubricating oil pump should also be running. However, the oil pressure cannot
fully build up when the exhaust valves are open.

Engaging and disengaging mechanism for each engine would be different and the operating manuals should
be referred to.

Salient Points for Preparing main engine for a voyage

Warming through and getting the plant ready for voyage, including taking propeller clearance from the
bridge, manually lubricating the cylinders, cylinder blowing through, keeping the air-bottles pressed-up,
running two generators in parallel during manoeuvring etc.

A propulsion plant of any ship does not merely constitute the main engine but also associated auxiliary
machineries and thus involves preparation. Following are merely a reference guide and the procedures can
and will vary as per different ship types and machineries onboard. In any case the process outlined in
shipboard Safety Management System (SMS) would take precedence.

➢ Chief Engineers standing/daily instructions book and watch keepers handing over records checked

The standing orders of the day, any special orders of handing over watch keeper relating to the ship
operations, maintenance functions, repairs to the ship’s machinery or control equipment are directly linked
to the safety of personnel involved and to identify and eliminate potential hazards.

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➢ Start stand-by A/E and take on parallel load.
➢ Ensure that FO tanks feeding Auxiliary engines and Main Engine are checked and the fuel
temperatures are as per shipboard operating procedures.
➢ Check Main Engine jacket cooling water header tank levels, and that temperatures are maintained by
keeping the fresh water in circulation. For warming through the main engine, certain diesel plants
have the provision of running the auxiliary engine(s) fresh cooling water outlets through the main
engine, with the main-engine cooling water outlet, joining-back the entry of fresh-water to the same
auxiliary engine(s).

It is to be noted that water will expand when the jacket water temperature rises and reaches operating levels
and if the header tank is full, it will overflow. Allowance should be kept in the header tank accordingly.

➢ Check L.O levels in Maine Engine sump, in Turbochargers and cylinder oil lubricators and the
daily consumption tank
➢ Ensure boiler is on auto mode. Start boiler water circulating pumps
➢ Press up air bottles and blow off any moisture from the system (including control air bottle, if
separate)

Ensure that compressors are in auto mode

➢ Start all the associated machinery like L.O(Main, Crosshead, Camshaft, as applicable), F.O. (Supply
pump, booster pump), Cooling water/oil pumps required for ME operation
➢ Check turning gear is disengaged. Take a full round of engine room to check for any abnormalities
➢ Obtain propeller clearance from Bridge and turn the engine on turning gear. Operate cylinder
lubricators manually in advance.
➢ Check if Main Engine control system is on and the same is in auto mode. Ensure oil mist detector is
powered on.
➢ Test the controls (i.e. the telegraph) if the main engine operations are ought to be done from the
Engine room. Test and establish two-way communications with wheel house. Check for any alarms
in the main engine and associated machinery panel.
➢ Open the main air starting valve
➢ Blow through the ME to check for water ingress and try out on fuel on Ahead/Astern directions.

Starting and Reversing of 2-stroke Engines

Marine diesel engines are normally started by compressed air and once the speed is picked up, the fuel is
injected and starting air is stopped. The compression pressure is then sufficient to ignite the high pressure
atomised fuel.

Diesel engines intended for the propulsion of ship fitted with neither a controllable pitch propeller nor a
reversing gearbox are made in direct reversing form. Astern running involves carrying out the events of the
cycle in the reverse order, i.e. altering the timing of valves and fuel pumps to cause them to start the engine
in the opposite direction and then continue its operating cycle in this direction.

Reversing is normally required during manoeuvring of ship, while berthing, passing through canals, lock
gates, and anchoring etc.

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Starting the Engine
Marine diesel engines are normally started with air. Air is admitted at a pressure of about 15 to 30 bar. The
air is admitted into the cylinder by the Starting Air Valve fitted on each cylinder head, but the sequence of
air flow to the starting air valve is controlled by the Starting air distributor. The air under pressure, pushes
the piston down, and when the required speed is achieved, the fuel is admitted and firing takes place. Though
this process seems to be easy, there are many necessary safety controls, making the process slightly
complicated. Before admitting the air, the control system should make sure that the turning gear is not
engaged, make sure the starting air will start the engine in the correct and desired direction-for engines with
reversible option. Admit fuel when engine reaching the firing speed and cut off the starting air etc.

Air Start System

The Air Start Distributor normally consists of a series of pilot valves, one for each cylinder arranged radially
around a cam. Timed to the engine and driven from the camshaft, the distributor opens the main air start
valves in the correct sequence. The air start valve is located in the cylinder head. When it is opened by the
air signal from the distributor, compressed air at 30 bar flows into the cylinder, forcing the piston down.

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The Bursting Disc
The connection to each air start valve is fitted with a protection device. This can be either a flame trap or
bursting disk. The flame trap will prevent any combustion in the cylinder passing to the air start line and
causing an explosion, whereas a bursting disk will limit any pressure rise by bursting.

The valve shown is from a MAN B&W slow speed two stroke engine. The valve itself is a simple ball valve
which is turned through by pneumatic actuator. The actuator consists of a central spindle with gear teeth
machined onto it. This is rotated by two racks which are driven by pistons. Two guide rods which maintain
the alignment of the pistons and racks are bored to allow air to either side of the pistons. (only one guide rod
is shown on the diagram) When a start signal is given, the space behind the pistons is pressurised and they
move together, rotating the spindle and opening the ball valve.

At the end of the start sequence air is admitted through the second guide rod (not shown) pressurising the
space between the pistons, moving them apart and closing the valve.

The Turning Gear Interlock

The turning gear interlock is a control valve which will not allow starting air to operate the system when the
turning gear is engaged.

The Air Receiver -- Two air start receivers are normally fitted. The total capacity of the receivers must be
sufficient to start the engine 12 times alternating between ahead and astern without recharging the receivers.
In the case of a unidirectional engine, then the capacity must be sufficient for 6 starts. The air receiver will
be fitted with a relief valve to limit the pressure rise to 10% of design pressure. A pressure gauge and a drain
must also be fitted. A manhole gives access to the receiver for inspection purposes.

Reversing the Ship

Reversing the ship is possible to achieve by various means; by actually reversing the rotational direction of
the propulsion engine by selecting a set of different cylinders for firing, thereby turning the crankshaft in a
reverse direction; by installing a reduction gearbox and clutch arrangement or, by having an unidirectional

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engine connected to a controllable pitch propeller and turning the propeller blades to neutral and reverse
thrust will be another way; the electric propulsion uses a reversible motor, etc. The following subtopics will
take you through those.

Engine with Reduction Gear

Direct reversing of engine can be eliminated by fitting gearbox/clutch arrangement (or by CPP - controllable
pitch propeller), Here unidirectional engines normally four stroke are preferred with this arrangement.
Amount of air bottle volume required is also small in this case and once engine is started it need not be
stopped during manoeuvring, hence danger of engine not starting in critical/emergency position also is
eliminated.

When the engine is fitted with a clutch, and a speed reduction gear box with a reverse gear, the direction of
rotation is changed, by engaging the reversing gear after the shaft is disengaged by the use of the clutch.

Clutches
A clutch is a device to connect or separate a driving unit from the unit it drives. With two engines connected
to a gearbox a clutch enables one or both engines to be run, and facilitates reversing of the engine.

The hydraulic or fluid coupling uses oil to connect the driving section or impeller with the driven section or
runner. No wear will thus take place between these two, and the clutch operates smoothly. The runner and
impeller have pockets that face each other which are filled with oil as they rotate. The engine driven impeller
provides kinetic energy to the oil which transmits the drive to the runner. Thrust bearings must be provided
on either side of the coupling because of the axial thrust developed by this coupling.

Elastic or flexible couplings allow slight misalignment and damp out or remove torque variations from the
engine. The coupling may in addition function as a clutch or disconnecting device. Couplings may be
mechanical, electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic in operation.

A plate-type clutch consists of pressure plates and clutch plates arranged in a clutch spider. A forward and
an aft clutch assembly are provided, and an externally mounted selector valve assembly is the control device
which hydraulically engages the desired clutch. The forward clutch assembly is made up of the input shaft
and the forward clutch spider.

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The input shaft includes the forward driven gear and, at its extreme end, a hub with the steel pressure plates
of the forward clutch assembly spline connected, i.e. free to slide. Thus when the input shaft turns, the
forward driven gear and the forward clutch pressure plates will rotate. The forward clutch plates are
positioned between the pressure plates and are spline-connected to the forward clutch spider or housing. This
forward clutch spider forms part of the forward pinion assembly which surrounds but does not touch the
input shaft.

The diesel engine operates with a fixed sequence of events, which may be achieved either in four strokes or
two, a stroke being the travel of the piston between its extreme points. Each stroke is accomplished in half a
revolution of the crankshaft.

The gearing arrangement is used to reduce the medium-speed engine drive down to suitable propeller
revolutions. Where a gearbox is used with a diesel engine, reversing gears may be incorporated so that the
engine itself is not reversed.

Ships Fitted with CPP

In Ships fitted where pitch of the propeller blades is changed to achieve the propeller thrust in desired
direction. When the ship is fitted with a controllable pitch propeller, the reversing when needed is achieved
by turning the blades about its axis, there by varying the pitch, to first arrest the motion forward/ reverse and
then to make the ship move the opposite side.

A controllable-pitch propeller is made up of a boss with separate blades mounted into it. An internal
mechanism enables the blades to be moved and this changes the direction of the thrust produced to move the
ship.

2 Stroke Engine Connected to a Fixed Pitch Propeller

The large two stroke engines directly coupled to fixed pitch propeller are found to be most suitable for ocean
going vessels. Advantages of this engines have, are more endurance due to less stresses, and time between
overhaul is also more. But manoeuvring in these engines is critical operation, it is therefore necessary for
engineers to understand the system on vessel fully to overcome any issues immediately.

Modern large two stroke marine engines with fixed pitch propeller directly coupled are required to be
reversed, that is change in direction of rotation of engine is to be accomplished to move ship in ahead and
astern direction. This is done by changing the timing of the Fuel injection, starting air admission and exhaust
valve opening.

➢ In an Engine fitted with the Camshaft, this can be done in three practically proven methods-Other
than ‘CRASH STOP’ which is done only in emergency situations.
➢ Fitting the cam shaft with two different Cams—one for Ahead and the other for astern movement-
and shifting the camshaft axially to move the working cam to the other one
➢ Or Shifting Position of Rollers on the Cams
➢ Or Fitting Servomotors to achieve the relative shifting of camshaft with respect to crankshaft -
Popularly known as lost motion.

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In a modern engine with no cam shaft, the timing of injection, starting air admission and exhaust valve
opening, is controlled by the solenoid valves, operated by a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), based
on the inputs from the position of crank angle in each of the Unit.

Rotation of Engine In The Opposite Direction

Almost all the marine diesel engines are started by admission of compressed air in that cylinder which is in
the starting position with respect to the direction of rotation. The compressed air acts on top of the piston
and reduces a starting torque at the crankshaft. The shaft is set to rotate upto a minimum firing speed when
air is compressed in some other cylinder producing a temperature sufficiently high, to ignite the fuel.

To reverse, the diesel engine cycle will require re-timing. Large diesel engines have scavenge ports which
controls the scavenge timing. This remains unchanged when reversed. Engines working with constant
pressure turbocharge systems also have symmetrical exhaust valve timing and hence no change in timing is
required. Only the fuel timing to be changed since it will be the opposite flank of the cam.

With jerk-type fuel pumps (MAN B&W) the fuel cams on the camshaft must be re-positioned. This can be
done by having a separate reversing cam and moving the camshaft axially to bring it in position. The usual
method is to slide the camshaft axially bringing into use a different set of cams for operation in the reverse
direction. Alternatively, a lost-motion clutch may be used in conjunction with the ahead pump-timing cam.

Starting Air Timing (Distributor)

➢ Compressed air known as starting air at a pressure of 15 to 30 bar is used to crank the engine, to
achieve a certain minimum revolution for the fuel to be injected at correct compression pressure.
➢ To achieve this cranking, compressed air is introduced in to the cylinders as per the firing order in
the direction of rotation for the engine, which is controlled from starting air distributor timing, which
is changed to reverse direction of rotation of engine.
➢ Starting air distributor controls operation of starting valves fitted to each engine cylinder.

Fuel Injection Timing

➢ For a marine diesel engine to run, fuel is to be introduced in the cylinders in an atomized state as per
the firing sequence. Fuel pump and injectors achieve all this successfully.
➢ Hence fuel cam timings with respect to crankshaft is required to be changed to run engine on fuel at
correct timing by fuel pump in both directions.

Exhaust Valve Opening Timing

Scavenge ports and exhaust valve: Here the piston governs the opening and closing of scavenge port, but
since the exhaust valve is operated either mechanically or electronically its timing can be changed. In Loop
or Cross scavenging methods, the Piston symmetrically controls the opening and closing of the ports and
hence cannot be changed. Please note that is necessary only for the mechanically operated Exhaust valve.
When the exhaust valve is operated by hydraulics, opening timing is controlled electronically.

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Lost Motion
An engine reversing is carried out by circumferential translation of the camshaft relative to the engine
crankshaft. This circumferential movement is accomplished by the use of a servomotor, in the camshaft gear
wheel forming the camshaft drive. The servomotor consists of a pair of vanes, fitted on the camshaft, which
moves between another pair of vanes fitted within the gear wheel rim. By putting lubricating oil under
pressure between opposite pairs of vanes the camshaft is moved relative to the gear wheel and the engine
crankshaft. This relative movement changes the timing for ahead and astern cylinders. By changing the
position of cam on camshaft relative to crankshaft.

A valve controls the oil flow to the servomotor, is actuated through a pneumatically controlled valve forming
part of engine control system. The reversing angle (98-) is so chosen that the same fuel timing in relation to
TDC of the piston be obtained both in the ahead and astern direction. The distributor cam is also turns the
same time being engaged with fuel camshaft rotation with bevel gears.

To achieve the Lost Motion, a servomotor may be fitted to the camshaft drive mechanism to do this, See
Figure below. The spur wheel on the camshaft is not connected rigidly with the latter. The torque is
transmitted by the reversing servomotor which acts as a dog coupling. During normal operation the coupling
is affected mechanically. The pressure oil is conducted either in front of or behind the rotating vane according
to the desired direction of the rotation.

Servomotors achieve the relative shifting of camshaft with respect to crankshaft. These servomotors are
operated hydraulically. The oil is taken from the engine lube. Oil system (crosshead lube. oil. line) and goes
to a reversing control valve, which is operated by the telegraph. This reversing control valve directs the lube.
Oil to the servomotor chamber formed between the vanes for ahead or astern position as governed by the
telegraph.

The lube Oil after rotating the vanes in the servomotor goes to a control slide valve, which gives a hydraulic
signal to the hydraulic blocking device. The hydraulic blocking device blocks the starting lever in stop
position while reversing is taking place. It is only released when the vanes have shifted within the
servomotor. And secondly sends a signal to cut out servomotor to prevent fuel supply to the engine in case
of reversing has to take place.

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When the engine starts, the direction of rotation is cross-checked by the rotation direction interlock, which
takes input from the camshaft and lube. Oil taken from the lube. Oil line between the reversing control valve
and servomotor. Whenever the direction is wrong, it sends a hydraulic signal to the cut-out servomotor,
which cuts the fuel to the engine, thus preventing engine running. Whenever the telegraph position is in stop
position, the lube. Oil in the servomotor is drained to the crankcase of the engine through the reversing
control valve.

Axial Shifting of CAMS

In this case there are two sets of cams (ahead cam & astern cam) one for ahead running and other for astern
running. To engage the correct cams for ahead or astern operation with cam rollers, the camshaft slides
axially in its bearings. The camshaft reversing gear, which is usually a piston operating in a cylinder, controls
this axial movement. Motion of the piston is transmitted directly to the camshaft.

The camshaft reversing gear consisting of the piston is sometimes referred to as the camshaft servomotor. It
may be actuated by hydraulic or pneumatic means. In some cases the hydraulic system is fed from the main
engine lubricating oil system, the pressure being sufficient to operate the servomotor piston.

Pneumatic servomotor is usually supplied with air from the starting air system. Oil dash pot connected to the
cylinder smoothes out the motion of the parts and prevents shock. The incline between the ahead and astern
cams allows the cam rollers to transfer from one cam to the other when the adjacent cam is in an open
position. Some engine builders put a corresponding chamfer or a good radius on the cam roller edges.

In older slow speed engines, the shaft carrying the rocker arms had eccentrics on it, the eccentrics being the
fulcrum for the rockers arm. Rotation of the rocker shaft lifted the rocker arm and roller clear of the cam
peaks so that axial movement of the camshaft could be completed. When the camshaft was in its new
position, continuous rotation of the rocker shaft lowered the rockers and rollers on to the duplicate cams.

In modern’s engines, the axial distance of each pair of cams is made sufficiently large so that the side of
each pair of cams is made sufficiently large so that the side of the peak of one cam inclines off slowly to the
idle part of its adjacent duplicate cam. These inclined planes between pairs of cams enable the rollers to slide
from one cam to another, even in the most unfavourable position of the cams.

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Description of the system adopted for Axial Shifting of Camshaft
Switching of running between ahead and astern is made by means of a camshaft shifting mechanism, called
“reversing gear”, which shifts the entire member of camshaft back and forth to lead it on the cam position
either ahead and astern respectively in the manner that the reversing handle actuates the reversing relay valve
which sends the compressed air into the hydraulic oil tank, either on its ahead side or astern side, where by
the air pushes the hydraulic oil into the ahead side or astern side of the reversing cylinder and shall stay on
the astern position as long as the reversing handle is put on the position ahead.

Reversing gear consists of a cylinder, a piston, and safety gear and power oil bottles. In the cylinder, is
encased the piston which is shifted back and forth by means of the force of the hydraulic oil filling up in
cylinder. The piston is coupled with the camshaft. On the cylinder top, is fitted, a safety gear with a stopper.
When reversing Handle when shifted to another position, the reversing relay valve is so actuated as to let the
compressed air go through the safety gear to push the stopper and get into the hydraulic tank. The air then
actuates the hydraulic oil so that it gets the reversing cylinder to force the piston to move. When a complete
course of camshaft shifting is over, then move the reversing handle to the position running where by the
hydraulic oil that have been pushing the piston is so released as to get back to the hydraulic oil tank, where
by the compressed air is to escape through the reversing relay valve out into the engine room, where by the
safety gear stopper is lowered back so as to hold the piston immobile, lest the camshaft would not move any
more.

The main handle is provided with an interlocking device that holds the main handle immobile so long as the
reversing handle should not be on position ‘running’. Another one more interlocking device is fitted to the
main handle, by which main handle is not capable a full-course of a shifting either to ahead or astern position
right after the reversing handle was so worked, or, in other words, unless the safety gear stopper should come
down on the low position where it keeps the position immobile.

Shifting Position of Rollers on the Cams

Reversing of engines by changing the fuel pump timing is accomplished by shifting the roller position on
the cam. In this mechanism position of roller is shifted by corresponding angle required for reversing and
roller is locked in this position to be required to operate in desired direction of rotation. This shifting of fuel
cam is accomplished by operation of air cylinder connected to this roller mechanism. This system is

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independently fitted to each cylinder unit. This system is simple and safe. Reversing can be operated even if
one or two cylinders have not operated to its correct position.

Rollers Displacement
All the controls achieved in these engines are achieved by pneumatic means. There are two cylinders for
changing the fuel timing and air starting timing in way of fuel rollers and air distributor respectively.

When the ahead/astern order is received by the telegraph the compressed air to the telegraph sent a pneumatic
signal to either ahead/astern solenoid to open, upon which the control air goes to the fuel and distributor
cylinder to shift to the position of the telegraph order. On achieving the set position the air distributor is
locked into position by solenoid valve which are operated by a tap-off from starting air pilot line after the
turning gear interlock. The fuel rollers are of self-locking type on change of position of rollers.

Regulatory Body Requirements for a Reversible Engine

• In order to maintain sufficient manoeuvrability of a ship in all normal conditions, the main propulsion
machinery is to be capable of running the ship astern.
• The main propulsion machinery is to be capable of maintaining in free route astern at least 70% of
the ahead revolutions for a period of at least 30 minutes.
• The Ahead revolutions as mentioned above are understood as those corresponding to the maximum
continuous ahead power for which the vessel is closed.
• The reversing characteristics of the propulsion plant are to be demonstrated and recorded during
trails.
• The power developed in astern direction should be 60% of ahead.
• Air bottle capacity should be such that 12 consecutive starts is achieved in alternate direction i.e.
ahead-astern-ahead.
• Air compressor capacity is such as to fill up the air bottles from atmospheric pressure to the total
capacity within one hour.

SOLAS Requirements: Chapter Two (Reg. 28 & 03)

• Sufficient power for going astern shall be provided to enable proper control of the ship in all
circumstances.
• Machinery should be able to reverse the direction of thrust of the propeller to bring the ship to rest
from maximum ahead service speed in sufficient time and reasonable distance. This shall be shown
and recorded.
• Maximum astern speed: it is the maximum estimated speed reached by the ship at the designed
maximum astern power at the deepest sea going Draft

Electronic Operation
The signal received by the electro hydraulic servo valve and the control valve is from cylinder control unit
installed for each cylinder.

The engine control system is connected to ships control system. This ship’s control system has two control
units.

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1. Cylinder control unit for each cylinder.
2. A local control terminal.

Engine Control Unit’s Function

It relates to overall situation of the engine and connects plant control system, safety system and supervision
and alarm system with inputs from sensors and actuators.

Cylinder Control Unit’s Function

It connects all functional components to be controlled at each cylinder, e.g. fuel injection, exhaust valve,
starting valve and cylinder lubrication. As faults can never be completely ruled out each cylinder has a
cylinder controller, who’s failure will result in temporary loss of power of concerned unit until the standby
engine controller takes over and continues the operation without any change in performance.

Electronic Control of Fuel Timing

Operation of fuel valve is governed by a microprocessor (computer). For correct operation inputs of engine
speed and crank angle is given to the microprocessor, which controls the operation of fuel valve. Here the
metering of fuel volume for one cylinder is not governed by delivery volume per stroke but by limiting the
duration of injection. This is made possible by an electronic controller i.e. a low voltage signal that controls
the opening and closing action of electro-hydraulic servo valve. This opening and closing of electro-
hydraulic servo valve connect and isolates the fuel valve from the servo oil accumulator, which finally
operates the fuel valve.

Each cylinder unit is provided with a servo oil accumulator to ensure sufficient fast delivery of servo oil per
injection requirement. A number of injections patterns are stored in the microprocessor, which are selected
by the control system so as to operate the engine with optimum injection characteristics from dead slow to
overload, as well as during astern running and crash stop.

Electronic Control of Exhaust Valve Timing

The exhaust valve is driven by the same servo oil system as that for the fuel injection system, using
pressurised cool, clean lube oil as the working medium. The operation of exhaust valve only controls the
time of opening and closing the valve. This is obtained by using a simple fast acting ON/OFF control valve
to control the movement of the exhaust valves. The control valve being again operated by the microprocessor,
which operated the fuel valve.

Main engine manoeuvring system

The control system is pneumatic and remote operation is by means of electric signals to the solenoid valves
for the control air. The solenoid valves are located inside an engine control room console and electrical
signals to these are supplied by the movement of the telegraph and manoeuvring lever with cams.

By means of a change-over switch located in the engine control room, all remote electrical control functions
can be transferred to the bridge or the engine room.

As seen in above manoeuvring diagram the starting handle is at the stop position. The starting handle controls
three micro switches that convey the following signals
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• Stop signal (instantaneous signal)
• Start signal (instantaneous signal)
• Run signal for Ahead and Astern movement (varying signal)

Stop Signal (Black)

As long as stop signal has been pressed, it shall allow the 7 bar control air to pass through and depress the
puncture valve and thereby not allow the fuel to be admitted to the fuel pump.

Start signal (Blue)

As soon as the starting handle is moved, the start micro switch will be pressed and stop signal will be
overridden that allows the passage of 7 bar control air through. If no interlock has operated, then it shall
allow further passage of the control air. Now, if the reversing is completed (either ahead or astern position)
then it will allow the air to pass through to the air cylinder which shall operate and open the auto start valve
on the main air manifold; after which the starting air (30 bar) shall go to the distributor and convey the 30-
bar pilot air to the unit which is in the starting position to start the engine.

Run Signal (Green and Red)

Once the engine has started you can further move the starting handle to the run position and the start signal
will finish (Fuel Air Interlock will block air) and no air start is possible. The run micro switch being of
varying type, more the handle is turned, more the switch would be compressed and the output of it shall vary
accordingly. The varying signal control the 7-bar control air output that is fed to the governor to increase the
fuel proportionately.

Reversing
If the engine has stopped in the Astern position and we want to move to Ahead position, we will put the
AHD/AST Lever to the ahead position, allowing the 7 bar control air to pass through (the pressed AHD
micro switch) and go to

1. the fuel pump to reverse the cam position via the reversing cylinder
2. the starting air distributor reversing cylinder to re-position the distributor to enable appropriate
cylinders to air start in the ahead direction

Reversing Completed Interlock

When the reversing position is reached, the shaft of the start air distributor reversing cylinder shall move
outwards to press the AHD micro switch allowing a part of (7 bar) control air to pass through it and a block
valve is released and nullify the “reversing completed” interlock. In the event the reversing cylinder is stuck
between AHD/AST micro switch, then the interlock shall not allow the auto start valve to open for an air
start.

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Bridge control for unmanned engine room

Starting and stopping, reversing of engine or propeller pitch and speed control are possible from the bridge.
An emergency direct arrangement for stopping the engine is provided in the bridge, independent of the
normal bridge control system.

If the direction for the engine on air is set as required, the Turning Gear (TG) is disengaged, and the starting
air pressure sufficient, air will admit to the chosen cylinders to start the engine. At firing speed a signal will
be sent to the governor for fuel release.

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Provided the essential parameters, such as lubricating oil pressure, cooling water pressure, air spring
pressure, etc, are correct and the respective cut-outs do not block the fuel supply, fuel will be injected and
the engine will start to run in the required direction.

A further program checks the running direction, and speed, and adjusts the signal to the governor for
regulating the speed according to the telegraph order. The program also ensures that continuous running at
critical speed range (if any) is avoided, by a large increase or reduction in fuel charge in quickly passing
over the critical range.

In case the engine fails to start, the program is repeated up to 3 times, after which the system gets locked and
an alarm is sounded for manual Intervention.

Precautions for Starting and Stopping

The engine should be tried out from the engine control room and bridge before departure from a port.

On starting the engine, check the direction of propeller rotation corresponds to the telegraph order. Check
the turbochargers for proper lubrication and running. Check the lubricating oil pressures. Check the external
temperature of air starting pipe.

Check whether all the cylinders are firing. Check all the units exhaust valves are operating correctly and
their temperatures. Observe for any abnormal noise.

Check the temperatures of lubricating oil, camshaft lubricating oil, fuel oil, cooling water, scavenge air,
thrust and intermediate bearing. Check all the cylinder lubricators are working. Check the oil mist detector.

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The engine speed should be increased gradually as recommended by the manufacturer. Most of the engine
automatic control systems of main engine have a loading program which loads the engine gradually once the
required speed is set. Monitor and maintain the parameters within the limit.

The units in which maintenance were carried out should be inspected thoroughly. The running in procedure
should be followed if cylinder liners, piston rings or any main bearings were renewed.

Procedures to follow with the main propulsion plant, once Full Ahead is given (including, changing over to
heavy fuel oil for the main engine, putting the Exhaust Gas Economizer and Fresh Water Generator, on load.

For the propulsion plant to operate efficiently it is essential that, once, the manoeuvring is over, correct
parameters are steadily maintained as per the engine maker’s specifications. Hence at this stage a proper
Engine room round needs to be taken to ensure that all parameters have steadied down and are maintained
so, and that there is no abnormality.

The following actions need to be taken:

• Close the main air starting valve
• Ensure in advance that the Heavy Fuel Oil service tanks are pressed up, and, the Heavy Fuel Oil
Settling tanks are duly kept ready for use.
• Check the jacket cooling water temperature and if preheating steam / auxiliary engine outlet was
used, ensure same is shut off so that no further external preheating is being done.
• Once the additional fluctuating power requirements for winches, windlass, cranes etc. are over, stop
the second generator.
• If high sea suction was in use, change-over to low sea suction (depending on the draft).
• Change over to HFO if Diesel/Gas oils/LS fuel oil was being used during manoeuvring.

This change over of fuel should only be done if the vessel is out of Sulphur Emission Control Area (SECA)
and that should be done as per the shipboard procedures along with relevant record keeping.

• Start the fresh water generator.

• Load the shaft generator if fitted.

Putting the exhaust gas economizer on load: Following procedure to be carried out before engine starting

• Ensure the boiler-circulating pump valves are free.

• Slowly open the inlet/outlet valve.
• Check valves, flanges etc. for leakage.
• Allow economizer unit to warm through, with the temperature and flow of the exhaust gases from
the main engine having steadied (once full-away is given, with no immediate need of manoeuvring).
Unless the economizer unit is hot enough (too much heating may lead to lifting of the safety valves),
the circulating pump must not be started for preventing acid-condensation due to the sulphur content
in the exhaust gases.
• Start the circulating pump (with the water temperature hot enough for preventing any thermal shock
to boiler) and ensure that the stand-by unit is on auto mode.
• Check pump pressures, motor load etc.
• Check that the gas side differential pressure manometer is operational.

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Taking the economizer off load
• Soot blow prior to the end of sea passage
• Ensure steam dump-valve settings are adjusted once the manoeuvring is set to start
• Ensure that the main boiler is in auto mode and cuts in when the steam pressure drops after main
engine stops and circulation of the water to/from the economizer is required to be interrupted.
• Stop the circulating pumps, before the boiler gets substantially cooled, for reasons explained in the
4th bullet under “Putting the exhaust gas economizer on load”, above.
• Shut the boiler circulating pump valves.

Procedures to follow with the main propulsion plant, once the ship gets near a destination port, i.e., into
manoeuvring mode (including, changing back to diesel oil for the main engine, taking the Exhaust Gas
Economizer and Fresh Water Generator off –load, keeping air bottles pressed-up, starting the second
generator etc.).

• Take standby generator on load and offload shaft generator.

• Ensure Main Engine Auxiliary blowers and Boiler is in auto mode
• Stop the Fresh Water Generator while monitoring jacket cooling water temperature.
• The Diesel oil (assuming this would be used for manoeuvring) settling and service tanks are pressed
up
• Check and comply with the standing instructions for fuel change over
• Change over the sea chest if required.
• Drain the air bottles, check that both the bottles are pressed up and open main starting air valve.
• Take rounds of steering gear room to check parameters /oil levels
• Carry out steering gear tests in consultation with wheel house.
• Once the manoeuvring rpm is reached, proceed with engine test in ahead and astern direction in
consultation with the navigation bridge.

Procedures to follow with the main propulsion plant, once Finished with Engines, is given

• If manoeuvring was on diesel oil, stop the fuel oil pumps. Fuel oil pumps to run and temperatures to
be maintained as per shipboard operating procedures, if M.E. manoeuvring is done on heavy oil
• Close main air starting valve.
• Stop ME Auxiliary blowers
• Open indicator cocks of all the units.
• Lub oil pumps should run at least 30 minutes after stopping Main Engine
• Main engine jacket cooling water to be kept on preheat, unless the next sailing particulars are
unknown.
• Stop the boiler water circulating pump, once the economizer has moderately cooled down.
• Depending on power requirements at port, check and offload the additional running generator
• Take rounds of the engine room.

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Prior to port arrival
In engines where manoeuvring is carried out on diesel oil, the changeover should be carried out one hour
before manoeuvring. Start an additional generator and take on load before manoeuvring. Try out the engine
in astern direction and ensure that reversing mechanism is working properly.

After arrival in port

When the finished with engine order is given, switch over to engine control room control.

Open the indicator cocks. Take permission from bridge and blow through the engine to expel the residual
exhaust gases. Turn the engine with turning gear.

Stop the lubricating pump after two hours. In engines where manoeuvring is done on heavy oil do not stop
the fuel oil circulating pump. Maintain the temperature of the fuel oil. Keep the jacket cooling water
circulating pump on maintain the prescribed temperature by preheater.

Changing Over Fuel

Procedure for changing over from heavy fuel oil operation to diesel oil operation and vice-versa, including
operating the viscometer simultaneously.

Fuel is a major component of vessels operating costs and most ship’s machinery plants have been designed
to operate primarily using lower cost heavy fuel oil (HFO). However, for compliance with emission norms
(MARPOL Annex VI) or for occasional operation with lighter fuels in case of auxiliary engines (for flushing
the system for maintenance) provisions are provided for operation using Low Sulphur Fuel Oil (LSFO) or
Marine Diesel Oil (MDO).

For Changing over Fuel for MARPOL compliance check the shipboard procedures. Following section
contains change over procedures for fuel oil operation to diesel oil operations

1. Check and ascertain quantity of MDO in the service tank. Start D.O purifier if required to maintain
DO service tank levels
2. Drain the service tank to check for water.
3. Reduce the engine load as per shipboard procedures.
4. Shut of tracing steam line valves for fuel lines and mixing column.
5. Set the Viscotherm to the required viscosity which would adjust the steam to the fuel oil heater
6. If under manual control, regulate the steam inlet to the fuel oil heater to achieve the oil outlet
temperature to around When the temperature drops below or so, open the diesel oil service tank valve
and turn the three-way fuel change over valve in the fuel oil so that diesel is directed to the engine,
while keeping an eye on fuel line pressure
7. Shut the heavy oil feed line valve (if provided) and the H.O service tank outlet.
8. Once the system is flushed properly, the return line to diesel service tank should be opened and return
line to heavy oil tank to be closed.

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Abnormalities and Vigilance during operation
Abnormalities of various parameters (viz. exhaust temperatures, cooling water inlet and outlet temperatures
at important points, cooling water and lubricating oil pressures, fuel oil pressure, pressure-drop across charge
air cooler etc.) and how to maintain them to the manufacturer’s specifications.

For safe and efficient operations of machinery and systems it is important that basics of machinery and its
operating parameters are known. Most Engineers are familiar with the machinery they maintain or operate,
and need to be aware of the "normal" symptoms that the five senses can pick so that unusual conditions are
identified. Apart from these the machinery “parameters” is the other crucial factor which speaks about the
extant health of a machinery. Needless to say, for any abnormality to be detected, its normal working range
should be known. Listed below are some of the parameters whose deviation would give you an indication of
the cause. This is only a reference document and for actual troubleshooting please refer to manufacturers’
manuals.

Abnormalities & Probable causes

High Exhaust temperature of one unit -

1. Pyrometer of cylinder defective.

2. Injection nozzles defective, nozzle tip broken.
3. Air flaps in scavenge air receiver dirty or damaged.
4. Clogged/dirty scavenge ports in cylinder liner.
5. Fire in piston underside space.
6. Unit exhaust valve leaking.
7. Fuel cams shifted.
8. Injection pump timing changed.

High exhaust temperature for all units -

1. Air deficiency due to defect or considerable fouling of turbocharger, silencer or scavenge air cooler.
2. Air flaps in the scavenge air receiver defective or fouled.
3. Scavenge ports in all cylinder liners, dirty.
4. Change in grade of fuel
5. Overloading of the engine.

Lower exhaust temperature of a single unit –

1. Exhaust thermometer of respective cylinder defective.

2. The respective cylinder receives less fuel (e.g. leaking of: injection pump valves, injection valve
seating’s, leakage between mating surfaces of plunger guides, HP injection pipes, leaking relief valve
on injection pump).
3. Injection pump timing changed.
4. Fuel cams shifted.
5. Exhaust valve does not open (actuator pump or its pressure pipe defective). As an immediate measure
the injection pump and the actuator pump of the respective cylinder is cut-off.

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High jacket water temperature at cylinder outlet for all units –

1. Jacket cooling water temperature controller defective

2. Jacket water cooler ineffective (due to choked cooler, less cooling media etc.)
3. Discharge pressure of the jacket cooling water pump is low
4. Engine is overloaded.

High jacket water temperature at cylinder outlet for individual unit –

1. Jacket water outlet line valves of the affected cylinders shut or defective.
2. Cooling spaces insufficiently vented.
3. Cooling water pipes or water passages choked.
4. Overloading of affected cylinders.
5. Piston running hot.
6. Exhaust gases blowing into the cooling water circuit due to a defect (cylinder liner, cylinder head, valve,
and cage).

Jacket cooling water pressure fluctuating –

1. Air collecting in the cooling spaces or in the pipes due to insufficient venting.
2. Drop of static pressure at inlet to cooling water pump due to throttling in the return pipe or draining
of the expansion tank.
3. Exhaust gases blowing into the cooling water due to a defect (cylinder liner, cylinder head, valve
cage).

Low L.O pressure (crosshead L.O) –

1. Crosshead L.O pump failed

Cylinder L.O Failure –

1. Sensor defective.
2. Cylinder lubricating pump empty (daily tank is empty, shut-off valve in the piping to the pumps is
shut or the filter is choked).
3. Shut-off valves on the pump modules closed.

Low scavenge pressure –

1. Silencer to turbocharger fouled.

2. Diffusor, blower and inducer to the turbocharger fouled or damaged.
3. Scavenge air cooler fouled on air side.
4. Water separator fouled or damaged.
5. Turbine rotor blading fouled or damaged.
6. Nozzle ring of turbocharger damaged.
7. Exhaust gas boiler (installation side) fouled (increased resistance or back pressure after turbine
respectively).
8. High intake temperature before turbocharger.

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High scavenge air temperature –

1. Nozzle ring of turbocharger fouled or partially choked.

2. Improper cooling in the scavenge air cooler
3. Indication of a scavenge fire in the process of being initiated.

Large pressure drop across charge air cooler –

1. Fouled air cooler

Vigilance of abnormal noise / vibrations on any running machinery

The sound coming from a machinery provides important clues about the health of the machinery. Although
by the time a machinery emanates abnormal sound a defect had already occurred, but it can probably prevent
a major breakdown. Though there cannot be a standard vibration-range or an acceptable noise-range (in
decibels) that can be provided, regular rounds of engine room and experience would be the best teacher.

Any machinery that has rotating parts will have vibration. These vibrations could be due to a defect in the
prime mover or the auxiliary equipment connected. If the vibrations are allowed to continue it will lead to
increased wear, consume more power and eventually cause breakdown. Thus it is important to note that any
abnormal vibrations are detected during rounds and the corrective actions taken.

Vigilance on leakages in fuel, fresh water, lubricating oil and air

Ships have a huge network of pipe lines carrying different media like, sea water, fresh water, oil, steam, air
etc. While detecting any leakages from the liquid lines would be easier, it would be unsafe especially if such
leakage is oil. Besides, even though leakage of water at worst leads to loss of energy (in the case of fresh-
water in particular), it is undeniable that this accumulated water causes the oil to float on it and thereby
enhances the prospects of a fire. Thus, any leakages identified should be quickly addressed before it
manifests itself as a bigger problem. Inspect exposed piping and pipes in wet or damp locations at regular
intervals and look for breakdown of the protective coating which would be the first indication. Pay special
attention to any pipe which is subject to vibration. If a pipe does vibrate, fit additional clamps or supports.
Leakages could also begin at the flange joints because of gasket failures. Once a leakage is identified it needs
to be repaired irrespective of the extent.

Switch off relevant pumps, isolate the affected section of pipe by closing valves or by fitting blank flanges.
Investigate the source of the leakage and make a temporary repair by banding or clamping and at the first
opportunity, have the pipe repaired or renewed.

Avoid getting electrical equipment wet. If electrical equipment is wet, take care to avoid electric shock
hazards. Switch off electrical equipment in such cases forth with For fuel, lubricating or hydraulic pipe
leakages, use absorbent material to soak up the loose oil. Oil is both a safety and a pollution hazard. Fuel
spraying from a fractured pipe into an enclosed space, or onto a hot surface, is an imminently dangerous fire
hazard.

If there is leakage from a fractured steam pipe, evacuate the area to avoid the risk of personal injury. This
type of leakage can be extremely hazardous, especially if the steam is superheated, because superheated
steam is liable to be invisible and difficult to detect. Test for a steam leak with a piece of cloth at the end of

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a pole, observing whether the cloth flutters in the jet stream. Superheated steam leaks are very noisy. Caution
must be taken if there is extreme noise in a steam plant, for this indicates a superheated steam leak.

Knowing systems associated with the ME

Knowing the systems associated with the main propulsion, i.e. starting air, lubricating oil, fresh water
cooling, fuel oil, bunker-supply, with method of proper sampling and issue and filling-up / retention of
bunker-delivery notes, lines cylinder lubrication, ballast water etc. by tracing the lines.

Apart from the propulsion machinery and the related auxiliary equipment’s, there are other essential systems
like Fire lines, Refrigeration & Airconditioning plant, Oily Water Separator lines etc. which have
requirement of different mediums being transported through pipe lines. Faults occurring in these systems
could be due to a closed valve or a clogged filter and thus it is essential that the various pipe line systems are
known and understood for quick troubleshooting.

Additionally, to understand the working of any system it is important to know the start and end of the piping
system along with the functions of the connected equipment’s/machineries. Every system is designed to
work at a certain pressure and this would be outlined in the manufacturers’ manuals, thus any deviations or
the cause of it can only be known if the pipeline network is known. Each valve in the system or an
interconnection has a purpose and that would be evident to an engineer working onboard if he or she is well
versed with the piping system.

For ease of identifying different systems there are different color codings used for different media being
transported. This color coding could either be the entire pipeline or only the connecting flanges. Generally,
the color coding used is:

Fire Line: RED

Sea Water: GREEN

Fresh Water: BLUE

Lube Oil: YELLOW

F O: BLACK or DARK BROWN (for H O and D O/MGO respectively)

Bunkering
It is of great importance as well to be thorough with the bunkering system (precautions in particular) since
many a mishap has instanced on account of complacency in this respect. The following points will need to
be borne in mind: -

• Every effort should be made to segregate bunkers from different sources, in different tanks. This will
prevent the blending of incompatible stable and unstable products, leading to the precipitation of
asphaltenic deposits as sludge in tanks, pipes, filters and purifiers associated with the fuel system.
• It is the duty of the bunker recipient-ship to obtain from the fuel supplier a sealed, labelled and
representative fuel sample during each bunkering operation.

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The delivery of the bunker is to be accompanied by a “Bunker Delivery Note” (BDN) that must contain the
following information: -

• Name and IMO Number of the receiving ship

• Port
• Date of Commencement of delivery
• Name, address and telephone number of the marine fuel oil supplier
• Product name(s)
• Quantity in metric tones
• Density at 15oc kg/m3(Fuel oil shall be tested in accordance with ISO 3675:1998 or ISO 12185:1996)
• Sulphur content (% m/m) (Fuel oil shall be tested in accordance with ISO 8754:2003)

The BDN must be retained on board in a place as to be readily available for inspection at all reasonable times
by the authorized authority.

The BDN is required to be retained for a period of three years after the fuel has been delivered on board.

The BDN must be accompanied by a sample of the fuel oil delivered bearing in mind the following aspects:

• The sample should be obtained at the receiving ship’s inlet bunker manifold and should be drawn
continuously throughout the bunker delivery period (i.e. continuous collection of drip sample
throughout the delivery of bunker fuel covering each BDN. In case of receiving an amount of bunker
fuel necessitating two or more BDNs, the sampling work may be temporarily stopped to change the
primary sample container and then resumed as necessary).
• The sample is to be sealed and signed by the supplier’s representative and the Master or officer-in-
charge of the bunker operation on completion of the bunker operations and retained under the ship’s
control until the fuel oil is substantially consumed and not less than 12 months from the date of
delivery on board.
• The retained sample container should be clean and dry.
• The sample quantity (at least 400 ml) should be thoroughly agitated to ensure that it is homogeneous.
• The container should be filled to 90% +/- 5% capacity and sealed.
• Immediately following collection of the retained sample, a tamper proof security seal with a unique
means of identification ought to be installed by the supplier’s representative in the presence of the
ship’s representative.

A label containing the following information should be secured to the sample’s container: -

• The location at which and the method by which, the sample was drawn;
• Date of commencement of delivery
• Name of the bunker tanker / bunker installation.
• Name and IMO number of the receiving ship
• Signatures and names of the supplier’s representative and the ship’s representative
• Details of seal identification; and,
• Bunker grade
• To facilitate cross-verification of the seal, identification may also be recorded on the BDN.

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• The retained sample need be stored in a sheltered location where it will not be exposed to higher
temperatures, in fact preferably at a cool / ambient temperature, away from sunlight.
• The ship’s Master should develop and maintain a system to keep track of the retained samples.

Alarms, trips and how to respond to these in correct sequence.

If timely detected by a watch keeper, alarms in any system/machinery acts as the advanced protection feature
and provides an indication that there has been a deviation from the set parameters at which the system is
supposed to operate. The system may continue to operate but it is designed to trigger a response from the
watch keeper to maintain a safe and normal operation. Trips on the other hand would cause the machinery
or the system to shut down due to a deviation which would otherwise have caused further damage.

Alarm systems are associated with control and safety systems and are normally an integral part of the
monitoring system. The design of the alarm system must allow the system to function independently of any
control or safety system, wherever possible, so that the alarm system continues to function satisfactorily,
even if there is a fault in these other systems.

The alarm system must have an automatic change-over to a stand-by power supply, should the main power
supply fail. The system must be capable of self-monitoring for faults within the alarm system itself, e.g. a
broken wire or sensor failure, which should also give an alarm.

The alarm system must be able to advice duty personnel promptly of any fault condition. The presence of
any un-rectified faults, must be persistently indicated at all times. Machinery, safety and control system
faults need to be indicated at the control stations and alarms should be both audible and visual.

If the vessel is operated under UMS, then the audible and visual indications of the machinery alarms must
be relayed to the engineer’s accommodation so that the engineers are aware that a fault has occurred. Just in
case any alarm has not been acknowledged in the control-room , within a specific time, the engineers’ general
alarm should be sounded immediately and automatically.

Any machinery fault should also be relayed to the bridge, so that they are aware of the fault, knowing that it
is being attended to and when the repair is completed.

Visual alarms are colour coded to give an indication of the level of priority. These could be steady state
lamps or flashing lamps, depending on their application. An “audible alarm” silence-button should not
extinguish any visual alarm.

Audible alarms for different system should have different tones or sounds. The telegraph alarm should be
different to the general engine-room alarm, which in turn should be different to the ship’s fire-alarm bell, so
that the ship’s staff responding to the alarm can both quickly react to the alarm and have some knowledge
of the alarm type.

There could be various features which may be fitted to alarm systems, such as:

Automatic reset: when the alarm will automatically reset after normal conditions are restored, provided the
alarm has been acknowledged;

Manual reset: where the alarm is manually reset after normal conditions are restored.

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Lock in on fleeting alarms: where the alarm condition is still displayed, even though the fault condition
had quickly appeared and then disappeared;

Time delay: to prevent raising of spurious alarm signals;

Event recorder: which prints out a record of the alarm details and the sequence and time of the alarms;

First up / first out: this enables identification of the first alarm that operated within a group or “flood” of
alarms. For flood alarms, particularly for a fully automated main propulsion plant, if there is a failure of
some nature leading to a plant shutdown (e.g. a blackout), the alarm system will have to cope with hundreds
of alarm signals, within a fraction of a minute perhaps. If the recording devices are not of compatible speed
/ quality, it becomes difficult to factually identify the correct order of events and the initial cause of the
failure.

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CHAPTER-14

FOUR STROKE OPERATION

Safety Devices
The engine is provided with alarms and shut down functions. These devices are protection devices as they
protect the engine from catastrophe or severe Damage.

Low lube oil pressure trip sensor is located at the main lubricating oil inlet of the engine. If the lubricating
oil pressure decreases below the set value an alarm is raised and a signal from the sensor is sent to the
control panel. This sends a stop signal to the engine which cuts off the fuel supply.

High jacket water temperature trip sensor is located at the main fresh water outlet pipe of the engine. If the
jacket water temperature increases above the set value, an alarm is raised and a signal from the sensor is
sent to the control panel. This sends a stop signal to the engine which cuts off the fuel supply.

Over speed trip shuts off fuel completely and brings the engine to a standstill if the speed of the engine
exceeds a set maximum limit.

Breather pipe is provided to vents the vapours and fumes in the crankcase to the atmosphere. One end of
breather pipe is connected to crankcase while the other end is fitted with a flame trap to prevent passage of
flame.

Crankcase relief valves are fitted on the crankcase doors. The relief valves will lift and release the pressure
if the pressure inside the crankcase exceeds above the limit. This will prevent crankcase explosion.

Oil mist detector is a device fitted on large four stroke engines to prevent crankcase explosions. It senses
the oil mist concentration in the crankcase. If the mist concentration increases above the set limit it sounds
an alarm. In propulsion engines, the engine automatically slows down and in generators the circuit breaker
trips and off loads the generator.

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Operation of Diesel Prime mover for Alternator
The term prime mover refers to the primary source of power. Any machinery that provides power for
performing mechanical work is a prime mover. It could be a group of machines that transform energy from
thermal, electrical, or pressure into mechanical form for use in different sources for some mechanical work.

In ships, diesel engines are normally used as the prime mover for generating power. The diesel burns inside
the engine and the products of this combustion act as the working fluid to produce mechanical energy. The
diesel engine drives an alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Shipboard power
is generated using a prime mover and an alternator working together. For this an alternating current generator
is used on board.

Diesel plant Equipment:

• Diesel Engine
• Air intake system
• Exhaust system
• Fuel supply system
• Cooling system
• Lubricating system
• Starting system

Pre-Operation Procedures
• Visually check the Jacket Water [JW] and Injector Cooling [IC] Water expansion tanks for proper
level and the pumps are in operation.
• Check inlet and outlet valves of Nozzle and Jacket Waters systems for proper open or close positions.
• Energize JW and Injector Cooling (if applicable) water heaters by pressing the “ON” button located
on the Heaters Control Panel [HCP].
• Check the level of the various engine tanks and auxiliary equipment.
1. Cooling water header tank
2. Oil Sump Tank
3. Cylinder Lubricating Oil Tank if provided
4. Fuel service and settling tank
5. Diesel storage tanks
6. Turbocharger oil level
7. Governor oil level
8. Outboard bearing oil level
9. Air pressure for 30 and 8 bar tanks

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• Verify that fuel control linkages and injection pump plungers move freely.
• Manually lubricate cylinder liners by turning the hand crank of the cylinder lubricators (if provided)
and check that excessive force is not needed to
• turn the cranks. Otherwise, alternator prime movers are normally splash lubricated.
• Check that the various valves for the engine cooling, lubrication, fuel system and air system are in
the correct position.
• Assess whether the lube oil separator is required to be run for purifying the prime mover sump
lubricating oil. (The separator for alternator prime mover is operated from time to time, as contrary
to the main propulsion engine sump for which, the purifier is invariably started on sump-to-sump
mode, at least four hours before engine operation, to remove accumulated dirt or settled water, if
any).
• Run bunker fuel centrifuge (if no engine running), as necessary.
• Start the Pre-lubricating oil pump.
• Open the indicator cocks in the cylinder heads and rotate the engine several times with the turning
gear or manual handle to make sure that no water, oil, or fuel has collected in the cylinder.
• Switch “OFF” the JW and IC heaters and switch-off the injector and jacket water-circulating pumps.
• Switch “OFF” the turning gear motor, disengage the turning gear (or remove the manual handle-bar
as applicable), and lock the operating lever.

Engine Running Procedures

Start-Up Procedure

• Energize main power supply for the engine alarm.

1. Start up the following and adjust the pressures:
2. Pre-lubricating oil pump (manual position)
3. Diesel transfer pump
4. Fuel booster module
5. Nozzle cooling water pump(if applicable)
6. Jacket water pump
7. Fuel service pump
• Check that the turning gear is disengaged and that the operating lever is locked.
• Open all the indicator cocks.
• Check starting air tank pressure gauge for the proper pressure of 25 to 30 bar.
• Set the governor load limit to “0” position, and rotate the speed setting knob for at least five [5]
revolutions from zero (unless the manufacturer advises otherwise).
• Move each individual fuel pump rack in and out a few times to ensure rack is free and not sticking.
• Open the main starting air valve.
• Get clearance and “GO” signal with On-duty staff for start-up activation.

Running Procedures
• Make sure the LO, FO & CW pressures are up to rated values.
• After shutting the indicator cocks, start and run engine for 10 min at the rated speed for warm up
• Increase the RPM slowly to rated value

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• Load the engine after warm up procedure.
• Check that L.O, F.O and jacket cooling water pressures are as per engine maker’s specifications.
• Check jacket cooling water, L.O and, exhaust temperatures for each unit and, before and after the
turbocharger. Check turbocharger oil level.
• LO filter differential pressures to be closely monitored (if fitted).
• Service fuel tanks to be drained of water regularly and an ample head of fuel inside the tank is to be
ensured.
• Water header(expansion) tanks levels to be monitored
• Oil level in sump to be checked regularly. (steady reductions or increase in the sump level at quicker
intervals indicate problems that need to be attended to).
• Check for any unusual sounds, knocks on the engine.

Stopping Procedures
• Gradually unload the generator to other running prime mover.
• Open/trip the generator circuit breaker just before the KW-hr meter reduces below 50 KW or so.
• Let the generator run for at least 10 to 15 minutes to cool down the engine.
• Bring down the engine speed gradually and press the stop button.
• Open the indicator cocks. Re-check that the main air starting valve is shut.
• Switch “OFF” the pre-lube pump.
• Slowly turn the engine

Vigilance of any gearbox / coupling (particularly for 4-strokes main propulsion) fitted to the main
propeller shafting.

• The traditional transmission system of a vessel is a system of gears, bearings, and couplings that
drive a shaft (solid metal rod) onto which a propeller is fitted, called a shaft driven transmission.
• The gearing arrangement used to reduce the medium-speed engine drive down to suitable propeller
revolutions is always single reduction and usually single helical.
• Elastic or flexible couplings allow slight misalignment and damp out or remove torque variations
from the engine. The coupling may in addition function as a clutch or disconnecting device.
• Couplings may be mechanical, electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic in operation. It is usual to combine
the function of clutch with a coupling and this is not readily possible with the mechanical coupling.

Vigilance on gearboxes and coupling should mainly include the following, however depending on the
system on board, the manufacturer’s instructions would take precedence:

• Checking the oil level and condition of the oil in the gear-box sump.
• Checking oil pressures, condition of filters (by the indicated pressure differential)
• Overheating, checking the trend of the oil temperatures
• Checking for vibration or excessive noise.

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CHAPTER-15

LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM

An engine lubricating oil system performs the following functions:

• Lubrication - It forms a film between moving parts. This reduces friction, wear and tear.
• Cleaning - It acts as a cleaning agent by taking away the dirt and debris from the running surfaces.
• Cooling - It acts as a coolant and maintains the temperature of the moving parts, within tolerable
limits.
• Hydraulic activation - It acts as an activating medium on engines provided with hydraulically
actuated exhaust valves.

Main engine lubricating oil system

Main lubrication system consists of storage tanks for storing lubricating oil. Main engine lubricating oil
sump receives oil from the storage tank. Main lubricating oil supply pump draws suction from the sump and
supplies it to the various components of the engine. They include main bearings, crosshead bearings,
crosshead guides, guide shoes, connecting rod bearings, thrust bearings, chain drive, and piston cooling.

Lubricating oil purification system

Main engine lubricating oil is continuously purified during engine operation. Purification system consists of
a purifier which draws lubricating oil from main engine sump and transfers it back to the sump after
purification. The purifiers remove water and solid contaminants. Proper monitoring and maintenance of this
system ensures trouble free operation of engine.

Slow speed diesel engines have a separate lubrication system for cylinder liners as the fuel burnt in
combustion space is high in sulphur content. This results in acidic corrosion of liners due to formation of
dilute sulphuric acid. To prevent this acidic corrosion special lubricating oil is used. This oil also contains
additives to keep the cylinder liner clean.

In this system, mechanical lubricators supply oil to individual cylinders. The cylinder injects cylinder oil
between liner and piston rings during the upward Stroke.

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Monitoring the Lube Oil System
Monitoring the level (increase / decrease and their respective implications) and quality of the sump
lubricating oil.

Monitoring the LO sump level is an important part of watch keepers’ duty. The level of lubricating oil
indicated in the sump when the main engine is running must be sufficient according to manufacturer’s /
shipbuilders’ instructions. The ‘Sump Quantity’ is always maintained at the same safe operating level and is
given in litres. It is essential that the figures are steady and correct, taking into account consumption, losses
and refills. Any increase or decrease (except marginal decrease) could be due to a problem and would have
serious implications.

In order to always maintain the lubricating oil in good condition over a long period of time, effective oil
treatment is necessary. This is achieved by using a self-cleaning, centrifugal separator working as purifier in
by-pass, by circulating the oil from the oil tank through the separator. The system oil volume should be
centrifuged at least three times a day through the separator, operating at 40% throughput of its rated capacity.
Good housekeeping is the most effective precaution to keep water out of the oil. The water content of the
lubricating oil should not exceed 0.5% by mass over an extended period of time. If higher water
contamination is observed, special measures such as intensified treatment in the separator or in a renovating
tank must be considered.

In order to maintain the LO quality, L.O on-board test must be carried out regularly and L.O purifier should
be run when the ship is in sea. Routine maintenance of purifiers and oil filters will help in knowing if
increased purification is needed. Carry out batch purification of LO as required.

Find and rectify source of seawater leakages immediately. Transfer whole sump oil to LO settling tank,
maintain temperature around 60 degree Celsius, drain water and sludge periodically. Clean the sump and
inspect. Renew sump with fresh lube oil. Run LO purifier in batch operation at about and optimum efficiency,
from LO settling tank to LO settling tank.

Batch purification: Allow LO to settle for about 24 hours at around 60 degree Celsius. Drain sludge and
water periodically from the tank. Clean the sump thoroughly and examine. Purify oil at optimum efficiency,
proper temperature and minimum throughput. Sent the purified oil back to the sump tank.

Send purified LO sample for shore analysis.

Shore analysis report will specify whether the LO can be reused or treatment such as water washing to be
carried out or not.

Fuel oil system, including shipboard preparation of fuel oil for proper combustion
Modern two stroke marine diesel engine uses heavy fuel oil. There is no need for diesel oil during
manoeuvring conditions. However, a stock of diesel oils is maintained for emergencies such as breakdown
in heavy fuel oil supply system or steam heating system.

Heavy fuel oil system consists of bunker tanks, engine room settling and service tanks, transfer pumps, fuel
oil supply and circulating pumps, purifiers, heaters and a mixing column.

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Fuel oil circulating pump circulates the preheated heavy oil through the engine. Continuous circulation of
heavy oil is necessary even when the main engine is stopped. This is to keep fuel oil system components
such as fuel pumps, pipes and valves at service temperature.

Diesel oil system consist of bunker tanks, engine room settling and service tanks, transfer pumps, strainers,
full flow filters, viscosity regulator and purifiers.

Fuel change over

Change over from heavy fuel oil to diesel oil is necessary, if the vessel is expected to have:

❖ a prolonged inactive period with cold engine

❖ a major repair of the fuel oil system
❖ a drydock
❖ a long lay up of vessel

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CHAPTER-16

Safe and efficient operation of engine

Lookout for danger signs and mistakes
Engineers need to remain vigilant during overhauling work and during watchkeeping duties to avoid human
error and to detect danger signs in time to take proactive action against failure.

Watch keeping vigilance:

1. The color of the funnel exhaust gas, while engine is running is a good indication of engine
performance.
2. Any small leakage could become a challenge if not detected on time.
3. If the funnel is producing sparks profusely, it might indicate a problem in one of the units or even
uptake fire.
4. The cylinder exhaust gas temperature should be checked to see they are more or less similar to
indicate all units are equally taking up load.
5. The cylinder jacket outlet temperatures should be checked and, by manipulation of the test cocks on
the outlet pipes, it should be seen that there are no air-locks.
6. Piston cooling outlet temperature and flow of coolant to be checked.
7. Turbocharger lubrication should be checked and temperature of gases before and after turbine to be
noted.
8. The cylinder lubricators should be examined for satisfactory operation.
9. All pressures and temperatures, as registered by various gauges and thermometers, should be
regularly observed for abnormalities.
10. A keen sense of hearing is desirable. It is by his ears that the engineer becomes aware of abnormal
happenings-in the running gear.
11. Before fuel service tank is brought into use it should be drained of water and sediment. There have
been failures due to sludges up day tank.
12. Filters in various system should be changed over and cleaned regularly. A clogged filter can stop a
running engine.
13. In shallow water the high sea-water suction should be used, for minimizing the inflow of sand.

Human Error During Overhauling of Equipment

A number of failures can occur due to human error during overhauling of machinery:

1. Overhauling a generator engine- if you leave a cleaning rag by mistake inside the crankcase and then
start the generator operation, the oil supply to some bearings could get blocked and you have a serious
bearing failure.
2. If the connecting rod bolts are not properly tightened, it could come loose and again there could be
serious piston and bearing failure.
3. While overhauling engine, you may forget to cut the center hole in a gasket since you might be cutting
many gaskets during the night and wanted to finish your work before the day starts. A blocked lub.

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oil pipe or air pipe could effectively make the engine operation impossible, or even damage the
engine.
4. Failure to overhaul the fuel injector and the exhaust valve correctly will also affect engine operation.
5. Correct use of pneumatic and hydraulic tools are another important area that all engineers must be
aware of. Failures due to mistakes in using such tools are now commonplace.
6. There is also a tendency today to remain within the ER control cubicle and rely on the gauges on
display; however, it is not possible to detect a leaky fuel pipe that might be spraying on hot exhaust
manifold: thus, physical walk-around during Watchkeeping remains important for safe engine and
plant operation.

Hazards to Safety during Operation

The major hazards associated with a diesel engine are air start line explosion, crankcase explosion, scavenge
fire and surging. You will now learn about then in detail.

Air Start Line Explosion

Air, fuel and a source of ignition (in the correct proportion) are required for an explosion. If the compressors
and driers are not properly maintained, oil and moisture are carried through the air system. These form
deposits in the starting airline over a period of time. You now have two components; fuel, which is oil, and
air, which is abundant. The third component, a source of ignition, can be provided by the hot exhaust gases
from the combustion chamber of a leaky start valve when they come into contact with the oil and air mixture,
resulting in an explosion. A bursting disc is provided just before the air-starting valve of every unit to prevent
damage to the entire pipeline in case of an explosion.

Crankcase Explosion

Scavenge Fire
The underside of a piston is in communication with the scavenge manifold. Under normal conditions, this
side accumulates cylinder oil, unburnt fuel and residual products of combustion. If the under-piston spaces
are not cleaned regularly, these deposits increase in quantity. The deposits ignite if there is a hot spot
generation resulting in a fire. This is referred to as a scavenge fire.

The hot spot is generated through blow past from broken piston rings or excessive liner wear, an overheated
piston arising out of continued slow burning in the cylinder, blow back of exhaust gases through the scavenge
ports.

The first indication of a scavenge fire is a rise in scavenge temperature and a drop-in engine revolution. (In
modern engines, the scavenge high temperature alarm will be activated) The exhaust and scavenge
temperature of the affected unit will rise, causing a local overheating of the scavenge box. There will be
sparks from the scavenge box drains. Turbocharger operation could become unstable. There would be more
smoke from the exhaust. Cooling water temperature of the affected unit will rise.

Surging
The turbocharger supplies air at a pressure higher than atmospheric by compressing the air (in a blower)
across its blades. This air has a free flow to the engine if there is no obstruction in its passage. But if there is

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an obstruction, it creates a back pressure across the compressor blades of the turbocharger. This results in a
howling noise which is called SURGING. (This can also be caused due to sudden variation in load/speed, as
can occur in rough seas). In severe cases of surging, the rotor and bearing blades can get damaged.

An obstruction can occur because of choked air coolers and scavenge ports, choked exhaust ports and
manifolds, choked economizers, etc.

Surging also takes place due to a variation in exhaust pressure across the turbine blades of a turbocharger,
due to faulty fuel injectors, timings, exhaust valves or a scavenge fire. During normal running, the blower
side is water washed every day. This has to be done at full RPM of the turbocharger to ensure that the blades
are kept clean. However, the turbine side is water washed with the engine at dead slow RPM and the
turbocharger RPM in the range of 1500-2000.

Safety and Protection System

Safety and protection system for the main engine

The ships run for more than 300 days in a year continually across many seas and face bad weather, vibration,
rolling and pitching. Being located within an unmanned machinery space (UMS) which is common, is
subjected to human negligence, lack of proper upkeep and maintenance and also equipment failure. Engine
breakdown and failure do happen and sometimes under very challenging conditions. All engines are fitted
with a surveillance system that monitors important engine parameters and provide visual and audible alarms
for watchkeeper to arrest such a situation going beyond control. If the situation is not arrested by the
watchkeeper, the engine will shut down by the protection system in safeguarding the life of the main engine.

Different Types of Protections on a Main Engine

There are 4 main types of protection systems used to safeguard propulsion engine:

1. Alarm: In case of deviation of engine parameters from a set value, an audible and visual alarm will
sound which will give an early warning of the problem.
2. Slow down: It is the next stage of protection when actions taken are not sufficient to control the
ongoing problem; hence engine slowdown is done to counter the disturbed parameter.
3. Shut down: When there is a higher fluctuation in the engine parameters which can harm other
systems of the engine, the shutdown protective devices cut off the fuel supply and the engine stops.
4. Starting Interlock: This will not allow the engine to start from the stand-still condition if some
important system within the engine has not been operated or arranged properly.

Different Engine Slow Down Situations

In this situation the main engine will come to dead slow RPM i.e. below 30 RPM as the slow down protection
gets activated. Following are different slow down situation for main engine:

➢ Lube oil pressure falls to 1.5 bar

➢ Cam shaft pressure falls below 2 bar
➢ There is no flow of piston cooling media (water or oil)
➢ Oil mist detector or Main bearing sensors has been activated
➢ Lube oil temperature at the inlet of engine is high > 60 deg C

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➢ Piston Cooling temperature is high > 75 deg C
➢ Jacket water Temperature is high > 88 deg c
➢ Engine cylinder exhaust temperature is high > 450 deg C
➢ Scavenge air temperature is high > 65 deg C
➢ Thrust block temperature is high > 75 deg C
➢ Low flow of Cylinder lube oil
➢ Control air pressure is low < 5.5 bar

Different Shut down Situations:

➢ Lube oil inlet pressure to engine is very low <1 bar

➢ Cam shaft Lube oil pressure is very low < 1.5 bar
➢ Very high Jacket cooling water temperature >95 deg C
➢ Low Jacket cooling water pressure < 0.1 bar
➢ No flow of Cylinder lube oil
➢ Thrust block temperature very high > 90 deg C
➢ Lube oil inlet pressure for turbocharger is low < 0.8 bar
➢ Over speed of the engine which activates shut down at 107 % of Max. continuous rating MCR

Different Starting Interlocks are:

➢ Turning gear engage interlock

➢ Auxiliary blower off interlock
➢ Lube oil and other important pump not running interlock.

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Engine Efficiency and Slow Steaming

Majority of the ships today are propelled by slow speed two stroke engines directly coupled to a fixed pitch
propeller. If the speed of the engine is reduced, the amount of fuel required for the voyage is reduced.
Reducing the ship speed by about 20% will reduce the engine power to 45% of its nominal output. Reducing
speed by 33% and the fuel saving could be 75%. Of course the voyage will take longer. In many cases today,
shipowners are trying to go slow speed to save on fuel.

Main Engine Efficiency and Performance Curves

During the test bed or shop trial the performance curves of the engine are plotted. The performance curves
are the graphs of different parameters on x-axis plotted against engine power or load on the y-axis. These
different plotted curves are as follows:

➢ Engine RPM vs. Load: This curve helps in ascertaining whether main engine is overloaded or not.
A higher power generated at a lower RPM indicates an over loaded main engine.
➢ Mean effective pressure vs. Load: Mean effective pressure is used to calculate horse power hence
these two values should co-relate. In case they don’t then there may be some error in calculation or
instrumentation.
➢ Maximum pressure vs. Load: This curve helps in knowing the condition of fuel injection
equipment, injection timing and the compression in the cylinder etc.
➢ Compression pressure vs. Load: This curve indicates the condition of the parts maintaining
compression like piston, piston rings and exhaust valves.
➢ Scavenge air pressure vs. Load: It indicates the condition of the turbocharger and associated
equipment.
➢ Exhaust gas temperature in receiver vs. Load: It indicates the enthalpy of the exhaust gas prior to
entry in turbocharger. This value compared with the value after the turbocharger gives the
temperature drop across the turbocharger, is an indicator of turbocharger efficiency.
➢ Exhaust gas temperature after exhaust valve vs. Load: This curve sheds light on the combustion,
fuel injection, timing and compression etc. A higher temperature may be caused due to after burning.
➢ Exhaust gas temperature after turbocharger vs. Load: This curve is very useful as it indicates the
enthalpy captured from the exhaust by the turbocharger and hence its condition. In case the receiver

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temperature is within range but the outlet temperature is higher it may indicate fouling of the
turbocharger and hence the associated lower scavenge air pressure and high exhaust gas temperature.
➢ Total excess air ratio vs. Load: This curve is scarcely used by ship staff and is useful for design
engineers. This curve sheds light on scavenging and the turbocharger capacity and condition. It shows
that as the power increases the excess air decreases due to consumption.
➢ Specific fuel oil consumption vs. Load: This curve helps to counter check whether the engine is
consuming fuel oil correctly as per the load.

Efficiency and Economical Fuel Consumption

The main engine will run economically if the engine is run at the rated economic rating where the Specific
Fuel Oil Consumption is the least. An engine is performing well if it can be safely run at the rated RPM at
the rated load. For example, if an engine is having a continuous rating of 15,000 BHP at 104 RPM but cannot
reach the rated RPM and is developing 15,000 BHP prematurely at 98 RPM, there is a loss of ship’s speed.
It also tells that there is a problem, the ship cannot give speed, it is over consuming fuel and the engine is
over loaded. It points to either hull fouling, damaged propeller or faulty prime mover etc. In such cases the
careful study of the sea trial data, engine shop trial data and the performance curves will help to determine
the efficiency drop and identify the problem in hand.

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CHAPTER-17

Operational problems and hazards

Starting and Running Problems

1. WHEN AN ENGINE WILL NOT START

Should an engine start on air but move in the wrong direction, one or more starting valves must be leaking
or sticking. If an engine will not start on air the reason may be one of the following:

• the starting pressure is too low;

• stop valves between air reservoirs and engine are shut;
• starting or distributor valves are sticking;
• pilot valve may be sticking;
• starting valve may be leaking on one of the cylinders as the piston moves upwards under
compression;
• the engine is being braked by main or bottom bearings being too tight;
• because of entanglement at the propeller.

(Above-mentioned causes are in addition to any of the safety cut outs which may be triggered that are
incorporated with the engine)

2. WHEN AN ENGINE TURNS SLOWLY AT STARTING

If an engine starts very slowly on air and there is no ignition, the likely causes may be as follows:

• the starting air pressure is too low;

• the automatic starting valve does not lift sufficiently or is leaking;
• the staring valves are leaking;
• the pistons on top of starting valves are leaking;
• the pilot distributor valves are sticking;
• the air distributor chain is either slack or stretched;
• the starting stop valve may not have been opened sufficiently

3. WHEN AN ENGINE WILL NOT FIRE

If an engine starts on air, but there is no ignition subsequent to the starting handle being thrown over to "oil",
the likely causes may be as follows:

• valves between service tank and booster pump are shut;

• fuel pumps ore air locked;
• fuel valves are leaking; unsatisfactory fuel oil, which may be too heavy or contain too much water;
• fuel valve by-pass is open;
• air is in fuel-oil system;
• fuel oil filters are choked;
• no fuel oil in service tank;

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• no fuel oil pressure because of service pump fault;
• air compression pressure too low because of faulty piston rings or loss scavenge air pressure.

Should a cylinder refuse to fire when the engine is running, there may be air in the fuel pump, pipe line or
fuel valves; the remedy is to open the priming valve on the fuel valve and the air valve on the fuel pump
until there is a steady flow of fuel. Alternatively, there may be a choked fuel valve, necessitating a
replacement valve.

Improper Running
ENGINE EXHAUST NOT SMOKELESS

Should the exhaust gases become visible and contain either grey or black smoke, the likely cause may be as
follows:

➢ overloading of engine;
➢ unsuitable fuel oil;
➢ nozzle holes not suitable for fuel use;
➢ holes in nozzles partly choked:
➢ injection pressure too low;
➢ fuel valves leaking;
➢ air in fuel system;
➢ fuel valve lift incorrect;
➢ ignition too late;
➢ dirty inlet strainers;
➢ one or more of the fuel pumps may have ceased to function properly, or have become mistimed,
because a fuel cam timing gear has slackened
➢ back, thus overloading other cylinders;
➢ the air compression pressure is too low, because of leaky piston rings or scavenge air blower fault;
➢ the exhaust back pressure is too great;
➢ the fuel oil temperature may be too high for its viscosity.

An admixture of blue smoke in the exhaust gases usually signifies that lubricating oil is being burned in the
combustion space. The cause may be a leak in an oil cooled piston.

SLOWING-DOWN OF ENGINE
Should the revolutions fall, with the manoeuvring handle in its normal position, the cause may be:

➢ a seized or leaky fuel pump;

➢ regulating gear slackened back;
➢ a leaking joint, causing air-lock;
➢ a leaking priming valve or sticking fuel valve spindle, causing air locks;
➢ burst fuel delivery pipe; choked atomizing holes;
➢ fuel valve lift too small;
➢ choked fuel filters;
➢ water in the fuel;

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➢ leak in service pump by pass valve;
➢ empty service tank;
➢ air leak on suction side fuel system;
➢ choked air inlet strainer/filler;
➢ air compression pressure too low;
➢ seizure of engine component;
➢ overloading of engine via fouling of propeller; heavy weather; increase of helm to turn strip etc.

IRREGULARITY OF RUNNING
If the engine runs with irregularity the cause may be:

➢ faulty governor or governor gear;

➢ air or gases in the fuel line;
➢ water in the fuel;
➢ fuel too viscous;
➢ choking of fuel-oil filters;
➢ faulty fuel valve or valves.

Engine Knocking and Piston Running Hot

ENGINE KNOCKING

If a knock is heard while the engine is running at slow speed, or on starting from cold, it may be only the
characteristic knock which is liable to occur in most compression ignition engines in these circumstances.

It will probably disappear on the attainment of normal running speeds and temperatures. If, however, the
knocking is persistent, or if it occurs while the engine is running at normal revolutions, an investigation
should immediately be made and the cause be uncovered.

If the knocking is traceable to one cylinder the fuel supply can be passed, thus revealing whether the knock
is due to faulty combustion or to a mechanical defect in a working part.

Apart from overloading, knocking may be caused by:

➢ Too much play in oscillating parts;

➢ Ignition too early;
➢ Injection pressure too high;
➢ Leaking or sticking valves;
➢ Unsatisfactory fuel atomisation;
➢ Ignition too late
➢ Uneven distribution of fuel to different cylinders.

PISTON RUNNING HOT

Likely causes of "piston running hot" is due to "scuffing" or leaky fuel injector creating after burning. Prompt
action is necessary in this case:

➢ engine speed should be reduced to "dead slow" at once,

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➢ cut out fuel from the cylinder concerned,
➢ maximum quantity of coolant should be passed through piston and increase cylinder lubrication,
➢ try to maintain cylinder cooling temperature on the higher side (in the admissible range).

IT IS NOT ADVISABLE TO STOP THE ENGINE IMMEDIATELY - as such action may cause the piston
to seize.

Cutting off the fuel in itself cause a general reduction in temperature. Piston temperature should come down
gradually with extra cooling.

If the engine must be stopped, the turning gear should be engaged immediately and engine kept moving until
the excess heat has been carried off.

Carry out investigation after piston has sufficiently cooled down and engine has been stopped.

In Marine diesel engine operation, the major cause for the damage of the machinery, and the serious injuries
to watch keepers and others present, are normally due to Crankcase Explosion, Scavenge Fire and Air
Starting Line Explosion. The Watch keepers have to be familiar with the indications and immediate actions
to be taken to avoid any serious accidents. It is well known that faulty operation of a marine Diesel engine
could lead to serious and far reaching consequences. The three most common hazards relating to the
operation of marine Diesel engines are:

I. Crankcase explosion
II. Scavenge Fire
III. Starting Air Explosion.

Crankcase Explosion
During operation, hot spots are formed when friction between bearing surfaces increases due to insufficient
lubrication. If a hot spot is formed inside the crankcase then the lubricating oil coming into contact with the
hot spot vaporizes. These vapours condense in areas where temperature is normal and form oil mist.
Normally the mist concentration a at safe level as lubricating oil has low volatility and high flash point. If
the concentration of the mist increases beyond the safe level, it ignites when it comes in contact with the hot
spots and causes an explosion.

An oil mist detector on the engine, monitors the mist concentration in the crankcase of all units. It sounds an
alarm and reduces the speed of engine if the oil mist concentration increases above the preset limit.

Crankcase relief door releases the pressure inside the crankcase in the event of an explosion. It has a flame
trap and a deflector to prevent discharge of flame inside the engine room.

Basic Phenomenon
Agitation of moving parts inside the crankcase of a marine Diesel engine, with lubricating oil at high
temperature, splashing inside the crankcase at various locations, gives rise to large amounts of oil droplets
called mists, to be generated.

This mist will, under normal circumstances, will not burn or explode spontaneously, particularly since the
oil droplets are too large to start burning at the speed needed to cause an explosion.

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The additional, abnormal factor, which is necessary for the starting of ignition of this mist, is a very “hot
component” or rather, in particular a “hotspot on such component”.

Blow-by past the pistons due to worn cylinder liners and/or broken piston rings, particularly in an engine
without a diaphragm, are the main cause of this hazard. Other similar faults could also occur in the chain-
case or cam-case. Records indicate that practically, every part of the running gear of a Diesel engine has at
some time or another, led to a crankcase explosion.

Experiments with SAE-30 lubricating oil (usually used in the crankcase of a large marine Diesel engine)
have shown that the oil mist would start generating at about and also that there are certain temperature-
regions, which are quite amenable to an ignition / explosion. Besides, it has also been seen that a minimum
oil mist concentration of 50 milligrams per litre (i.e. about 13% oil mist-air, ratio) of crankcase volume is
necessary to produce an explosive mixture (which it is at its lower explosive limit), and that, longer the
combustion path, the more violent the explosion.

Once the oil mist encounters a temperature of about, it is ignited and this may lead to an explosion.

Amidst all this explosive mixture, if a “hot-spot” exists (say due to failure of lubrication to bearings,
sprockets or similar parts) some of this mist will come in contact with it and get evaporated ( in addition,
some of the lubricating oil is broken down to flammable gases such as Hydrogen and Acetylene). This
evaporated mixture will float on to the relatively cooler parts of the crankcase, where it will condense to
form a white-mist. This white-mist comprises finely divided oil particles, intimately mixed with air. This
white-mist, with oil droplets of 5 to 10 microns in diameter is readily ignitable, within “certain ideal
concentrations”.

If this mist now circulates back to the “hot-spot”, in the said “certain-ideal-concentrations”, it would be
ignited and, a primary or minor crankcase explosion will take place.

This minor explosion will cause a flame front and pressure wave to accelerate through the crankcase. During
this travel of the flame front, more oil droplets are evaporated in its path. The cycle of evaporation and
condensation repeats and with the “hot spot” persisting, the flame front can become unimaginably fast and
ultimately lead to a major shock-wave(travelling at about 1.5 to 2 miles per second and producing pressures
of about 30 atmospheres), by the time it reaches the crankcase-casing to rupture the crankcase-doors, unless
otherwise relieved through the crankcase relief doors(fitted to engines with a bore greater than 300 mm. The
total clear area through the relief valve should not normally be less than of gross crankcase volume). If this
shock-wave is relieved through the crankcase relief doors, the low pressure(may be below atmospheric
pressure) area trailing the wave will in turn draw air into the crankcase, mix with evaporated and burning
oil-mist to cause a secondary or major explosion, causing widespread damage, leading to fires in the vicinity
and injury to personnel. If the relief doors do not reseal after lifting, or if they do not lift at all (due to a
malfunction) during the primary explosion, then the door(s) may be blown off during the primary explosion.
This will make a secondary explosion more likely. Air could also be drawn-in via the crankcase vent,
although rules make it mandatory that these vents must be as small as possible and new installations must
be fitted with a non-return valve.

There could also be a possibility of the pressure wave created during the primary explosion to eject a large
amount of oil mist out into the engine room. Even though it is expected that the flame arrestors (i.e. wire
gauze) on the relief door (having external deflectors to divert the hot gases in the direction they do limited

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damage) would prevent ignition of this oil mist by the flame front, the mist may be sucked up towards the
turbocharger where it could also be ignited by an un-lagged exhaust manifold.

Description of a typical Crankcase Oil Mist Detector

The purpose of this detector is to detect the presence of oil mist at the concentration-levels well below the
limit at which a crankcase explosion is liable to trigger. It basically comprises two parallel tubes of similar
size, each having a photo-electric cell (these are light sensitive and generate an electric current which is
proportional to the intensity of the light falling on their surface) fitted at one end. The lenses seal the tubes
but allow light to pass. Two identical beams of light from the centrally positioned same lamp, are reflected
by mirrors to pass along the tubes on to the cells, which are then in electrical balance. One of the tubes
contains clean air and is called the reference tube. The other tube has connections through which the
representative vapours of the crankcase are drawn by means of an electrically-driven extractor fan. Sampling
points are normally fitted to each cylinder crankcase and their connections are led to a rotating-selector-
valve, which repeatedly connects each sampling point to the measuring tube, in proper sequence. Should the
concentration of the oil-mist be present in a certain sample, light shall be obscured before reaching the cell
of the measuring tube, the electrical balance as mention before will be disturbed and an alarm will be
operated. At the detection point, the rotator stops to indicate, which sampling point is to be investigated.
After testing, the samples are led away to the atmosphere.

The detector must be reset before the alarm ceases and then the sampling procedure will resume its cyclic
monitoring. The detector should be tested periodically and its sensitivity and zero-setting checked. The
lenses and mirror should be kept cleaned.

A Typical Crankcase Relief Door

Description of a typical Crankcase Pressure Relief Valve

The figure to the above-right shows a crankcase pressure relief valve. The valve disc is of aluminium alloy.
This makes the mass of the valve relatively lighter, causing its inertia to be overcome more easily for the
opening and closing of the valve. The relatively large diameter spring will render greater sensitivity and
make the valve respond to change of pressure readily. The absence of a valve-spindle allows a non-stick /
non-sluggish operation of the valve. The valve seating must make a gas / oil-tight seal, when closed. To
ensure this, a non-stick oil and heat resistance rubber ring is fitted to the disc face. The external aluminium

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valve cover acts as a deflector (fitted by studs) to direct any gas emitted from the crankcase side, over an arc
of 120°. This will ensure that the direction in which the hot gas (mist) is emitted, will inflict least damage.
The dome shaped flame trap is made of several layers of mild steel wire gauze. This dome protrudes into the
crankcase so that it gets copiously wetted with oil mist as splashed / agitated from the nearest bearing-throws.
This wetting with oil mist causes the gauze to dissipate greater heat, rendering it more effective as a flame
trap. The exposed area of the gauze should be equal to or slightly more than the area of the valve-opening.
The valve spring is designed to lift the valve under an internal pressure of approximately and will quickly
reseat automatically when the pressure is relieved. As already stated above, for engines above 300 mm bore,
one crankcase relief valve of approved design is fitted to each crankcase and chain case. The combined area
of the relief valves should not be less than per cubic metre of the volume of the crankcase. The free area of
each valve is not to be less than. Smaller engines afford a reduction in the size and number of these relief
valves. Even though the valves require minimum maintenance, they should be periodically tested by “hand-
sharp pressure” and “instant-releasing-of-pressure”. Besides, the spring should be inspected and the wetted
gauze cleaned from time to time.

Scavenge Space Fire

Scavenge air flows from scavenge manifold to under piston scavenge space .The air from the scavenge space
flows into the cylinder through the scavenge ports.

Basic Phenomenon

Obviously, if a scavenge fire has to instance, there has to be a combustible material, air(oxygen) to support
the said combustion and a high-enough temperature source of heat to trigger the said combustion. The
combustible material in this case comprises oil / oil-residues originating from the following sources:

➢ Cylinder oil drained-down from the liner / piston-ring surfaces;

➢ Crankcase oil brought up by the piston rod while reciprocating, because of a faulty stuffing-box;
➢ Oil residues / unburnt oil, formed as by products of lubrication-cum-combustion happening in the
enclosed cylinder. These residues may come from defective fuel injectors / injectors with faulty
pressure of opening;
➢ Cylinder lubricating oil/fuel oil striking the cylinder and then running down to the scavenge space;
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The air (oxygen) necessary for combustion is readily available from the scavenge air which is available in
abundance (through turbocharging) for the operation of the very engine. The source of heat for triggering
the ignition comes from various sources like, piston blow-past, slow ignition / afterburning or exhaust-back
pressure (causes a blow back through the scavenge ports).

Poor combustion-performance is one of the broad causes which lead to scavenge fires. The reasons which
may lead to poor combustion may include defective fuel injector / fuel pump, faulty fuel pump timing,
incorrect fuel condition, lack of scavenge air, partially choked exhaust, low compression pressure in the
cylinder, after burning, operating the engine under overloaded conditions, faulty piston rings, badly worn
cylinder liner and wrongly timed / excessive cylinder lubrication.

The cylinder lubricating oil drains into the under piston scavenge space from the cylinder liner. The carbon
deposits and unburnt fuel also accumulates in the scavenge space. This mixture ignites, if any spark from
the cylinder enters the scavenge space

The scavenge fire occurs due to one or combination of the following:

➢ Prolonged blowby
➢ An overheated piston
➢ A blow back of the exhaust gases
➢ Improper combustion
➢ Inadequate scavenge draining and stuffing box
➢ Inadequate scavenge draining
➢ An over heated piston rod and stuffing box.

Air Starting Line Explosion

The starting air from the reservoir has traces of oil, which deposits on the walls of starting air manifold.
These deposits accumulate over a period of time.

The starting air valve mounted on the cylinder is kept in a closed position by the springs and compression
pressure. When the engine is started, the pilot air opens the valve to allow the starting air. If the starting air
valve leaks during combustion, the exhaust gases enter the starting air manifold. The hot exhaust gases ignite
the oil deposits and cause an explosion.

To prevent the oil carry over, the air reservoir is regularly drained and the air compressors are maintained
properly.

Safety devices
➢ A no-return valve is fitted between the starting air receiver and the manifold. It limits the explosion
and ensures that the fire does not reach the air receiver.
➢ A flame trap is fitted after the starting air valve to prevent any flame or sparks from entering into the
starting air manifold.
➢ A relief valve or bursting disc is fitted on the manifold to release the excess pressure in case of
explosion. If busting disc burst engine can be restarted after repositioning the cap of the bursting disc.

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Certain requirements related to machinery for minimizing the risk of starting-air line explosions and
its effects

➢ Air compressor intakes are to be located in a reasonably oil vapour - free atmosphere. Alternatively,
an air duct from outside the machinery space is to be led to the vicinity of the air compressor intake.
➢ A provision has to be made for trapping and draining any oil and water in the air discharge. For this
purpose, a separator or filter is to be fitted in the discharge pipe between compressors and the air
receivers.
➢ The starting-air pipe system from receivers to the main and auxiliary engines, is to be totally separate
from the compressor-discharge pipe system.
➢ Valve chests and fittings in the starting-air piping system are to be of ductile material (as is well
known, ductile materials can absorb shock-waves more effectively).
➢ Drain valves for removing accumulations of oil and water are to be fitted on compressors, separators,
filters and receivers. If the pipelines are at the low-level, drain valves are to be fitted to suitably
located drain-pots or separators.
➢ The starting air piping system is to be protected against the effects of explosions by providing an
isolating non-return valve at the starting-air supply to each engine.
➢ For direct-reversing main engines, flame arresters or bursting discs are required to be fitted at the air-
starting valves on each cylinder.
➢ For non-reversing main engines and auxiliary engines, at least a single flame arrester or bursting disc
is required to be fitted at the supply inlet to the starting air manifold on each engine. The fitting of
bursting discs or flame arresters may be exempted for engines in which the cylinder bore does not
exceed 230 mm.

Bursting Disc Bursting Disc (MAN B&W) Bursting Disc Flame Arrester (MAN B&W)

Bursting Discs
The bursting disc, as shown in the labelled diagram above, has sufficient strength to withstand normal
starting-air pressure as required for starting the engine, with the pistons in any position. In the event of an
instantaneous rise of air-pressure (caused by say, shock-waves, during an explosion) in the cylinder, the
bursting disc ruptures and the high-pressure starting-air gets vented to atmosphere (without bursting the
pipes / fittings), inter alia, through the perforated cylinder (the perforations in the cylinder and the top-cover,
match), in a manner that will prevent injury to personnel. However, in this “disc-ruptured” condition, the
starting-air will continue to be vented to atmosphere, without reaching the piston-top for imparting the
required starting-momentum. Therefore, under ideal conditions, the bursting disc should be renewed
forthwith. If this renewal is feasible, the high-pressure starting-air continues as normal to move the pistons
for starting purposes. If this immediate disc renewal is not feasible and yet the engine needs to be started-
stopped-started repeatedly for manoeuvring purposes, the top-cover (also perforated, as stated above) is
partially-rotated, so that the perforations on the top-cover and those on the cylinder, do not match, and the
venting of the starting-air to atmosphere is blocked. This blocking will allow the high-pressure starting-air
to be made available for reaching the piston-top for imparting the required starting-momentum, which is
necessary for the starting-stopping-starting of the engine.

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Crank Case Inspection
An engine crankcase houses the crankshaft and main bearings. Main bearings take the load of the crankshaft.
Lube oil has to be inspected and maintained at correct pressure and temperature to reduce the wear and
increase the life of bearings. Quality of oil is observed everyday while checking the sump oil level

The crankcase is inspected periodically to check the following:

➢ External condition of the crankpin and main bearings

➢ Locking arrangements of connecting rod bolts
➢ Securing arrangements of balance weights
➢ Locking arrangements of main bearing bolts
➢ Connecting rod play in the crankpin
➢ Condition of the lubricating oil
➢ Flow of the lubricating oil
➢ Check the crank case wall for carbon deposit.
➢ Check the crank case wall for any sign of micro-organism.
➢ Any smell of Hydrogen Sulphide.
➢ Check the crank case relief door opening by pressing with the hand or if possible, check with spring
balance so that value of force applied can be seen.
➢ Any discolouration signifying hot spot.

Running gears of the engine housed in the crankcase are inspected periodically during overhauls. These
gears include crankshaft, connecting rod, crosshead bearings and others. In some design tie rod bolts are
there in crankcase, their tightness is also checked during crankcase inspection.

The sides of bearing shell, guide shoes and guide strips, are examined for squeezed out or loosened metal.
There should not be any white metal fragments in the oil pan. It should be ensured that securing, and locking
arrangements of all the fasteners are intact.

Lubricating oil flow through main bearings, connecting rod bearings, crosshead bearings and the guide shoes
is checked. The oil flow through the bearings is compared with adjacent units for similarities. The bearing
and guide shoe clearances are measured periodically as recommended by the maker. Check the crankcase
relief door whether they are opening at correct pressure or not by spring balance.

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Crank Shaft Deflection
The crankshaft deflection readings are periodically measured and recorded. The readings are obtained by
turning the engine and measuring the deflections between the webs of the individual crank throws. The crank
webs open out or close in depending on the height of the supporting main bearings. This indicate the shaft
alignment and wear down of the main bearings.

The main bearings have upper and lower bearing shells. The lower bearing shells support the crankshaft.
The bearings are aligned to share the load equally. Wear down of any of the bearings overloads the adjacent
bearings.

Readings of a single unit cannot indicate misalignment of shafts. The crankshaft deflection readings of all
the units are interpreted to determine the cause of misalignment.

The crankshaft deflection is measured to ascertain the alignment of the crankshaft. It is measured in a similar
way as described for the auxiliary engines.

It should be ensured that the propeller is clear before turning the engine for deflection measurement. The
trim and list of the ship will affect the readings.

The ship should be upright and at even keel while taking the deflection measurements. All the readings
should be taken at the same trim.

While taking the readings of the unit next to turning gear, the pinion should not lift the flywheel. This will
give false readings. It is a good practice to take the load off the turning gear pinion, by turning the gear back
in opposite direction.

Vertical and horizontal deflection readings are calculated and the maximum deflection value should not
exceed the maker's recommendation.

A curve is drawn with the values of the vertical misalignment obtained at each crank. Starting from one end.
The deflection at each crank is progressively added and the points are plotted. If the deflections are uniform.
The curve drawn through the points is smooth. The curve is allowed to deviate at each crank position by an
angle proportional to the deflection measured at that crank. The curve displays an unequal deviation. The
curve is used to isolate the faulty bearing.

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CHAPTER-18

Governor
A Governor is a device that controls the engine speed or output automatically. The purpose of any prime
mover is to produce power. The prime mover should be controlled and directed as desired.

In a propulsion plant the operator regulates the power output of the plant to match propeller thrust at a desired
rpm of the engine. The rate of power supply is constantly controlled while the ship is under way. It is
impossible for even the most skilled operator to do this job effectively and efficiently.

Hence, the governor is used for automatic control.

Speed Governor
The primary function of the governor is to measure speed. The secondary function is to move the governor
terminal or output shaft according to the measured speed. This shaft is connected to the control rod of the
fuel injection system.

Types
Depending upon how the centrifugal force is used in moving the throttle, governors may be divided into two
groups:

Mechanical governor: Flyweight balls through mechanical linkages directly operate control mechanism,
which regulates the fuel supply.

Mechanical hydraulic governor: Here flyweights actuate a relay or a supply of external power (oil under
pressure).

Electronic governor: Compared with mechanical and hydraulic governors, electronic governors use DC/AC
signals to maintain speed. They do not have any mechanical linkages. Henceforth, they are accurate in speed
measurement and control.

Mechanical Governor
A mechanical governor overcomes friction in the linkages and exerts a controlling force. These forces act in
different directions depending upon whether the load is increasing or decreasing.

A simple mechanical governor with flyweights is shown. The ball head or ball arm consists of two
eccentrically pivoted, flyweights mounted on opposite sides of a rotating sleeve or a spindle. Speed of
rotation of the ball arms is proportional to engine speed. It may be a direct drive or through a step up gear.
When ball arm rotates it causes the flyweights to rotate. This results in a centrifugal force to be set up. The
centrifugal force is used as a feed back in controlling the engine speed. At equilibrium condition the speeder
spring force matches the centrifugal force generated by the flyweights.

The spindle is connected to a linkage. A pivot supports the linkage. The other end of the linkage is connected
to the fuel control valve through a fuel rod.

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Increase in load
When load is applied to the engine, the speed of engine starts to decrease. Since the governor is connected
directly to the engine or through a gear mechanism, the rotational speed of the ball arms also decreases.
Reduced speed of flyweights results in reduced centrifugal force.

The speeder spring force exceeds the centrifugal force. This causes the flyweights to move in. The flyweights
rotate close to the axis of rotation. This results in spindle or rotating sleeve to move down. As the spindle
moves down, the linkage at the other end moves up, allowing more amount of fuel.

When quantity of fuel increases the speed of engine also increases and reaches the set value.

Decrease in load

When load on the engine decreases, the speed of engine starts to increase. Since the governor is connected
to the engine directly or through a gear mechanism, the rotational speed of the ball arms also increases.
Increased speed of flyweights results in increased centrifugal force.

The centrifugal force exceeds the speeder spring force. This causes the flyweights to move out. The
flyweights rotate away from the axis of rotation. This causes the spindle or rotating sleeve to move up. As
the spindle moves up, the linkage at the other end moves down, reducing the amount of fuel. When quantity
of fuel decreases the speed of engine also decreases and reaches the set value.

MECHANICAL GOVERNOR Increase in load

Decrease in load

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Mechanical Hydraulic Governor

A simple mechanical hydraulic governor with flyweights is shown in sketch. The ball head or ball arm
consists of two flyweights which rotate eccentrically.

They are mounted on opposite sides of a rotating sleeve or a spindle. Speed of rotation of the ball arms is
proportional to speed of engine. It may be a direct drive or through a step up gear. When ball arm rotates it
causes the flyweights to rotate. This results in a centrifugal force which is used as a feedback in controlling
the speed of engine.

A rod connects the sleeve to the hydraulic piston. There is also a compensating piston which is attached to
this rod. In equilibrium condition the oil pressure on both sides of compensating piston are balanced. If oil
pressures on each of the piston are unbalanced then this compensating piston is subjected to an unbalanced
force. This unbalanced force will then get added up or subtracted to from the speeder spring compression
force at the ball head.

If the engine speed decreases, the centrifugal force decreases and allows the sleeve to be lowered by the
spring. Conversely if the engine speed increases, the centrifugal force increases and fly weights raise the
sleeve.

As the engine speed slows down, the ball head moves the piston valve down, uncovers the port and allows
oil under pressure to pass into the system.

The pressure acts on the buffer piston, forcing it to the right. This compresses the right hand buffer spring
which displaces oil on the right hand side.

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This movement causes the power piston to move up, which increases the fuel pump settings.

Due to the compression of the buffer springs, the oil pressure on the right of the buffer piston will be less
than that on its left. These pressures act on the under side of the compensation piston. This results in an
upward force. The piston valve returns to its shut position even though the speed of engine has not returned
to its set value.

The pressure difference across the compensating piston is temporary because the needle valve allows oil to
pass slowly to balance both sides. The buffer piston spring returns to its mid position.

The ball head returns to its original setting. The controls are at a higher setting matching with the demand
for greater power.

If the engine speed increases, the ball head raises the piston valve, releasing oil from the servo system to
oil return. The buffer piston moves to the left.

This causes the power piston to move down reducing the settings to slow the engine. There is an
unbalanced force on the compensating piston. This together with the speeder spring forces the piston valve
to move down and close the oil passages. These changes are temporary until the pressure equalise through
the needle valve.

The flow rate past the needle valve is adjusted to match the engine response characteristic. This is the time
taken to respond to a change in fuel setting.

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CHAPTER-19

Scavenging and Supercharging

INTRODUCTION
In any engine, the fundamental requirement of replacing the air charge in the cylinder must be met. In a 2-
stroke engine no separate inlet and exhaust strokes exist. The time available for these processes is shorter
and about one fourth (4th) to that of an engine operating on 4 stroke cycle. The process of exchanging the
gases present in the cylinder after completion of expansion with a charge of uncontrolled fresh air is termed
as "scavenging".

Supercharging involves in compressing the air charge that is admitted through the lower ports in the cylinder
in a 2-stroke engine; or via the inlet valves in a 4-stroke engine. The compression of atmospheric air is done
via a gas turbine prime-mover that is driven off the exhaust gas from the main engine.

The gas turbine and the rotary compressor is fitted on a single shaft. The air, thus compressed is further
cooled in an intercooler before being admitted to the engine.

Both scavenging that removes the burnt gases and supercharging process that fills up the cylinder with fresh
pressurized air are important for engine efficiency. Both these systems also need careful upkeep and
maintenance.

Scavenging System
In a two-stroke engine the scavenging process is completed in a short time period, before and after the piston
reaches the bottom dead centre of piston without appreciable piston displacement.

Three types of scavenging processes employed in two stroke engines are:

➢ Cross flow scavenging

➢ Loop scavenging
➢ Uni flow scavenging

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Supercharging System
It is the most effective method of pressure charging. It utilises waste heat of exhaust gases.

Advantages of using a turbocharger are:

➢ Higher plant efficiency

➢ No separate power source required
➢ Caters to overloading condition
➢ More efficient than other forms of supercharging.

In the turbocharger shown in the media, lubrication is achieved by integral lubricating oil bath. Integral
lubrication is provided to lubricate ball bearings.

However, in turbochargers using traditional sleeve bearings, lubrication is achieved by external lubrication
system, consisting of an individual reservoir, pumps, coolers, strainers and fine filters.

Types
The two methods of turbocharging are:

➢ Pulse turbocharging
➢ Constant pressure
turbocharging

Pulse turbocharging
In the pulse turbocharging system,
exhaust pipes are grouped and
connected to the turbine. The
grouping is done according to the
exhaust valve timing so that the
exhaust from one cylinder does not

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enter the other cylinders. The kinetic energy of the exhaust gases during the blowdown is utilised for running
the turbine.

Advantages
➢ Highly responsive
➢ Good turbocharger acceleration
➢ Good low load performance
➢ Better scavenging
➢ Auxiliary blower not required, while running at low load

Disadvantages
➢ Poor turbine efficiency at high ratings
➢ Turbine operation rough and inefficient
➢ Complex exhaust piping

Constant pressure turbocharging

In the constant pressure turbocharging system
each cylinder exhaust gas is piped to a
common exhaust gas manifold. From the
manifold, a single pipe leads to the turbine.
One turbocharger is sufficient. However, two
turbochargers are provided for higher number
of cylinders. The heat energy of the exhaust
gas is utilised for running the turbine.

Advantages
➢ High turbine efficiency
➢ Good performance at high
load
➢ Efficient and smooth turbine operation
➢ Less specific fuel consumption
➢ Exhaust piping simple
➢ Flexibility in turbine positioning

Disadvantages
➢ Poor performance at part load
➢ Less sensitivity
➢ Scavenge assistance essential
➢ Auxiliary blower required, while running at low load

If the air pressure in the blower falls below delivery pressure, there will be a sudden breakdown of air
delivery. This is followed by a back flow of air through the blower, which will continue until the delivery

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resistance has decreased to resume air discharge. This periodical breakdown of air delivery is called surging
which produces an irregular howling noise from the turbocharger

Symptoms of Surging
➢ Howling Noise
➢ Rapid surges in scavenge air pressure
➢ Intermittent intake of air by blower
➢ Repeated irregular violent thud from air intake to blower
➢ Alternate suck in and push out at blower air intake
➢ Fluctuating rpm of turbocharger

Causes
➢ Dirty air filter
➢ Power imbalance between cylinders
➢ Rapid increase in engine speed
➢ Faulty injection
➢ Fouled and damaged turbine
➢ Fouled air cooler
➢ Overpressure at scavenge manifold
➢ Mismatch of engine and turbocharger

Remedy
➢ Match the engine and turbocharger.
➢ Reduce the speed of engine and reduce the pressure of scavenge manifold.
➢ Check and clean dirty components.
➢ Wash the gas and air side of turbo charger regularly.

Surge Limit
The graph shows blower characteristic curves for different speeds of operation. The characteristic curve
depicts the relationship between mass flow rate of air and pressure ratio for a particular speed of blower.

When the mass flow rate of air is maximum without any restriction, the pressure developed is less. When
the mass flow rate of air reduces, the pressure increases. After a certain point, as the flow reduces, the
pressure drops and the reversal of air flow takes place.

The surge limit is the point on each curve where a blower cannot work at low mass flow rate for a given
pressure ratio. The portion of the curve on the left is inoperable due to surge. This is shown as dotted line on
the left. The blower is most efficient to the right of the surge limit point. The line joining these surge limit
points is called surge limit line.

Turbocharger Water Washing

Turbochargers of Marine Engines are important part of the system as they utilise the waste heat of the exhaust
in order to supply charge air for scavenging of the engine. The equipment consists of turbine and blower

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attached on the same shaft. The rotation of turbine side as a result of the exhaust gases flowing over it turns
the blower and supplies air to the scavenge side.

Turbocharger converts the waste energy of exhaust gas into useful work and hence it is important to maintain
the machinery, or else the reduced efficiency will hamper the power output of the marine engine.

Turbochargers operated on HFO are exposed to fouling and deposits originating from the engine’s exhaust
gases. The extent of the turbine side fouling depends on various factors, such as fuel quality, the engine
operating point or combustion quality. Fouling reduces the turbocharger’s efficiency and results in both
higher exhaust gas temperatures and increased fuel consumption. Regular turbine cleaning also helps to keep
engine performance up to design power. Two turbine cleaning methods

The Cleaning of the Turbine side and blower side is carried out at regular interval of time to remove carbon,
soot, and other exhaust deposits. Thecleaning of turbocharger is carried out when the engine is running. If
the turbine side cleaning is not carried out then the fouling may lead to back pressure & surging resulting in
breakage of turbine blades.

If the blower side cleaning is not carried out properly, then the supply of air to engine will be reduced,
resulting in lack of of air and improper combustion with black smoke.

Procedure for cleaning turbine side

Two methods are used to clean turbine side–

1) Water Washing
In this method, the engine speed is reduced until the temperature of the exhaust inlet falls below . Fresh
Water used for washing must be slightly hot and the water is injected through a regulating valve connected
to the turbine side. This is done to avoid thermal shock to the machinery. The ABB Turbocharging water
washing system allows turbine cleaning while operating at reduced load. Two methods are in use. A
procedure with a short water injection time (30 seconds) is permissible on any turbocharger turbine casing.

While performing water washing the drain is kept open. When the water feed is closed the drain is observed
until no water comes out. The engine is run for further 20 minutes with less rpm to dry out the turbine from
water. Before increasing the rpm, drain is shut and any abnormal vibration must be observed.

The long water injection procedure (ten-minute wash) was first introduced with the latest turbine casings,
which feature an additional gasket between the turbine casing and the bearing casing (TH22, TH32 and
TH42). Field experience and tests have shown improved cleaning results with the ten-minute washing
procedure. Especially good results were obtained when washing with the engine idling. Recommendation In
cases where operators experience inadequate results when cleaning with short water injection, ABB
Turbocharging recommends changing to the ten-minute procedure, regardless of the casing type. On
turbochargers without the additional gasket, long water injection may lead to minor water leakage between
the bearing casing and the turbine casing. This is due to unequal thermal expansion during the long water
injection procedure. The water leakage represents no risk to the turbocharger and it is up to the operator to
judge whether a potential temporary leakage is permissible from an operational point of view. Regardless of
the chosen washing procedure, the exhaust gas temperature limits described in the operation manual must
be maintained carefully. Failure to precisely observe the washing procedures may drastically shorten the

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service life of the components. The detailed washing procedures are described in the operation manual. For
questions concerning washing, or to obtain the latest operation manual, please contact your local ABB
Service Station.

2) Dry Washing
For Dry washing carbon granules are used which are injected inside the turbine through compressed air
system.

The engine speed is not reduced as there is no risk of thermal stresses in dry washing.

Procedure for Cleaning Blower Side

The Blower side of turbocharger is cleaned by fresh water. The engine is run at its full load rpm to achieve
best possible cleaning. A container is fitted with an inlet line coming from the blower discharge side and the
outlet line from the container or cylinder goes for washing blower side.

When the valve in the inlet of cylinder or container is opened, compressed air carry water with pressure and
the kinetic energy of water cleans the Blower.

Main propulsion shaft torque and speed measurement

Strain gauge torsionmeter

The measurement of torsion is usually made by electrical means.

The twisting or torsion of a rotating shaft can be measured in a number of different ways to give a value of
applied torque.

Shaft power can then be calculated by multiplying the torque by the rotational speed of the shaft.

With this device four strain gauges are mounted onto the shaft, as shown in Figure below. The twisting of
the shaft as a result of an applied torque results in a change in resistance of the strain gauge system or bridge.
Brushes and sliprings are used to take off the electrical connections and complete the circuit, as shown. More
recently use has been made of the resistance change converted to a frequency change.

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 MEO CLASS 4 -MOTOR
A frequency converter attached to the shaft is used for this purpose: this frequency signal is then transmitted
without contact to a digital frequency receiver. When a torque is applied to the shaft, readings of strain and
hence torque can be made.

Change-over of bridge control

Basic change over mechanism of controls from bridge, to engine-control-room, to engine-local- control (as
varied and applicable from ship to ship and, vice versa.

The changeover and operating procedure may vary for different engines as different control systems are
adopted for different engine types. When there is automation or remote-control failure, then changeover of
control is to be changed from remote (either wheelhouse or ECR) to Local control stand.

Wheel house control

For bridge control the engine control should be in “Bridge” position. Local manoeuvring lever and fuel lever
must be in position REMOTE CONTROL on the local manoeuvring stand. Ensure that there are no alarms
or cut outs which would activate an interlock in engine safety system thereby preventing the engine from
starting. Additionally, while changing over the engine controls from control room to bridge, it is important
that we are vigilant on the inappropriate position of start air main valve or auxiliary blower in any position,
other than AUTO.

Controls from Engine Control Room (ECR)

Local manoeuvring lever and fuel lever must be in position REMOTE CONTROL (i.e. ECR) on the local
manoeuvring stand.

For further procedure to start on remote control, please refer to the documentation of the remote-control
automation-manufacturer

Depending on the design features the controls for engine could be from the

• Bridge or control room, with remote control.

• At the local manoeuvring stand with emergency control.

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Controls from Emergency stand
Take over on Local Control is possible either with engine running or at engine stop. Change over to Remote
Control, however, is only possible while the engine is at stop. Operation from emergency stand must only
be chosen in emergencies e.g. in case of defective governor output. Make sure that the overspeed monitoring
is correctly set and that it functions perfectly. Speed indication should be regularly checked so as to ensure
fuel supply is immediately adjusted when the speed varies.

Fuel lever to be notched out from position REMOTE CONTROL and to be notched into the control linkage.

Starting:
• Switch on all auxiliary blowers.
• Respond to the telegraph orders from Wheel house and bring manoeuvring lever to the desired
direction of rotation (AHEAD or ASTERN).
• Bring fuel lever to the start position
• Press manoeuvring lever to START position (AHEAD or ASTERN) till the engine runs.
• Slowly move fuel lever till the engine runs at the required speed.

Stopping
• Bring the fuel level down to stop position

NOTE: It is reminded that operation of the Diesel engine from REMOTE (i.e. either Navigation bridge or
Engine Control Room) or LOCAL / EMERGENCY, varies from plant to plant and also with the make of the
engine and its automation. Therefore, it may be worthwhile to consult the manufacturer’s instruction before
attempting to understand the specific system that is involved with these controls. The above are basically
simple guidelines, which do not explain the system in due details.

Modern methods of creating Indicator diagrams

The mechanical equipment is limited by the speed of the engine and the skill of the operator. Normally it is
not possible to obtain an accurate power card on engines running above 120rpm because of vibrations in the
equipment. Draw cards are reliant on the operator’s skill. It is possible to take drawcards on engines running
up to about 450 rpm.

Modern methods allow the computer to generate indicator diagrams and calculate the power developed in
the cylinder for engines running at any speed.

The equipment consists of a pressure transducer which screws onto the indicator cock which is connected to
the processing unit. A crankshaft position detector is also fitted to the prop shaft or engine flywheel which
measures the crank angle to . The crankshaft position is also fed back to the processing unit.

The indicator cock is opened and when ready the information is stored to the processing unit. When all the
cylinder readings have been completed, the information is downloaded to a computer and the results
reviewed. The computer will draw a power card and a crank angle diagram. It is possible to view the cylinder

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diagrams individually or overlay them on top of each other (each cylinder being represented by a different
colour).

From the crank angle diagram, faults in the injection process can be determined:
It should be noted that some slow speed two strokes (MAN B&W MC engines) combustion is delayed until
after TDC to limit the pressure rise to 35, bar, to prevent overloading of the crosshead bearing. This will give
a slight dip in the pressure after TDC, which should not be construed as a fault.

Adjustments: In case of a reduced Indicated horse power, the engine is fine tuned for proper fuel injection
timing after making sure that the scavenge air space is properly cleaned and enough air is supplied to the
engine. The worn-out cylinder liner/ piston rings in any of the cylinders also reduces the power and can be
corrected during the overhaul of that Unit. Similarly, a leaky stuffing box can also be corrected at that time.

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CHAPTER-20

ORAL QUESTIONS

SECTION - 1
1. What is the difference between fuel valve opening pressure and fuel injection pressure?
2. What is an under slung crankshaft?
3. How many crankshafts are there in Vee type engines?
4. How are connecting rods fitted?
5. Do two stroke engines need tappet clearance adjustment?
6. How will you know, without opening anything, that an engine is 2S or 4S?
7. What are the two strokes in 2S engines called?
8. Why does Sulzer use hydraulic jack bolts for main bearings?
9. What is the meaning of TBN in lube oils?
10. Why is LO of different TBN used for M/E cylinder oil and Crankcase oil?
11. What are the values of TBN for A/E crankcase oil?
12. What is the difference between "heat" and "temperature?
13. If water is found in crank case lo, what could be the cause?
14. Engine type and expansion
15. Scavenge type
16. What is under piston scavenging, series or parallel connected?
17. Starting air overlap
18. Firing sequence
19. How power calculated
20. How power calculated from power card
21. Indicator card diagrams (many x ques.)
22. Blow through procedure
23. Checks on indicator cock
24. Liner calibration
25. Centrifugal pump overhaul
26. Pulse type and constant pressure, y constant pressure more efficient
27. Main engine LO system with temp and pressure
28. Jcw treatment PH value
29. FWG maintenance working

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 MEO CLASS 4 -MOTOR
30. Advantages of common rail system
31. Piston ring clearances
32. Critical speed
33. shell and tube heat exchanger expansion arrangement
34. Cooling water h.t and l.t line
35. A/E crank case inspection
36. oil mist detector working
37. scavenge fire indication
38. MCR
39. SFOC
40. Air compressor safeties and bumping clearance
41. rudder types
42. ruder bearing clearance why
43. difference between 2s and 4s engine.
44. what do u check during crankcase inspection?
45. what are the cylinder lube oil properties?
46. compressor valve assembly?
47. what is a buffer plate?
48. steering gear safeties
49. boiler water sampling cooling arrangement
50. static electricity
51. when it occurs in cargo tanks
52. why sample water taken from salinometer valve and why that position
53. explain specification of your engine.
54. wat is supercharging, and miller supercharging- wat for it is used.
55. mechanism of crankshaft working.
56. parameters of refer room.
57. any one of d refer rm temp is not coming down, reason.
58. working of expansion valve and solenoid vv.
59. Main engine specification
60. Explain intercooler why it is provided
61. Ref compressor running continuously wat are the reasons.
62. Type of generator explain about jet system.
63. Cavitation

AJ NOTES 158
 MEO CLASS 4 -MOTOR
64. how bubbles form?
65. Boiler water test
66. what is conductivity test?
67. Compressor valve parts
68. compression ratio
69. Type of engine, how cam shaft driven ?
70. m/e lubrication, mainly about articulate pipe n Xhead lub oil pressure
71. need of boiler water treatment
72. arrangement in boiler test cock
73. y intercooler in compressor
74. y no need of AUX.Blower in generator engine
75. what is the shape of the boiler manhole door and stresses?
76. L.O Properties of s/g oil and pour point?
77. compressor valve assembles and parts?
78. why centrifugal not creating adequate pressure?
79. difference b/w relief v/v and safety valve
80. cavity and where it will occur?
81. cyl l.o properties?
82. main engine critical rpm? what will happen?
83. what is compressor ration?
84. production become less in F.W.G?
85. How the overspeed trip in a/e function and cut off procedure?
86. c/c inspection checks?
87. Explain lube oil line of aux Eng.
88. Your aux Eng. is consuming more lube oil , wat is the problem.
89. How inlet and exhaust valve of aux Eng. is working.
90. Boiler safeties. Explain how flame failure alarm working
91. Purifier overflowing wat checks u will do.
92. Location of back pressure valve in purifier.
93. Condition of refrigerant in different stages of refrigeration cycle.
94. Back pressure valve where and why it is provided in refer plant.
95. Working of thermostatic expansion valve.
96. What is stroke length
97. What is bore diameter

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98. How ur ship reversing s done
99. Exp loss motion
100. In boiler why we have 2-gauge glass in local

-------END-------

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SECTION – 2
1. Y centrifugal p/p not used in oil and y positive disp p/p is using
2. Working of thermo static valve
3. Which ref using on board &it contain gas r liquid
4. Explain starting system of Aux Engine.
5. Advantages of Hydraulically operated exhaust valve.
6. Smooth Operation
7. Equal wear in each area of exhaust v/v.
8. in hydraulically operated ex v/v only axial force acts on v/v spindle so wear down of v/v guide bush
reduces.
9. Piston rod stuffing box purpose.
10. Securities for crankcase explosion.
11. What to do if Oil Mist detector alarm initiated.
12. What to do in case of scavenge fire
13. Safety devices on Main Engine?
14. Safety in boiler gauge glass.
15. How to blow through boiler gauge glass.
16. Reasons for Boiler Blow back and what to do in case of boiler blow back.
17. Setting of safety valve. What provision on safety valve to avoid tempering of setting?
18. Accumulation of pressure test on boiler why and how done.
19. How to blow down boiler.
20. Why boiler not blown down to bilges.
21. What tests carried out on Boiler water? Normal values?
22. Oil returning with condensate. Indications? What to do?
23. What to do if oil goes to boiler?
24. Explain the refrigeration system? How does it maintain different temps in different rooms
automatically?
25. Cut outs of fridge compressor.
26. Reasons for HP cut out.
27. What will happen if you start fridge comp with discharge v/v shut?
28. What is short cycling? Causes?
29. How to check Bumping clearance of air compressor and adjust.
30. Safeties on an air compressor.
31. What is provided to save water side?

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32. Characteristics of a centrifugal p/p
33. Why centrifugal p/p does not have relief valve.
34. How to select gravity disc of purifier if do not have chart
35. What are specifications of Boiler/generator and Main engine on your ship.
36. Causes of turbocharger surging? What to do?
37. Lift of fuel valve.
38. Purpose of hunting gear.
39. Why to blow down boiler?
40. What will you for uptake fire?
41. Contents of Boiler flue gas
42. Safematic design in steering
43. Difference between two and four stroke Engines
44. Effect of Moisture and Air in refrigeration system
45. Desirable properties of refrigeration oil.
46. Difference between Mineral and Synthetic oils
47. What is volumetric efficiency of Compressor?
48. How you determine Engine power.
49. Draw cards for early and late injection
50. What will happen if ref compressor is undercharged or Overcharged?
51. In an air compressor what will happen if the Suction valves leaky or discharge valves leaky?
52. What is setting of Boiler safety valve?
53. How you test boiler alarms and trips?
54. How is pressure testing of Boiler done?
55. What is difference between pressure gauges of air compressor and fridge compressor?
56. Is there difference between Lube oil pressure of Fridge compressor and air compressor?
57. Safety device on Fridge compressor.
58. What is function of TEV in fridge compressor?
59. Procedure for collection of Lube oil sampling?
60. Why intercoolers/after coolers used on air compressor?
61. Why use multistage compressors?
62. Working of oil mist detector?
63. 2 stroke and 4 stroke timing diagram?
64. Why two springs in aux engine inlet exhaust valves?
65. Why do you blow through engine before start?

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66. What is difference between aux engine and main Engine Governors?
67. How will you know without opening anything that it is two stroke or 4 stroke Engine?
68. Why LO of different TBN used For ME Cylinder oil and crankcase oil?
69. How to calibrate Oxygen Analyzer?
70. Parts of Cross Head?
71. How lubrication is achieved in cross-head?
72. . Power calculation for Main Engine?
73. Draw PV Curve for Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, Carnot Cycle?
74. How to calculate intermediate stage pressure in multi stage compressor?
75. Where piston palm will be connected?
76. Material of fusible plug?
77. Clearances in cross head and their values
78. Types of threads
79. Types of taps and dyes.
80. What are the differences between indicated pressure, max. pressure, mean eff. pressure?
81. Why we dont take indicator diagrams for 4 stroke engines?
82. When we take sounding of a tank, its volume is calculated by its manual so my question is what is
the name of this manual? if it has name?
83. What is the use of Flux in welding electrode?
84. Why belt is used to drive refrigeration compressor by motor? Why coupling is not used?
85. What is the function of wear ring?
86. Why friction clutch used in purifier?
87. Why boiler water tests are carried out?
88. Safety devices in the air starting line from air bottle to main engine?
89. How to gauge condition/efficiency of Cyl. Lubrication?
90. Various fittings of boiler?
91. jacket water temp of one unit high, reasons? What actions to take?
92. starting interlock for main engine
93. what is semi balanced rudder, advantage of it?
94. Why are there 2 inlet & 2 exhaust valves on a D/G cylinder head ?
95. What is the difference b/w TAN & TBN ?
96. Reversing of Main engine, full process? Different methods of reversing?
97. Viscosity, how it is maintained, Details of working principle of Viscotherm, differential pressure
transmitter details, values of viscosity before injection?

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98. Method of measuring temperature, six methods? Details as how they work?
99. Boiler corrosion and protection, details?
100. M/E exhaust valve, mechanism, methods of operating M/E exhaust v/v?

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SECTION -3

1. M/E Exhaust v/v operation, working pressure, etc, each n every detail.
2. M/E Tie Rod, what, where, why and removal procedure if broken from bottom.
3. Main Air Compressor unloader, why, how, and how to start the compressor if unloader is not
working.
4. Sewage Treatment Plant routine checks, and how to know whether the air blower is working properly.
5. What are Sacrificial anodes, where fitted in Engine room and maintenance.
6. compact engine.? bore stroke ratio.?
7. how to calculate power if indicator fucked.?
8. control air drier explains.
9. cross head lubrication for your engine in detail?
10. how will you calculate power for an engine?
11. draw power card and explain.
12. m/e chain drive lubrication system
13. What is after burning and why does it happen?
14. what is cam?
15. what provisions are there to defrost the evaporator coils inside refer room? how do we drain that
water? what is the speciality in the design of the pipe (goose neck)? what will u do if u is stuck inside
the refer room?
16. Expansion Tk y present
17. What z compression ratio? Comp ratio of ur Eng.?
18. Constant Pressure and Pulse type T/C? What are the differences?
19. What is advantages and disadvantages?
20. back pressure v/v in refer system why. Where fitted?
21. explain hunting gear mechanism?
22. foaming and priming in boiler.
23. how to take be bearing clearance??
24. crankcase inspection
25. vacuum not coming in fwg? what checks and action?
26. reciprocating p/p after o/hauling. At checks?
27. engine overloaded. Reasons?
28. checks to be made after o/hauling centrifugal p/p?
29. what is purpose wear ring? Where fitted?
30. stuffing box fun, where fitted, construct, overhaul?
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31. what is 100%redundency
32. what is resonance, purpose of turbo charger in main engine,
33. wat is the significance of firing order?
34. wat is the use of unloader?
35. which device is important for firing order?
36. wat are of safety provided in the boiler gauge glass? wat will happen if ur gauge glass is broken?
37. how is water in transfered in water tube boiler?
38. which part of the boiler water is relatively cold?
39. y no safety provided in the steam side of the gauge glass?
40. difference between main engine and aux. engine turbocharger(construction wise)
41. procedure of removing main engine cylinder head
42. purifier safety devices
43. where are the ejector connections in fresh water generator
44. why are three fuel injectors installed in modern man b&w engines
45. how are crankcase relief doors tested
46. difference between IHP & BHP
47. air starting line explosion? explain fully? how do u check if an air starting valve is leaking fitted in
the engine?
48. what is blow back?
49. wat is cavitation and how it is occurred?
50. Principle of OMD?
51. Why intercoolers are provided in compressors.
52. purpose and location of bursting discs in compressors.
53. safeties on airbottle.
54. flame failure causes.
55. purpose behind mixing column.
56. ball valve on water side and why not on steam side?
57. uses of unloader.
58. ORB entries?
59. Type of fuel pump
60. why firing order is necessary in engine.
61. What are Quills and where is it placed?
62. Cylinder LO properties of crosshead Engine?
63. Water washing procedure for m/e t/c

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64. How to test leakage of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
65. Exhaust temp of one unit is high; what could be the reason?
66. How is L.O. For X head lubrication delivered in (B/W SULZER Engines
67. How many the rods will be there? Function of tie rods?
68. What is the role of the Thrust block?
69. Where is the thrust bearing in MC series or RTA engines’?
70. Why is the thrust bearing at the aft end of the engine and not at the forward end?
71. Why is the thrust bearing close to the engine and close to the stern tube?
72. . M/E stuffing box components?
73. What is the role of the stuffing box?
74. What is the difference between stuffing box drain oil and scavenge space drain oil
75. Why are piston rings changed?
76. stroke Valve timing diagram
77. What are the strokes in 2 stroke and four stroke engines?
78. Why are telescopic pipes used for oil lubrication?
79. Why is fuel timing important?
80. What is the principle of a diesel engine?
81. Why are 2 springs sometimes used in inlet and exhaust valves?
82. What is MEP and MIP?
83. I-low does a roto-cap work?
84. Why is an expansion tank provided in jacket cooling water system?
85. Why do we Blow through’ Engines?
86. How is T/C RPM measured?
87. What is Hydrodynamic lubrication?
88. What is MCR and CSR?
89. What is relation between power and rpm of a main diesel engine?
90. What is the relation between the ship’s speed and engine power?
91. What is the difference between fuel valve opening pressure and fuel injection pressure?
92. What is an under slung crankshaft?
93. How many crankshafts are there in “V” type engines?
94. How are connecting rods fitted?
95. If water is found in crank case lo, what could be the cause?
96. State the starting interlocks on Main Engine.
97. How is poker gauge reading taken and what is its significance?

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98. Why do we measure Butt clearance?
99. What is the use of telegraph?
100.State maximum and minimum clearances of Butt clearance.

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AJ NOTES 168
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SECTION – 4
1. What is diesel knock and how does it affect engine performance?
2. What is after burning and what are its symptoms?
3. What are the types of Scavenging’?
4. What will you do if jacket temperature of Aux Engine increases in the watch?
5. How do you come to know an exhaust valve is leaking in any cylinder’?
6. How do we know if an air inlet is leaking?
7. During manoeuvring if automatic air starting valve gets seized, what action will you take?
8. How is an AE decarbonised?
9. What precaution will you take while increasing oil scraper ring in piston groove and why?
10. How do you start a generator’?
11. How to start a purifier and stop it?
12. State the symptoms at of piston running hot.
13. Spark coming from funnel.
14. Black smoke coming out of exhaust, reason and action.
15. How to lower and raise the plunger of fuel pump
16. Piston ring calibration.
17. Air starting line, safeties.
18. Vernier calliper (zero setting)
19. Flash point, power point, Auto ignition
20. Why water in air bottle?
21. Difference between flywheel and governor.
22. Scrapper ring functions? Why holes are provided?
23. Power balancing
24. Engine not starting on air and fuel.
25. OMD calibration.
26. Max. allowable wear of cylinder liner.
27. Air distributor.
28. Line calibration, clearances
29. What is overlap? (Advantage and Disadvantage)
30. How does the air enter into the cylinder?
31. How do you know come to know starting and ending of injection of fuel?
32. Crankshaft misalignment.
33. safeties in air compressor?

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34. safeties in air side in air compressor?
35. IF the relief valve lifts in air compressor where is the air released into the engine room to the
atmosphere?
36. If fusible plug melts in air receiver, where is the air released into the engine room or to atmosphere?
37. relief valves in main engine?
38. cylinder head mountings?
39. SWL of crane?
40. what and all check you will do before operating crane?
41. how temperature is reduced in compressor?
42. fresh water inlet and outlet temperature in compressor?
43. pressure testing of piston?
44. Emergency steering gear operation?
45. difference between purifier and clarifier?
46. circulating water outlet pressure in boiler?
47. Why type of steering gear?
48. Incinerating procedure?
49. JCW expansion bellow?
50. Explain how will you overhaul a fuel injector
51. How does a Quick closing valve work?
52. What is a reamer? Where it is used?
53. What is a dresser coupling?
54. What is Gear Back Lash?
55. How do you measure ovality of a crank pin?
56. State reasons for scale formation in boilers. Reasons and effects.
57. Why piston ring materials made harder than liner?
58. Functions of heat exchanger?
59. Why engine having astern?
60. Omd diagram?
61. How vacuum is created in fwg?
62. Ejector and educator?
63. m/e nomenclature?
64. Super long stroke?
65. Air cooler purpose?
66. Groove clearance?

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67. Fly wheel purpose?
68. a/e crank case safeties?
69. Why refer compressor v belt driven?
70. Reduce nox and sox?
71. Steam traps types and purpose?
72. Ref, comp tripping frequent at high pressure reasons?
73. Refrigeration properties?
74. What is fuel index?
75. What is slow turning of engine and how to do?
76. How to find input power of main engine?
77. Name plate of engine?
78. Automatic air start valve?
79. Mixing column purpose?
80. Automatic starting air valve?
81. Diff bet fire pump and emg.fire pump?
82. Working of pilot air
83. Tappet housing?
84. Why indicator cock ?
85. Fun of viscotherm?
86. In fwg how distillate pump gets npsh?
87. In plate type heat exchanger how thermal expansion allowed?
88. MCR and NCR ?
89. SFOC WITH UNITS?
90. Engine not starting on Air?
91. Water Hammering?
92. How to Reduce Boiler Water Chloride Content?
93. What is Couglant in Boiler Water test?
94. Starting Air timing Diagram?
95. Where does leaked Water from tell Hole goes
96. In TCR TURBOCHARGER why LO PP is not shaft driven?
97. Which tool used to measure the electrode distance of the burner?
98. Where is fusible plug in boiler?
99. How is the pressure in alpha lubricator accumulator?
100. Which test to carry out o2 in boiler ?

AJ NOTES 171
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SECTION – 5
1.Why is Boiler water treatment required?
2. What is the allowed chloride content?
3. Why is the boiler water circulating pump required for EGB?
4. How does a bourbon pressure gauge work?
5. How do you blow through a boiler gauge glass?
6. Why is a ball given in the gauge glass?
7. How do you tighten a gauge glass after assembly?
8. What is the setting of a boiler safety valve?
9. What is the normally allowed chloride content in a water tube boiler?
10. How do you blow down a boiler and inspect it?
11. Why is pre-purging necessary before firing boilers?
12. How does flame failure alarm come?
13. Type of boiler burner on last ship
14. What is the voltage used for the igniters?
15. How will you know EGB is leaking?
16. How will you stop the leak?
17. What is the purpose of soot blowing?
18. When do you start the circulating pump?
19. What is the temperature of steam in the boiler?
20. What is meant by superheated steam?
21. How is a boiler safety valve set?
22. What is the setting?
23. What is the meaning of accumulation of pressure test?
24. How do you blow down a boiler and inspect?
25. How do you repair leaks?
26. How do you blow through gauge glasses?
27. What is the safety mechanism in case the glass breaks?
28. Which part of a ship's boiler has a higher safety valve setting? EGB or auxiliary?
29. When is the pressure testing of boilers done? How is it done?
30. Why is Fridge compressor belt driven?
31. What is meant by 1 ton of refrigeration?
32. Is there any difference in lube oil pressure readings of fridge compressors when compared to air
compressors?

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33. How do you read the lube oil pressure of fridge compressors?
34. Sometimes the pressure gauges used in fridge systems also have temperature readings. What is the use
of this?
35. How is the temperature of cold room maintained?
36. What is the role of the TEV?
37. What is mean effective pressure of diesel engine?
38. What is the cooling water treatment
39. What tests are done on L.O.?
40. What is the correct procedure for L.O. sample collection?
41. Exhaust temp of one unit is high; what could be the reason?
42. How is LO for X head lubrication delivered in (B&W/ SULZER Engines)
43. Why is a bursting disc provided in air compressors?
44. Where is it provided?
45. If a bursting disk ruptures, what will be your action?
46. What are the safeties fitted on air compressors?
47. If the interstage relief valve is lifting, what could be the reason?
48. Why is multistage compression used?
49. How will you test the working of a compressor safety valve?
50. How does the Oil mist detector work?
51. How will you test the opening pressure of a crank case relief door?
52. How many tie rods will be there? Function of tie rods?
53. What is a lantern ring?
54. What is the role of the Thrust block?
55. Where is the thrust bearing in MC series or RTA engines?
56. Why is the thrust bearing at the aft end of the engine and not at the forward end?
57. Why is the thrust bearing close to the engine and not close to the stern tube?
58. What is the allowed O2 content in IG? How is it controlled?
59. M/E stuffing box components?
60. What is the role of the stuffing box?
61. What is the difference between stuffing box drain oil and scavenge space drain oil?
62. Why are piston rings changed?
63. What is the difference between a PV breaker and PV valve? What are the settings?
64. Why is deck seal used in IG systems?
65. What are the COPT trips?

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66. What is the starting procedure for COPT?
67. 4 stroke Valve timing diagrams
68. What are the strokes in 2 stroke and four stroke engines
69.Difference between purifier and clarifier
70. What is the separation principle used in purifiers?
71. What is the relation between oil density and gravity disc diameter?
72. Why are telescopic pipes used for oil lubrication?
73. Why is Fuel timing important?
74. How is checked and adjusted? (engine type based on candidate's experience)
75. What is the principle of a diesel engine?
76.Why are 2 springs sometimes used in inlet and exhaust valves?
77. What will you check in springs during o'haul?
78. How does a roto cap work?
79. How is BHP calculation using indicator diagram done?
80. What is MEP and MIP?
80. What is MEP and MIP?
81. What is the difference between the two?
82. Why is cylinder head fitted in engines
83. Are there engines w/o cylinder head?
84. Draw 2s timing diagram
85. Why is an expansion tank provided in jcw system?
86. Why do we Blow through' Engines?
87. How is T/C RPM measured?
88. Is there any difference between A/E and M/E Governors
89. Indicator cards why and how are they taken?
90.What is Hydrodynamic lubrication?
91. What is a rolling contact bearing?
92. What is MCR and CSR?
93. What is PS? What is its relation to kW?
94. What was the specific fuel consumption in your last ship?
95. What was the specific Cylinder oil consumption?
96. What is the relation between power and rpm of a main diesel engine?
97. What will be the power developed by a main engine if it runs in DD?
98. What is the relation between the ship's speed and engine power?

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99. Will the engine develop any power, if it is run when a ship is aground?
100. What is a CPP? How does it function?

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AJ NOTES 175
 MEO CLASS 4 -MOTOR
SECTION – 6

1. Types of Heat exchanger?

2. BHP of your main engine?
3. RPM of TC?
4. Scavenging air pr. From TC?
5. Compressor LP and HP pressure?
6. Economizer vs Boiler?
7. Boiler furnace temp?
8. Tube cooler leak test?
9. Aux engine Rpm?
10. Scavenging method?
11. Over Speed trip manually?
12. Exhaust VV weight?
13. Boiler working Pressure?
14. Central cooling?
15. M/E Exhaust outlet temp?
16. Mcr and Ncr
17. Sfoc
18. Calculation of BHP
19. Overspeed trip manually checking
20. Why Back flushing vv in cooler
21. What is the effective stroke & idle stroke of fuel pump?
22. What is the fuel pump lead?

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NOTES

AJ NOTES 177