1- Measurements & Their Errors NOTES

1.1.1 SI Units
SI Base Quantities
• There is a seemingly endless number of units in Physics
• These can all be reduced to six base units from which every other unit can be derived
• These seven units are referred to as the SI Base Units; this is the only system of measurement that is
officially used in almost every country around the world

SI Base Quantities Table

Derived Units
• Derived units are derived from the seven SI Base units
• The base units of physical quantities such as:
o Newtons, N
o Joules, J
o Pascals, Pa, can be deduced
• To deduce the base units, it is necessary to use the definition of the quantity
• The Newton (N), the unit of force, is defined by the equation:
 o Force = mass × acceleration
o N = kg × m s–2 = kg m s–2
o Therefore, the Newton (N) in SI base units is kg m s–2
• The Joule (J), the unit of energy, is defined by the equation:
o Energy = ½ × mass × velocity2
o J = kg × (m s–1)2 = kg m2 s–2
o Therefore, the Joule (J) in SI base units is kg m2 s–2
• The Pascal (Pa), the unit of pressure, is defined by the equation:
o Pressure = force ÷ area
o Pa = N ÷ m2 = (kg m s–2) ÷ m2 = kg m–1 s–2
o Therefore, the Pascal (Pa) in SI base units is kg m–1 s–2

1.1.2 Powers of Ten

• Physical quantities can span a huge range of values
• For example, the diameter of an atom is about 10–10 m (0.0000000001 m), whereas the width of a
galaxy may be about 1021 m (1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 m)
o This is a difference of 31 powers of ten
• Powers of ten are numbers that can be achieved by multiplying 10 times itself
• It is useful to know the prefixes for certain powers of ten

Powers of Ten Table

Examples

• 5 kN = 1 kilonewtons= 5 × 103 N (5000 N)

• 7 nC = 7 nanocoulombs = 7 × 10-9 C (0.000000007 C)

Common Unit Conversions

J & eV

• A common unit conversion in physics is between Joules (J) and electronvolts (eV)
• The electronvolt is derived from the equation work done (or energy transferred) W = qV
o 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 C × 1 V = 1.6 × 10–19 J
• To convert from J → eV, divide by 1.6 × 10–19
• To convert from eV → J, multiply by 1.6 × 10–19

J & kW h

• Another common unit conversion in physics is between Joules (J) and kilowatt-hours (kW h)
• To convert between J and kW h, expand the derived units and re-collect terms as follows:
o 1 kW h = 3600 kW s (since 1 hour = 3600 s)
o 3600 kW s = 3 600 000 W s (since 1 kW = 1000 W)
o 3 600 000 W s = 3 600 000 J = 3.6 MJ (since power = energy / time or 1 W = 1 J s–1)
• To convert from J → kW h, divide by 3.6 × 106
• To convert from kW h → J, multiply by 3.6 × 106

Worked Example
The ionisation energy of hydrogen is 2.176 × 10–18 J. Calculate this energy in eV.

• To convert from J → eV, divide by 1.6 × 10–19 J

1.1.3 Estimating Physical Quantities
Orders of Magnitude
• A quantity is an “order of magnitude” larger than another quantity if it is about ten times larger
o Similarly, two orders of magnitude would be 100 times larger, or 102
• When estimating values, it’s best to give the estimate of an order of magnitude to the nearest power
of 10
• For example, the diameter of the Milky Way is approximately 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 m
• It is inconvenient to write this many zeros, so it’s best to use scientific notation as follows:

1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 = 1 × 1021 m

• The order of magnitude is the part that indicates the number of zeros after the 1 ie. 1021
• Orders of magnitude make it easier to compare the relative sizes of objects, for example, a quantity
with an order of magnitude of 106 is 10 000 times larger than a quantity with a magnitude of 102

Worked Example
Estimate the order of magnitude for the following quantities:

1. The temperature of the surface of the Sun in Kelvin

2. The power of a standard lightbulb
3. The volume of the room you are in now

1. The temperature of the surface of the Sun in Kelvin

o The temperature of the surface of the Sun is about 6000 K

o This is an order of magnitude of ~ 103 K

2. The power of a standard lightbulb

o The power of a standard lightbulb is about 60 W

o This is an order of magnitude of ~ 102 W

3. The volume of the room you are in now

o This depends on the room you are in

o The shape should roughly be cubic or (rectangular) cuboid
o Volume = length × width × height
o For a cubic room with length 3 m, volume = 33 = 27 m3
o This is an order of magnitude of ~ 10 m3

Estimating Physical Quantities

• There are important physical quantities to learn in physics
• It is useful to know these physical quantities, they are particularly useful when making estimates
• A few examples of useful quantities to memorise are given in the table below (this is by no means an
exhaustive list)
Estimating Physical Quantities Table
 Worked Example
Estimate the energy required for an adult man to walk up a flight of stairs.
 1.2 Limitation of Physical Measurements

1.2.1 Sources of Uncertainty

Random & Systematic Errors
• Measurements of quantities are made with the aim of finding the true value of that quantity
• In reality, it is impossible to obtain the true value of any quantity as there will always be a degree of
uncertainty
• The uncertainty is an estimate of the difference between a measurement reading and the true value
• Random and systematic errors are two types of measurement errors that lead to uncertainty

Random error

• Random errors cause unpredictable fluctuations in an instrument’s readings as a result of

uncontrollable factors, such as environmental conditions
• This affects the precision of the measurements taken, causing a wider spread of results about the
mean value
• To reduce random error:
o Repeat measurements several times and calculate an average from them

Systematic error

• Systematic errors arise from the use of faulty instruments used or from flaws in the experimental
method
• This type of error is repeated consistently every time the instrument is used or the method is followed,
which affects the accuracy of all readings obtained
• To reduce systematic errors:
o Instruments should be recalibrated, or different instruments should be used
o Corrections or adjustments should be made to the technique
 Representing precision and accuracy on a graph

Zero error

• This is a type of systematic error which occurs when an instrument gives a reading when the true
reading is zero
• This introduces a fixed error into readings which must be accounted for when the results are recorded

Precision & Accuracy

Precision

• Precise measurements are ones in which there is very little spread about the mean value, in other
words, how close the measured values are to each other
• If a measurement is repeated several times, it can be described as precise when the values are very
similar to, or the same as, each other
• The precision of a measurement is reflected in the values recorded – measurements to a greater
number of decimal places are said to be more precise than those to a whole number

Accuracy

• A measurement is considered accurate if it is close to the true value

• The accuracy can be increased by repeating measurements and finding a mean of the results
• Repeating measurements also helps to identify anomalies that can be omitted from the final results
 The difference between precise and accurate results

Repeatability

• A measurement is repeatable if the original experimenter repeats the investigation using the same
method and equipment and obtains the same results

Reproducibility

• A measurement is reproducible if the investigation is repeated by another person, or by using different

equipment or techniques, and the same results are obtained

Resolution

• Resolution is the smallest change in the quantity being measured of a measuring instrument that gives
a perceptible change in the reading
• For example, the resolution of a wristwatch is 1 s, whereas the resolution of a digital stop-clock is
typically 10 ms (0.01 s)
• In imaging, resolution can also be described as the ability to see two structures as two separate
structures rather than as one fuzzy entity
Good resolution and poor resolution in an ultrasound scanner. The good image manages to resolve the two
objects into two distinct structures whereas the poor image shows one fuzzy entity.

1.2.2 Calculating Uncertainties
Uncertainty
• There is always a degree of uncertainty when measurements are taken; the uncertainty can be thought
of as the difference between the actual reading taken (caused by the equipment or techniques used)
and the true value
• Uncertainties are not the same as errors
o Errors can be thought of as issues with equipment or methodology that cause a reading to be
different from the true value
o The uncertainty is a range of values around a measurement within which the true value is
expected to lie, and is an estimate
• For example, if the true value of the mass of a box is 950 g, but a systematic error with a balance gives
an actual reading of 952 g, the uncertainty is ±2 g
• These uncertainties can be represented in a number of ways:
o Absolute Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fixed quantity e.g., 7 ± 0.6 V
 o Fractional Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a fraction of the measurement
e.g., 7 ± 3/35 V
o Percentage Uncertainty: where uncertainty is given as a percentage of the measurement
e.g., 7 ± 8.6%

• To find uncertainties in different situations:

• The uncertainty in a reading: ± half the smallest division
• The uncertainty in a measurement: at least ±1 smallest division
• The uncertainty in repeated data: half the range i.e. ± ½ (largest – smallest value)
• The uncertainty in digital readings: ± the last significant digit unless otherwise quoted

To reduce percentage and fractional uncertainty, you can measure larger quantities.

Resolution and Uncertainty

Readings are when one value is found e.g. reading a thermometer, measurements are when the difference
between 2 readings is found, e.g. a ruler (as both the starting point and end point are judged).

The uncertainty in a reading is ± half the smallest division,

e.g., for a thermometer the smallest division is 1°C so the uncertainty is ±0.5°C.

The uncertainty in a measurement is at least ±1 smallest division,

e.g., a ruler, must include both the uncertainty for the start and end value, as each end has

±0.5mm, they are added so the uncertainty in the measurement is ±1mm.

Digital readings and given values will either have the uncertainty quoted or assumed to be ± the

last significant digit e.g. ,3.2 ± 0.1 V, the resolution of an instrument affects its uncertainty. For repeated data
the uncertainty is half the range (largest - smallest value), show as

You can reduce uncertainty by fixing one end of a ruler as only the uncertainty in one reading is included. You
can also reduce uncertainty by measuring multiple instances,
e.g., to find the time for 1 swing of a pendulum by measuring the time for 10 giving e.g., 6.2 ± 0.1 s, the time for
1 swing is 0.62 ± 0.01s (the uncertainty is also divided by 10).

Uncertainties should be given to the same number of significant figures as the data.
 How to calculate absolute, fractional and percentage uncertainty

• Always make sure your absolute or percentage uncertainty is to the same number of significant
figures as the reading

Combining Uncertainties
• When combining uncertainties, the rules are as follows:
Adding / Subtracting Data
• Add together the absolute uncertainties

Example 2- A thermometer with an uncertainty of ± 0.5 K shows the temperature of water falling from
298 ± 0.5 K to 273 ± 0.5K, what is the difference in temperature?

298-273 = 25K 0.5 + 0.5 = 1K (add absolute uncertainties) difference = 25 ± 1 K

Multiplying / Dividing Data

• Add the percentage or fractional uncertainties

E.g., a force of 91 ± 3 N is applied to a mass of 7 ± 0.2 kg, what is the acceleration of the mass?
a=F/m = 91/7 = 13m s−2 percentage uncertainty= uncertainty/value × 100

Work out % uncertainties 3/91 × 100 + 0.2/7 × 100 = 3.3% + 2.9% add % uncertainties
= 6.2%

So, a= 13 ±6.2% ms−2 6.2% of 13 is 0.8 a=13 ±0.8 ms−2

Raising to a Power

• Multiply the percentage uncertainty by the power

The radius of a circle is 5 ± 0.3 cm, what is the percentage uncertainty in the area of the circle?

Area = π x 25 = 78.5 cm2

Area = π r2
% Uncertainty in radius = 0.3/5 × 100 = 6% % uncertainty in area = 6 x 2 (2 is the power from r2 ) = 12%

78.5 ±12% cm2

Example 2-
 1.2.3 Determining Uncertainties from Graphs
Using Error Bars
• The uncertainty in a measurement can be shown on a graph as an error bar
• This bar is drawn above and below the point (or from side to side) and shows the uncertainty in that
measurement
• Error bars are plotted on graphs to show the absolute uncertainty of values plotted
• Usually, error bars will be in the vertical direction, for y-values, but can also be plotted horizontally, for
x-values
 Representing error bars on a graph

Determining Uncertainties from Graphs

• To calculate the uncertainty in a gradient, two lines of best fit should be drawn on the graph:
• The ‘best’ line of best fit, which passes as close to the points as possible
• The ‘worst’ line of best fit, either the steepest possible or the shallowest possible line which fits within
all the error bars
The line of best fit passes as close as possible to all the points. The steepest and shallowest lines are known as
the worst fit

• The percentage uncertainty in the gradient can be found using:

• The percentage uncertainty in the y-intercept can be found using:

Worked Example
On the axes provided, plot the graph for the following data and draw error bars and lines of best and worst fit.
Find the percentage uncertainty in the gradient from your graph.

Step 1: Draw sensible scales on the axes and plot the data
Step 2: Draw the errors bars for each point
Step 3: Draw the line of best fit
Step 4: Draw the line of worst fit
Step 5: Work out the gradient of each line and calculate the percentage uncertainty
Q1-

Q2-

c)
Q3-

Q4-
Q5-

Q6- A ball is thrown in the air and 5 different students are individually measuring the time it takes to
fall back down using stopwatches. The times obtained by each student are the following:
6.2 s, 6.0 s, 6.4 s, 6.1 s, 5.8 s

a) What is the uncertainty of the results?

b) How should the resulting time be expressed?

Q7- A bullet travels a distance of l=154±0.5 m in the time t=0.4±0.05 s.

a) Calculate the fractional uncertainty for the speed of the bullet.
b) Calculate the percentage uncertainty for the speed of the bullet.
c) Write down the speed of the bullet using the absolute uncertainty.

Q8- The radius of a sphere is r =12.37 m. What is the volume of the sphere correct to two significant
figures?

Q9 - The volume of a pyramid with base length l, base width w, and height h is given by V=lwh/3.
The volume of the pyramid was measured with an uncertainty of 12%, while the base length and base
width were measured with an uncertainty of 4%. What is the uncertainty of the height of the pyramid?

Q10- The current passing through a resistor is I=3±0.1 A and the resistance of the resistor
is R=13±0.5 Ω. The electrical power, measured in watt (W), supplied to the resistor is given
by P=RI2.

a) Write down the value of the supplied power correct to one significant figure.
b) Find the percentage uncertainty for the current passing through the resistor and its resistance.
c) Find the absolute uncertainty for the electrical power.

Q11- Suppose the measurements of the diameter of a pin by a Vernier Calliper are as follows: 0.25mm;

0.24mm;0.26mm; 0.23mm;0.27mm;

Calculate the mean diameter of the pin and absolute uncertainty?

Q12 - The number of lines carved on a diffraction grating stands at 3.5x103 per metre. Find the percentage
uncertainty, grating spacing and absolute uncertainty in the number of lines per metre.
Q13- The mass of the water bottle of an avid walker, before and after a walk, is 300g and 127g respectively. If

the absolute error is 0.5g, find the loss of mass of water, correct to the appropriate degree of accuracy.

Q14- The length of a copper wire at 30C0 is 18.2mm ± 0.04 cm and at 60C0 19.7mm ± 0.02 cm. Find

the absolute uncertainty and the extension of the wire.

Q15- The weight of an iron block is 8.0 ± 0.3 N and is placed on a wooden base of area, 3.5 ± 0.2 m2.
Find the percentage uncertainties of the values and then calculate the pressure exerted by the block.

Q16- Suppose the length of a cube is given as 5.7 ± 0.2 cm and you want to find the absolute

uncertainty in the volume (2s.f).

Q17 - Repeating readings in an experiment reduces:

• Both random and systematic errors
• Random errors only
• Systematic errors only
• Neither random, nor systematic errors

Q18- A ball of 0.18 kg is traveling at a speed of 3.210 m s−1. The mass and the velocity of the ball are used to
calculate the magnitude of its momentum. What is the correct number of significant figures for the magnitude of
the ball’s momentum?

Q19 – The side length of a square is measured to be y±Δy. What is the fractional uncertainty in the area of the
square?

Q20 – What is the order of magnitude, in cm, of an adult human being who has an average height?

Q21- The mass of a car is 1000 kg ±5% It is moving at a constant speed of 30.0 m s−1 ±3%. What is the
percentage uncertainty in the kinetic energy of the car?

Q22 –
Q23-

Q24 – Three pairs of perpendicular measurements are made of the diameter of a cylinder. Results, in mm, are: 21.8; 21.6;
22.1; 26.1; 21.9; 22.1. What should be the reported value of the cylinder’s diameter?

Q25 – For a pendulum, 20 oscillations (20T) are timed (in seconds) at 14.73; 14.69; 14.75. What is T?

Q26 - A cylinder has a radius of 1.60 ± 0.01 cm and a height of 11.5 ± 0.1 cm. Find the volume.

Q27 – If k = 4.78 ± 0.35 cm-1 and x = 23.5 ± 0.1 cm, find sin(kx).

Q28 – Determine the gradient of the best line of fit as drawn below and find the uncetanity?

Q29 – A metallurgist is determining the purity of a sample of an alloy that is in the shape of a cube by
determining the density of the material.

The following readings are taken:

Length of each side of the cube= 24.0 mm ± 0.5 mm Mass of cube = 48.23g ± 0.05g

calculates (i) the density of the material and (ii) the percentage uncertainty in the density of the material.