Block 4

MCS-201
Programming in C
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Computer and Information
Sciences (SOCIS)
and Python
Advanced features in python 4

MCS-201
Block
4
ADVANCED FEATURES IN PYTHON
UNIT 13
Classes in Python 317
UNIT 14
Exception Handling in Python Programming 339
UNIT 15
Python-Advance Concepts 350
UNIT 16
Data Access Using Python 361
BLOCK 4 INTRODUCTION
Python is the most popular high-level programming language that can be

used for real-world programming. It is a dynamic and object-oriented
programming language thatcan be used in a vast domain of applications,
especially data handling. Python was designed as a very user-friendly
general-purpose language with a collection of modules and packages and
gained popularity in the recent times. Wheneverwe think of machine
learning, big data handling, dataanalysis, statisticalalgorithms, python is the
only name which comes first in our mind. It is a dynamically typed language,
which makes it highly flexible. Furthermore, creating a database and linking
of the database is very fast and secure.It makes the program to compile and
run in an extremely flexible environment can support different styles of
programming, including structural and object-oriented. Its ability to use
modular components that were designed in other programming languages
allows a programmer to embed the code written in python for any interface.
Due to its enormous features, python has become the first choice of learners
in the field of data science and machine learning.
This block is specially designed for beginners to understand the concepts of
object oriented programming in python and extend the understanding to
create and connect database in python. You will learn to connect data through
SQL as well as CSV files with the help of real dataset (PIMA Indian
Dataset), used most commonly by researchers and academia in data analysis.
This block consists of 4 units and is organized as follows:
Unit - 13Introduces you about the Concept of Classes in Python
Unit - 14Makes you to understand the concept of exception handling in

Python
Unit – 15 provides understanding of decorators, iterators, generators and co-
routines in Python.
Unit - 16 introduces you to work with databases and datasets in Python.
Happy Programming!!
Indira Gandhi
National Open University MCS-201
School of Computer and
Information Sciences PROGRAMMING IN
C AND PYTHON
Block
4
ADVANCED FEATURES IN PYTHON
UNIT 13
Classes in Python 317
UNIT 14
Exception Handling in Python Programming 339
UNIT 15
Python-Advance Concepts 350
UNIT 16
Data Access Using Python 361
PROGRAMME/COURSE DESIGN COMMITTEE
Prof. (Retd.) S.K. Gupta Prof. V.V. Subrahmanyam

IIT, Delhi Director
SOCIS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Prof. T.V. Vijay Kumar
Dean, Prof P. Venkata Suresh
School of Computer & System Sciences, SOCIS, IGNOU, New Delhi
JNU, New Delhi
Dr.ShashiBhushan
Prof.Ela Kumar, Associate Professor
Dean, Computer Science &Engg SOCIS, IGNOU, New Delhi
IGDTUW, Delhi
Shri Akshay Kumar
Prof.GayatriDhingra Associate Professor
GVMITM, Sonipat, Haryana SOCIS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Mr.MilindMahajani Shri M. P. Mishra
Vice President Associate Professor
Impressico Business Solutions SOCIS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Noida UP
Dr.Sudhansh Sharma
Asst. Professor
SOCIS, IGNOU, New Delhi
BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

Dr.Sudhansh Sharma, Assistant Professor Prof S.R.N. Reddy, (Content Editor)
School of Computers and Information Sciences, HOD, Dept. of CSE,
IGNOU, New Delhi(Writer Unit-15) IGDTUW, Delhi
Dr.Parmod Kumar, Assistant Professor (Sr.G) , Prof.Parmod Kumar (Language Editor)

Department of Computer Applications, SRM School of Humanities, IGNOU,
Institute of Science and Technology, Delhi New Delhi (Unit-15)
NCR Campus, Modinagar, U.P.(Writer Unit-13
& 14)
Dr.DevenderTanwar,(Language
Ms.Sofia Goel, Research Scholar Editor)Associate Professor,Department of
School of Computers and Information Sciences, English, AryabhattCollge Delhi
IGNOU,NewDelhi(Writer Unit-16) University(Unit-13,14,& 16)
Course Coordinator: Dr.Sudhansh Sharma

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UNIT 13 CLASSES IN PYTHON
Structure
13.0 Introduction to Object-Oriented Paradigms
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Classes and instances
13.3 Classes method calls
13.4 Inheritance and Compositions
13.5 Static and Class Methods
13.6 Operator Overloading
13.7 Polymorphism
13.8 Summary
13.0 INTRODUCTION TO OBJECT

ORIENTED PARADIGMS
Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm which define a
class(a group of similar types of objects )and objects (containing both data and
methods) to achieve the modularity and portability of the various components of the
programs.
In Python programming language, we can define new classes. These classes
are customized to a particular application which helps the user to perform its task in
an easy way and maintain all the things required in the application.
The reason to define a new class helps in solving the structured application
program in terms of object-oriented programming.In structured programming,
language functions are defined. These functions are used by the users, but the
implementations are hidden by the users. Similarly, a class defines methods and
these methods are used by the users but how these methods are implemented are
hidden from the users. A customized namespace is associated with every class and
objects.
13.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit you will be able to :
 Understand concepts of Object Oriented programming in Python

 Create your own Classes and Objects of classes
 Apply the concept of Inheritance
 Understand the concept of Overloading and Overriding
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13.2 CLASSES AND INSTANCES
Classes
A class is a group of similar types of objects.For example, a university is a class, and

various objects of the class are open_university, government_university,
central_university, state_private_university, private_university, deemed_university.
To create a class we use keyword ‘class’. Following is the syntax of class:
Classclass_name:
class_variable1= value_of_variable
…
defclass_method1(self,arg1,arg2,…):
method1_code
def class_method2(self,arg1,arg2,…):
method2_code
…
The first class we defined is a Rectangle.
>>>
class Rectangle:
defsetsides (self,x,y):
self.height=x
self.width=y
print('The sides of the rectangle are {} and
{}:'.format(self.height,self.width))
def area(self):
return(self.height*self.width)
def parameter(self) :
return(2*(self.height*self.width))
It’s a convention to write the name of a class with the first character in a capital
letter. But it supportsa small letter also. After writing the name of a class,it must be
preceded by a colon ‘:’. In C++ or Java, we were using pair brackets () but python-
support colon ‘:’ only.The statement is written after the colon ‘:’ will be taken by the
Python interpreter as part of the class document.
When we create a class,a namespace is created for the class Rectangle. This
namespace store all the attributes of the class Rectangle. This namespace will
specify the names of class Rectangle method.
318

Object
In Python, whatever value we are storing everything is taken as an object. For

example, the string value ‘IGNOU University’ or the list [‘IGNOU’,22] or the
integer value 28 all are stored in memory as an object. We can think object as a
container which stores value in computer memory (RAM).Objects are the containers
used to store the values, and it hides the details of the storage from the programmers
and only gives the information which is required during the implementation.
Each object contains two things: typesandvalues.
The type specifies what type of values can be assigned to object or the type of
operations that can be operated by the objects.
>>>object1=Rectangle()
In Python, a namespace is created for each class. Each namespace is specified with a
name, and this name is same asclass name—all the attributes of the class use this
namespace for the storage.Thus in our example namespace Rectangle must contain
names of all the class methods.
Whenever an object object1is created of the class Rectangle(),the separate

namespace is created for the object1 also.

Object Object1 namespace
Let us describe the various methods of the class Rectangle:
setsides(x,y) : method to describe the sides of rectangle (height and width).

area() : method which return the area of rectangle.
parameter() : method which return the parameter of rectangle.
The function setsides(),area() and parameter() are defined in the name space. The
syntax of methodwould be:
defsetsides(self, x,y):
# implementation of setsides()
def area():
# implementation of area()
def parameter():
# implementation of parameter()
Instance
Variables that point to the object namespace is called instance variables.
Each instance variable containsa different value for different objects. All the
319

variable define inside the __init__valiable are called as instance variables. And all
the variable defined inside the class but outside the __init__valiable is called class
variables.A class variable is also called as static variables.
Eample1: Program to calculate area and parameter of a rectangle.
13.3 CLASSES METHOD CALLS

To call a method of a class first, we have to create an object of the same class. After
object creation, we will envoke the method defined in a class with the dot ‘.’
operator.
When we create an object of the class, the constructors declared in the classenvoke
automatically to which it belongs. In Python, there is a unique method _ _init_ _ to
implement constructor of the class in which it is defined. The first argument of the
method _ _init _ _ must be self. Self is a reference to a class to which this object
belongs.
320

Example 2: Program to call a constructor
When two objects obj1 and obj2 are created __init__ method is called automatically.
Class Methods
Predefined word classis used to Predefined word defis used to describe
describe a class. the method of a class.
Each class statement defines a new type A def statement defines a new function
with a given name. with a given name.
Each class name is preceded by a colon Each method name is preceded by a
‘:’ statement. colon ‘:’ statement.
Example -- class Rectangle: Example -- defsetsides(self):
Table.13.1 Comparison between class and method
13.4 INHERITANCE AND

COMPOSITIONS
Inheritance is the mechanism by which object acquire the property of another object
derived in a hierarchy.
The class which is inherited is called a base class or parent class or superclass, and
the inheriting class is called the derived class or child class or subclass.For our
reference, we will use the term parent class and child class. A child class acquire all
the properties of the parent class, but the vice versa is not true; parent class can’t
access any features of a child class. The main motto behind the inheritance is code
reusability. Once a code is defined in a class if it is required by another class then by
inheriting the class code can be reused.
Syntax of inheritance:
class<Child Class>:
If this child class inherits the parent class, then the statement will be changed to
class<Child Class> (<Parent class>):
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Consider aclass Parent containing two methods methodA1() and methodA2() and a
class Child with method methodB1() and methodB2().Child class is defined to be
the subclass of Parent class.Therefore it inherits both the methods methodA1() and
methodA2() of Parent class .
Example 3: Inheritance of a parent class by child class
After inheritance class child contains methods methodB1() and methodB2() as well
as methods of class Parent , methodA1() and methodA2().
Example 4: Calling method of parent class by object of child class.
322

Multilevel inheritance:
Consider three classes class A,class B and class C
When an inherited class is inherited by another class, this is called multilevel

inheritance.
Consider Class B inherits class A, and class C inherits class B.
Class B is called subclass of Class A,and Class C is called subclass of class B.
Class C willcontain all the attributes and methods of class A and class B.
Multiple Inheritance:
When a single class inherit two or more classes,then it is called multiple

inheritances.
Consider two classes, class A with two methods methodA1(),methodA2() and class
B with methodB1() and methodB2(). If another class C inherits both class A and
class B,then class B will inherit the features of class A and B.
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Example 5: Implementation of multiple inheritance
The behaviour of constructor in inheritance:
Example 6: Constructor of class
Since the creation of an object of a class will automatically invoke the constructor of
the class. Here in the example class C1 object will call a constructor of class C1
automatically, and creation of an object of class C2 will call the constructor of class
C2 automatically.
Creating an object of child classwill first search the__init__method of the child

class. If __init__ method is in the child class then it will be executed first if it is not
in the child class then it will go to the __init__ method of the parent class.
324

Example 7:
If we want to call the init method of the parent class also then we can call it with the
help of keyword super.
Example 8: Use of super keyword to call a method of the parent class.
Thus when we create an object of the child class, it will call the init method of the
child class first. If we have called super, then it will first call init of the parent class
then it will call int of the child class.
If we have two classes, A and B inherited by class C. If init method is defined in all
three classes then what will happen if call inits of the parent class with the help of
super() keyword? Then which class init method will be called?
Example 9: Uses of the super keyword in multiple inheritances.
325

It will first call the init method of the child class then with the help of super()
keyword it will call the init method of the left parent class that is A in our example.
In multiple inheritances, when we inherit the classes, then the method is executed
based on the order specified, and this is called Method Resolution Order (MRO).
If class A is inherited by class B and Class C and then class D inheriting class B and
class C.
Then according to the Method of Resolution Order (MRO) the orderof execution of
the methods and attributes are: class Dclass Bclass Cclass A
13.5 STATIC AND CLASS METHODS
A static variable is that variable whose value remainsthe same for all the objects of
the class. It creates one copy of the variable which is shared by all objects of the
class. To declare a static variable, it must be declared inside the class. No method is
used to declare a static variable it is declared without any method.
To use the static variable, we will use the class name to which this static variable
belong, or we will use the reference of the object. But it is always preferred to use
class name in place of reference of the object.
Example 10: Implementation of static variable.
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In Python, there are three types of methods: Instance methods, class methods and
static methods.
Instance methods:
Example 11: Implementation of an instance method.
In the above example first method __init__ is a constructor of the class. The second
method avg(self )is the instance method of the class.This method contains one
parameter self, which points to the instance of the
classMyClass, 3.0 will be printed as an output.
When the method is called Python, replace the self argument with the instance of the
object.Thus instance method always works on the object.
Class method
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A class method is a method which is bound to the class and not the object of the
class. A special symbol called a decorator ‘ @’ followed by the keyword
classmethod is used to define the class method.
A class method can be called by the class or by the object of the class to which this
method belongs. The first parameter of the class method is class itself.Thus as an
instance method is used to call the instance variable similarly class method is used to
call class variables.
Static method
Suppose we are looking to a method which is not a concern to the instance variable
neither to the class variable. In that case, we will use a static method.Static method
in Python isused when such methods are called another class or methods are used to
perform some mathematic calculations based on the values received as an argument.
A special symbol called as a decorator ‘@’ is used followed by the
keywordstaticmethod is used to define a static method. Thus a static method can be
invoked without the use of the object of the class.
Thus if we want to work with the variables other then class variable and instance
variable, we will use static.
13.6 OPERATOR OVERLOADING

Consider an operator ‘+.’
>>>2+5
Here it performs arithmetic addition of two numbers.

328

>>>[2,3,4]+[5,6]
[2,3,4,5,6]
Here it performs concatenation of two lists.
>>> ‘IGNO’+ ‘U University’
IGNOU University
Here it performs concatenation of two strings.
The operator ‘+’ is said to be an overloaded operator. If an operator is defined for

more than one classes, then it is called the overloaded operator. For each class, the
implementation of the overloaded operator is different. In our example, the
overloaded operator ‘ +’ is defined for the in-class,list class and string class.
The Python interpreter will take the operator ‘+’ as x._ _ add_ _(y), and this is called
method invocation.
_ _add_ _(..)
x._ _ add_ _(y) equivalent to x+y

Thus when we are performing 2+5, it is
>>int(2)._ _ add(5)
7
>>>[2,3,4]._ _add_ _[5,6]
[2,3,4,5,6]
>>> ‘IGNO’. _ _add_ _ ‘U University.’

‘IGNOU University’
Operator Method Number List &String

n1 + n2 n1.__add__(n2) Adding n1&n2 Concatenation
n1–n2 n1.__sub__(n2) Subtracting n2 from n1 —
n1 * n2 n1.__mul__(n2) Multiplyingn1 & n2 Self concatenation
n1 / n2 n1.__truediv__(n2) Dividing n1 by n2 —
n1 // n2 n1.__floordiv__(n2) Integer division of n1 by n2 —
n1 % n2 n1.__mod__(n2) Remainder after division of n1 b y n2 —
n1 == n2 n1.__eq__(n2) n1 & n2 both are same
n1 != n2 n1.__ne__(n2) n1 & n2 both are different
n1>n2 n1.__gt__(n2) n1 is larger than n2
n1 >= n2 n1.__ge__(n2) n1 is large than n2or equal to n2
n1 < n2 n1.__lt__(n2) n1 is small than n2
n1<= n2 n1.__le__(n2) n1 is small than or equal to n2
repr(n1) n1.__repr__() Canonical representation of string n1
str(n1) n1.__str__() Informal representation of string n1
len(n1) n1.__len__() — Size of n1
<type>(n1) <type>.__init__(n1) Constructor
Table 13.2: Overloaded operators
329

If we want to add a and b where a=2 and b= ‘RAM.’
>>>a+b
TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'str'
Because different types are not defined with the operator addition.
Consider a Student class

Example 14: Addition of two objects.
When we add two objects s1 & s2, it will show an error. Here it is not defined to the
Python interpreter to add two objects. Hence we have to overload operator add.
Example 15: Operator overloading
Here we overloaded operator add.
Suppose we want to compare s1and s2

Example 16: Implementation of a comparison operator
The comparison operator is not defined to the Python interpreter for the objects.
Hence we have to redefine it or overload it. The function which corresponds to the
symbol greater than ‘>’ is __gt__ (refer to table 13.2). So we have to overload this
operator by defining the function.
330

Example 17: Overloading operator ‘>.’
because the value of s2 is higher than s1 hence s2 wins.
Now, what will happen if we want to print object s1

>>>print(s1)
…
<__main__.Student object at 0x00000192B57EE390>
It will print the address of the object. Now we want to print the value of the object
then we have to redefined the function __str__().
>>>def __str__(self):
return (' {} , {}'.format(self.n1,self.n2))
The value of two objects s1 and s2 printed.
13.7 POLYMORPHISM
Poly means ‘multiple’ and Morph means ‘forms’. Thus polymorphism is multiple
forms. For example, human being behaves differently in a different environment.
The behaviour of a human in the office is different from his behaviour at home,
which is different from his behaviour with friends at a party.
Thus in terms of object orientation due to polymorphic characteristic object behave

differently in a different situation.
There are four ways to implement polymorphism in Python:

Duck Typing
Operator loading
Method Overloading
Method Overriding
Duck typing
There is a sentence in the English language “if this is a bird which is walking like a
duck,quacking like a duck and swimming like a duck then that bird is a duck”. It
means if the behaviour of the bird is like a duck, then we can say it a Duck.
X=4
and
X= ‘Mohit’
In the first statement, X is a variable storing integer value. The type of the X is int.
However, in the second statement X= ‘Mohit’ the storage memory taken by the
331

variable is a string. In Python, we can’t specify the type explicitly. During the
runtime, whatever value we are storing in a variable the type is considered
automatically. And this is called Duck Typing principle.
Example 18: Duck Typing principle
In the above example, the obj is an object of class Animal. When we call the code of
Animal class, we have to pass an object ide. So before passing ide, we have to define
it at the object of Duck class,one more ide for the class dog is defined. At the
moment when we assign ide as an object of Dog class, then it will execute the dog
method.
Example 19:
So it doesn’t matter which class object we are passing the matter is that object must
have executed method. And this is called duck typing.
Operator Loading
Consider A=2 and B=5 are two variables. In a programming language, when we are
performing a+b, it will perform the addition of two integer numbers. If X= ‘Hello’
and Y= ‘Hi’ then x+y will perform addition of two strings.
A=2
B=5
332

>>>print(A+B)
…
7
Python interpretor will take it as print(init.__add__(a,b)), where add() is a method
of the init class.
>>>print(init.__add__(a,b))
7
X= ‘Hello’
Y= ‘Hi’
>>>print (X+Y)
HelloHi
Python interpretor will take print(X+Y) as print(str.__add__(X,Y)), where add()is a
method osstr class.
>>>print(str.__add__(X,Y))
HelloHi
Method Overloading
Consider two classes having methods with the same name, but with a different
number of parameters or different types of parameters, then the methods are called
overloaded. In overloaded methods, the number of arguments is different, or types of
arguments are different.
class student:
marks(a,b)
marks(a,b,c)
here two methods marks are defined one with two parameters and another having
three parameters. These two methods are called method overloading. Python does
not support method overloading.
If there are multiple methods in a class having the same name then Python will
consider only the method which is described at the end of the class.
Example 20: Implementation of method overloading.
Method Overriding
In Python, we can’t create the same methods with the same name and the same
number of parameters. But we can create methods of the same method in the classes 333

derived in a hierarchy. Thus the child class redefined the method of the parent class,
and this is called method overriding.
Example 21: Implementation of method overriding.
A method which is overridden in a child class can also access the method of its
parent class with the help of keyword super().
Example 22: Method overriding with the super keyword
Check Your Progress - 1

1. Implement the class Circle that represents a circle. The class must contain the
following methods:
Circle_setradius():Takes one number of values as input and sets the radius of
the circle.
circle_perimeter(): Returns the perimeter of the circle.
Circle_area(): Returns the area of the circle.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
334

2. Define method overloading and constructor overloading in Python.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.Select the correct output generated from the following program code:
class code1:
def __init__(self,st="Welcome to Python World"):
self.st=st
def output(self):
print(self.st)
obj=code1()
obj.output()
a) The code result an error because constructor are defined with default
arguments
b) Output in not displayed
c) “Welcome to Python World” is printed
d) The code result an error because parameters are not defined in a function
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------
4.What type of inheritance is illustrated in the following Python code?
class Class1():
pass
class Class2(Class1):
pass
class Class3(Class2):
pass
a) Multilevel inheritance
b) Multiple inheritance
c) Hierarchical inheritance
d) Single-level inheritance
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. What is polymorphism and what is the main reason to use it?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
13.8 SUMMARY
In this unit, we discussed the concepts of classes and objects. Concept of a
namespace to store object and class in memory is also defined in this unit. Different
types of class methods namely static methods ,instance methods and class
methodsare discussed in this unit.
This unit also focused on inheritance and various types of inheritance: single level
inheritance,multilevel inheritance and multiple inheritances.
In this unit, it is described that the same operator can be used for multiple purposes,
and this is called operator overloading. I list of operators and corresponding
methods, also called as magic methods are also given in the unit.
335

Polymorphism means it is the ability to behave differently in a different situation.
The concept of polymorphism and the implementation of polymorphism with Duck
Typing, Operator loading, Method Overloading and Method Overriding are also
described in the unit.
SOLUTIONS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress -1
1. class Circle:
defcircle_setradius(self, radius):
self.r = radius
defcicle_perimeter(self):
return 2 * 3.142 * self.r
defcicle_area(self):
returnself.x * self.x*3.142
2. Iftwo or methods are defined with the same then but they differ in return types
or having a different number of arguments or having different types of
arguments then these methods are called as method overloading.
Two constructors are overloaded when both are having different no or
different types of arguments.
In the python method overloading and constructor, overloading is not
possible.
3. C
4. A
5. Polymorphism is one of the main features of object-oriented programming
languages. With this characteristic, we can implement elegant software.

336

Exception Handling in
UNIT 14 EXCEPTION HANDLING IN Python Programming
PYTHON PROGRAMMING
Structure
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Default Exception Handler
14.3 Catching Exceptions
14.4 Raise an exception
14.5 User Defined Exceptions
14.6 Summary
14.0 INTRODUCTION
Programers always try to write an error-free program, but sometimes a
program written by the programmer generates an error or not execute due to
the error generated in the program. Some times the program code is correct,
but still, it generates an error due to the malicious data is given as an input to
the program. This malicious data may be given by the user or from a file that
causes an error generation during the execution. This type of error generally
occurs when we user server-side programs such as web programming and
gaming servers.
Every developer is writing a code that must not generate an error during
execution. We will study various types of errors that generate during the
program execution or before the execution of the program code.
14.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to :
 Understand the requirement of exception handling in programming

 Raise and catch the exceptions
 Perform exception handling in python programming
14.2 DEFAULT EXCEPTION HANDLER

Consider the following examples in which syntax is correct (as per the
Python statement), but it causes an error.
Example 1.
>>>3/0
Name of Error will be ZeroDivisionError
339

And the reason for the error is division by zero Excepti
Python
Example 2
>>> list1=[2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
>>>list1[5]
Name of Error is :IndexError

Reson of Error is : list index out of range
Example 3.
>>>x+3
Name of Error is : Name Error

Reason of Error is : name 'x' is not defined"
Example 4.
>>>int('22.5')
Name of Error is :ValueError

Reason of error is : invalid literal for int() with base 10: '22.5'
Example 5.
>>> '2'*'3'
Error name is :TypeError

Reason of Error is : can't multiply sequence by non-int of type 'str'
In each example syntax is correct, but it goes to an invalid state. These are
runtime errors. In such a situation, Python interpreter generates an exception
for run time errors. This exception generates an object which contains all
information related to the error. In Example 5 the error message displayed:
what is happening and at which line number it is happening (here line number
is one because there is only one statement in the code) and the type of error is
also printed.
It is the responsibility of python virtual machine to create the object

corresponding to the exception generated to handle the program code. If the
code responsible for handling the exception is not there in the program code,
then python interpreter will suspend the execution of the program code since
an exception is generated the python print the information about the
generated exception.
340

14.3 CATCHING EXCEPTIONS Python Programming
In Python, every exception is class, and these classes are the derived class of
the BaseException class. ThusBaseException class is the topmost class in the
hierarchy of exception classes.
Exception handling using try-except:
try:
risky code(generating exception)
except:
corresponding to risky code(handler)
The code which generates an exception must be written in a block with the
name specify by 'try'and the code which will handle the exception will be
given in 'except' block.
If the three lines code are written in Python
print("IGNOU")
print(87/0)
print("Welcome to the University")
>>>
…
Here the first line will be executed, and IGNOU will be printed when Python
interpreter will execute 2nd lines of the program then it generates an
exception, and the default exception handler will print the error code
"division by Zero"then after the program is terminated. Thus the third line of
the program will not execute. And this is also called as abnormal termination.
If we rewrite the code with the try and except then the code will become
print("IGNOU") 341

Example 1: Implementation of try and except block. Excepti
Python
Here program terminated successfully. We can also print the error message
by modifying the code as:
Example 2:
In the above code, the first line executed successfully and "IGNOU" will be
printed. When the python interpreter executes the print statement "(23/0)" an
exception is raised, and a message given in the print statement will be printed
with the name of the exception "division by zero". After that,the interpreter
executes the last statement, and it will print "Welcome to the University."
If there are more than one except block written in the try block,then the try
block will execute the except block which is responsible for the code.
Example 3: Try block with more than one except block.
342

Python Programming
With the help of single except block, we can handle multiple exceptions:
Example 4: Multiple exception handling with a single try block and multiple
except block.
343

Corresponding to each error there will be an except block if corresponding Excepti
Python
except block is not there then a except block written at the end of all except
block is used for the error. And it must be the last except block in all.
Example 5: Implementation of default except for block
Some times exceptions may or may not be raised, and sometimes exceptions
may or may not be handled. Irrespective of both of these we still want to
execute some code. And such codes are written in finally block.
try:
Code with Error
except:
Code to handle error
finally:
Necessary code
Example 6: Implementation of finally block.
Nested try-except block:

If a try block is written inside another try block, then it is called as nested.
The code having higher risk must be defined in the innermost try block. If
there is any exception raised by the innermost try block, then it will be
handled by the innermost except block. If the innermost except block is not
able to handle the errorthenexceptblock defined outside the inner try block
will handle the exception.
Example 7: Implementation of the nested try block
344

Python Programming
A single except block can be used to handle multiple exceptions. Consider

the given an example:
Example 8:Single except block handling multiple exceptions.
In case of different types of error, we can use a default except for block. This
block is generally used to display normal error messages. The default except
block must be the last block of all except blocks.
Example 9: Implementation of default except for block.
345

Excepti
14.4 RAISE AN EXCEPTION Python
Some times user want to generate an exception explicitly to inform that this is
the exception in this code. Such type of exceptions is called as user-defined
exceptions or customized exceptions.
This user-defined exception is a class defined by the user, and this class is
derived from the Exception class. Pythoninterpreter does not have any
information related to the user-defined exception class. Thus, it must be
raised explicitly by the user.
The keywordraise is used to raise the class when it is required.
Example 10: Implementation of user-defined exceptions.
14.5 USER-DEFINED EXCEPTIONS

A programmer can create his exception, called a user-defined exception or
custom exception. A user-defined exception is also a class derived from
exception class.
Thus, class, is the user define a class which is a subclass of the Exception
class.
There are two steps in using user-defined exception:
Step 1: By inheriting Exception class create a user-defined exception class.
Step 2: Raise this exception in a program where we want to handle the
exception.
Syntax :
classMyException(Exception):
pass
classMyException(Exception)
def __init__(self,argumnet):
346 self.msg=argumnet

Python Programming
A raise statement is used to raise the statement.
Example 11: Program to raise an exception.
Check Your Progress

1. Give the name of the error generated by the following python codes.
a) 4 / 0
b) (3+4]
c) lst = [4;5;6]
d) lst = [14, 15, 16]
lst[3]
e) x + 5
f) '2' * '3'
g) int('4.5')
h) 2.0**10000
i) for i in range(2**100):
pass
2. Define the minimum number of except statements that can be possible in
the try-except block.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Describe the conditions in which finally block executed.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Select the keyword from the following, which is not an exception
handling in Python.
a) try
b) except
c) accept
d) finally
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Give the output generated from the following Python code?
lst = [1, 2, 3, 4]
lst[4]
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
347

6. What will be the output generated with the following code? Excepti
Python
def function1():
try:
function2(var1, 22)
finally:
print('after function2')
print('after function2?')
function1()
a)Output will not be generated
b) after f?
c) error
d) after f
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
14.6 SUMMARY
In this unit, it is defined that a program may produce an error even though the
programmer is writing error-free code. These are the mistakes that change the
behaviour of our program code.
In this unit, it is defined that the default exception handlers are there in
Python. How these exception handler works are described in this unit.
By default, there are exception handlers in Python. But a user can also raise
the exception which is a customized exception, not a language defined
exception.
SOLUTION TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress
1.
a) ZeroDivisionError
b) SyntaxError
c) SyntaxError
d) IndexError
e) NameError
f) TypeError
g) ValueError
h) OverflowError
i) KeyboardInterrupt Error
2. At least one except statement.
3. Finally block is always executed.
4. C
5. IndexErrorbecause the maximum index of the list given is 3.
6. C, since function finction1 is not defined.
348

UNIT 15 PYTHON-ADVANCE CONCEPTS
Structure
15.0 Introduction
15.1 Objectives
15.2 Decorators
15.3 Iterators
15.4 Generators
15.5 Co-routines
15.6 Summary
15.0 INTRODUCTION
In unit number 11 of this course we learned about the functions, we learned

that we have inbuilt functions and we also learned to develop our own
functions just for the sake of revision, some of the examples are listed below
Say the following lines of code are saved in functions.py
# In-Built Function
Name = “IGNOU-SOCIS”
print(len(Name))
executing the functions.py by running the command $ python function.py we

get the output 11, which is the length of the variable Name. here, len() is the
in-built function of python, which can be used to calculate length of any
string, we need not to write code agin and again to determne the length of any
string simply we need to use this built-in function and get the job done.
We also learned to define our own function just to recapitulate lets write our
function to add two numbers
# User-Defined Functions
defadd_two(a,b) :
returna+b
total = add_two(5,4)
print(total)
here add_two(a,b) is the user defined function that takes two numbers as
input and return their sum, which is stored in the varable total, the result of
350 total is printed subsequently.

We also learned the concept of anonymous functions i.e lambda functions or
Lambda expressions, the concept was introduced in python and later it was
adopted by many other languages be it C++ or Java. The advantage of using
the lambda function is that, they can we defined with in the code by writing
few lines and they doesn’t need any name, that’s amazing. One example of
Lambda expressions is sited below, here we will write the lambda expression
equivalent for the User-Defined Function add_two, which is given above
# Lambda Expressions (Anonymous Functions)
def add(a,b)
returna+b
add2 = lambda a,b : a+b
print(add2(2,3))
here, add2 collects the output of the lambda function, we can see the output
by calling lambda function, by writing print(add2(2,3))
Generally lambda functions are not meant for the user defined functions but
are used to facilitate the working of various built in functions like, map,
reduce, filter, etc.
Modern programming language emphasizes on code reusability, where one

need to work with the already written codes, but these codes needs to be
customized, i.e. their functionality is required to be enhanced, and to enhance
the functionality of already written functions, python has the concept of
decorators. We will learn about decorators in our subsequent section 15.2
15.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 Enhance the functionality of functions by using decorators

 Understand the concept of iterators and iterables
 Appreciate the concept of generators
 Understand the concept cooperative multitasking using co-routines
15.2 DECORATORS
Modern programming paradigm recommends the technique of code
reusability, where we need to customize the code as per our requirements,
without disturbing the actual functionality of the code which is already
written. To achieve this, python introduced the concept of decorators, this 351

concept is used to enhance the functionality of functions, which are already
written, for example say we have two functions func1() and func2() as given
in the python code given below
# Decorators – to enhance functionality of other functions
deffuncA():
print (‘ this is functionA’)
deffuncB():
print (‘ this is functionB’)
funcA()
funcB()
on executing the above mentioned code by running deco.py we will get
output
this is function1
this is function2
but without disturbing the existing code if we want that along with, “this is
function1” the output should contain the line “this is a wonderful function”,
i.e. to enhance the already existing functionality, we need to exercise the
concept of decorators.
To understand this concept lets re-write the code given above
defdecorator_funcn (any_funcn):
defwrapper_funcn():
print(‘this is a wonderful function’)
any_funcn()
returnwrapper_funcn
deffuncA():
deffuncB():
variable = decorator_funcn (funcA)
variable( )
Lets understand the concept of Decorators through the above code. Here,
decorator_funcn is defined to enhance the functionality of any function (may
be funcA or funcnB) from printing “this is function A” to “this is a wonderful
function this is function A” or “this is function B” to “this is a wonderful
function this is function B”.
352

Without altering any line of code of already written functions. To achieve this
a decorator function decorator_funcn is defined, this function takes
any_funcn as input argument, it can be any function may it be funcnA or
funcnB. Inside the decorator_funcn, a wrapper function named
wrapper_funcn() is defined to wrapup the new features over the existing
features of the function taken as argument by the decorator_funcn(). The
body of the wrapper_funcn() includes the additional feature, in our case it is
print(‘this is a wonderful function’) an then the original function passed as an
argument to the decorator_funcn() i.e. any_funcn() is called, and finally the
output of wrapper_funcn is returned. To execute the decorator_funcn, the
decorator_funcn with argument funcA is called and its return value is
collected in variable, then variable() is executed and the output received is
“this is a wonderful function this is function A” or “this is a wonderful
function this is function B”.
Lets run some shortcuts also to work with the concept of decorators, which
involves one more concept of syntactic sugar, where w use @ symbol to use
the decorators before executing any function, i.e. to enhance its functionality.
# @ used for decorators
defdecorator_funcn (any_funcn):
defwrapper_funcn():
print(‘this is a wonderful function’)
any_funcn()
returnwrapper_funcn
@decorator_funcn
deffuncA():
funcA()
@decorator_funcn
deffuncB():
funcB()
whenever we use @decorator_funcn before any function the output of that
function preceeds with the output “this is a wonderful function”, later the
output of actual function turnsup. As in this code, calling funcA() leads to
output “this is a wonderful function this is function A” or calling funcB()
leads to output “this is a wonderful function this is function B”.
In this section we learned, the concept of decorators, as functionality

enhancers. Now we will study the concept of Iterators and Iterables.
353

☞ Check Your Progress 1
1) Compare built-in functions with user defined and Lambda functions
2) What are Decorators? Briefly discuss the utility of decorators.
15.3 ITERATORS
In Python Iterator is an object that can be iterated i.e. an object which will
return data or one element at a time. Iterators exist every where, but they are
implemented well in generators, comprehensions and even in for loops; but
are generally hidden in plain sights. In this section we will try to understand
this concept by exploring the functioning of for loops. In our earlier units we
learned about the concepts of Lists, Tuples, Dictionaries, Sets , Strings etc.,
infact most of these built in containers are collectively called, iterables. An
object is called iterable if we can get an iterator from it..In Python any
iterator object must follow the iterator protocol i.e. the implementation of
iter() and next() functions, the iter function returns an iterator, and an object
is called iterable if we can get an iterator from it (for this we use
iter()function). To understand what are iterables lets understand the
functioning of for loop.
We learned that numbers = [1,2,3,4] is a list and if we want to print the

elements of this list, we may use for loop for this purpose, and we will write
# Iterables
numbers = [1,2,3,4]
fori in numbers :
print (i)
now lets understand how for loop works behind the scenes, firstly the for
loop calls a function called iter() function, this iter function changes the
iterable to iterator i.e. it takes list as argument, so in out case we have
iter(numbers), and this is now an iterator. Subsequently the next function is
called whose argument is this iterator i.e. next(iter(numbers)), as the loop
progresses the next function provides the values from the iterable i.e. the list
numbers in our case, first run provides 1, second run provides 2 and so on. i.e
to see how the for loop works we write the logic of for loop as follows
# Iterables
numbers = [1,2,3,4]
number_iter = iter(numbers)
354 print(next(number_iter)) # Output will be 1

print(next(number_iter)) # Output will be 2
print(next(number_iter)) # Output will be Error as the iterable numbers

is upto 4 only
In this way only the for loop works on any of the iterables i.e. List or Tuple
or String. So, iterables are the python data types which uses the iter and next
functions, but iterator can directly use the next function. The iterables uses
the iter() function to generate iterator and then uses next function but iteartors
don’t use iter function they directly use the next function to get the job done.
In Python any iterator object must follow the iterator protocol i.e. the
implementation of iter() and next() functions, the iter function returns an
iterator, and an object is called iterable if we can get an iterator from it (for
this we use iter()function)
Now, we will learn about the iterators.
# Iterators
numbers = [1,2,3,4] # Iterables
Squares =map(lambda a : a**2, numbers) #Iterator
print( next(squares)) # output will be square of 1 i.e. 1
In this section we learned about the concept of Iterators and Iterables, now
we will extend our discussion to Generators, in the next section.

1) What are Iterators? How iterators differ from iterables?
2) Discuss the execution of for loop construct, from iterators point of
view
15.4 GENERATORS
Generators are also a kind of iterators, but they are quite memory efficient i.e.
needs very less memory hence helps in improving the performance of any
programme. We learned in last section that iterators involves production of
355

any sequence, the generators are also generating the sequence but their
modus operandi is quite different. Like List say L = [1,2,3,4] is a sequence
but it is an iterable, the generator is also a sequence but it is an iterator not a
iterable. You might be thinking that we already have a mechanism to refer a
sequence i.e. say List, then why do we need a generator. To understand this
we need to understand the memory utilization by list and generator. Say, we
are having a list with many numbers, when we create a list then it will take
some time , secondly these numbers will get stored in to the memory i.e
memory usage will also be on higher side. But, I the case of Generators, at
one time only one number is generated and the same is used for further
processing, i.e. both time and memory space are saved, they are
comparatively quite less in case of generators. So, while processing the list
entire list is loaded and processed, but in generators one by one elements are
generated and are processed accordingly.
Now you might be thinking that, when to use lists then ? the answer is that
when you need to use your sequence again and again (may be to perform
some functionality) then list is the best option, but when you simply need to
use the sequence for one time only, then its better to go for generators, you
will understand this, later in this section only.
Lets learn how to write a generator, for this you may use two techniques, i.e.
you may use generator function or generator comprehension, as technique to
develop your own generator. Generator comprehension is the technique
which is quite similar to list comprehension, which is used to generate list.
Firstly we will discuss about generator function, say we need to define a

function which is suppose to take a number as an argument and that function
is suppose to print number from 1 to that number say 10
We can write the following code to achieve the task:
defnums(n)
fori in range (1, n+1) : # n+1 because for loop goes upto n-1 th term
print(i)
nums(10) # calling the function nums with n = 10
this will print the numbers from 1 to 10, here function is not returning any
thing, but simply printing the numbers. This was quite simple, as you leraned
in your earlier units, but if we need to develop our generator to do the same
task then you need to replace the print command with yield keyword, and the
code will be
defnums(n)
356

yield(i)
nums(10)
This yield keyword will create a generator, on executing this code nothing
will be printed, but if in place of nums(10) i.e. the last line of the above code,
we write print(nums(10)) then on execution you will come to know a
generator object nums is produced.
Note : a) In normal function we either print or return but in generator

function we use yield keyword
b) yield is a keyword, and not a function, so we can write ‘yield i’ in

place of ‘yield(i)’
Now, lets understand how a generator function works, for this lets again
explore the functioning with for loop, refer to the code given below
defnums(n)
yield(i)
numbers = nums(10)
fornum in numbers :
print(num)
Executing the above code the sequence of numbers from 1 to 10 will be

generated, but if you again execute the for loop then nothing will be printed
i.e.
defnums(n)
fori in range (1, n+1) # n+1 because for loop goes upto n-1 th term
yield(i)
numbers = nums(10) # here nums(10) is a generator, we can transform

nums(10) into list by writing list(nums(10))
fornum in numbers :
print(num)
357

fornum in numbers :
print(num)
execution of the second for loop will not produce any result because the
generaors generates the numbers one by one and they are not retained in to
the memory as in the case of lists. So the execution of first for loop will
produce a sequence from 1 to 10, i.e. the numbers are placed in to the
memory one by one, which is there after refreshed, so past instance is lost.
Thus the execution of second for loop has no databecausenums(n) function
only exists before first for loop not after it. If the nums(n) also exists after
first for loop then data for second for loop is also available.
defnums(n)
fori in range (1, n+1) # n+1 because for loop goes upto n-1 th term
yield(i)
numbers = list(nums(10)) #here nums(10) is a generator, we can transform

nums(10) into list by writing list(nums(10))
fornum in numbers :
print(num)
fornum in numbers :
print(num)
If we re-execute the above code with list and not generator i.e. with
list(nums(10)) and not nums(10), then the sequence from 1 to 10 will be
printed twice because the content of List persists in the memory, thus the
execution of both for loops will produce a separate sequence from 1 to 10.

1) What are generators in Python? Briefly discuss the utility of
generators in python
2) Compare Generators and Lists
15.5 CO-ROUTINES
We learned about functions in our earlier units, and we knew that they are
also referred as procedures, subroutines, sub-processes etc. In fact a function
is packed unit of instructions, required to perform certain task. In a complex
function the logic is to divide its working into several self-contained steps,
which themselves are functions, such functions are called subroutines or
358

helper functions, these subroutines have single entry point. The coordination
of these subroutines is performed by the main function.
Subroutine‐1 Subroutine‐1 Subroutine‐1 Subroutine‐1
Main Function
The generalized co-routines are referred as subroutines, the working of co-

routines relates to cooperative multitasking i.e. when a process voluntarily
passes on (yield) the control to another process, periodically or when idle.
Co-routines are cooperative that means they link together to form a pipeline.
One co-routine may consume input data and send it to other which process it.
Finally there may be a co-routine to display result.
This feature of co-routine helps for simultaneous processing of multiple

applications. The Co-routines are referred as generalized subroutines, but
there is a difference between subroutine and co-routine, the same are given
below:
Subroutines Co-Routines
1. Co-routines have many entry 1. Subroutines have single entry
points for suspending and point for suspending and
resuming execution. resuming execution
2. Co-routine can suspend its 2. Subroutines can’t suspend its
execution and transfer control execution and transfer control to
to other co-routine and can other subroutine and can resume
resume again execution from again execution from the point it
the point it left off. left off.
3. In Co-routines there is no
main function to call co- 3. In Subroutines there is main
routines in particular order function to call subroutines in
and coordinate the results. particular order and coordinate
the results.
From the above discussion it appears that co-routines are quite similar to
threads, both seems to do the same job. But, there is a difference in between
the thread and the Co-routine, in case of threads, it is the operating system i.e.
the run time environment that performs switching in accordance with
scheduler. But, in the case Co-routines the decision making for switching is
performed by the programmer and programming language. In co-routines the
cooperative multitasking, by suspending and resuming at set points is under
the control of programmer.
359

In Python, co-routines are similar to generators but with few extra methods
and slight change in how we use yield statement. Generators produce data for
iteration while co-routines can also consume data. A generator is essentially a
cut down (asymmetric) coroutine. The difference between a coroutine and
generator is that a coroutine can accept arguments after it's been initially
called, whereas a generator can't.In Python the Co-routines are declared with
the async or await syntax, it is the preferred way of writing asyncio
applications.
asyncio is a library to write concurrent code using the async/await

syntax. asyncio is used as a foundation for multiple Python asynchronous
frameworks that provide high-performance network and web-servers,
database connection libraries, distributed task queues, etc. To understand co-
routine refer to following example code
Example, the following snippet of code (requires Python 3.7+) prints “hello”,
waits 1 second, and then prints “world”:
importasyncio
asyncdef main() :
print (‘hello’)
awaitasyncio.sleep(1)
print (‘world’)
asyncio.run(main())
It is to be noted that by simply calling a co-routine, it will not be scheduled

for the execution. To actually run a co-routine, asyncio provides three main
mechanisms, listed below:
1. The asyncio.run() function to run the top-level entry point “main()”

function (see the above example.)
2. Awaiting on a co-routine. (see the example given below)
Example - The following snippet of code will print “hello” after waiting for
1 second, and then print “world” after waiting for another 2 seconds:
importasyncio
import time
asyncdeftell_after(delay_time, what_to_tell):
awaitasyncio.sleep(delay_time)
print(what_to_tell)
360

asyncdef main():
print(f”started at {time.strftime(‘%X’)}”)
awaittell_after(1,’hello’)
awaittell_after(2,’world’)
print(f”finished at {time.strftime(‘%X’)}”)
asyncio.run(main())
Expected output:
Started at 17:11:52
hello
world
finished at 17:11:55
3. The asyncio.create_task() function to run coroutines concurrently as

asyncio Tasks.
Let’s modify the above example and run

two tell_after coroutines concurrently:
asyncdef main() :
task1 = asyncio.create_task(tell_after(1,’hello’))
task2 = asyncio.create_task(tell_after(2,’world’))
print(f”started at {time.strftime(‘%X’)}”)
# wait until both tasks are completed (should take around 2 seconds)
awaittell_after(1,’hello’)
awaittell_after(2,’world’)
print(f”finished at {time.strftime(‘%X’)}”)
Expected Output:
Started at 17:24:32
hello
world
361

finished at 17:24:34
Note that expected output now shows that the snippet runs 1 second faster
than before

1) What are Co-routines? How they support cooperative multi-tasking in
python
2) Compare Subroutines and Co-routines
3) How Co-routines differ from threads
15.6 SUMMARY
In this you learned about decorators, a way to enhance the functionality of
already written functions, which ia useful concept for code reusability.
Further, the discussion was enhanced to the concepts of iterables and
iterators, through the understanding of the execution of For loop. There after
the concept of generators was discussed where the concept of yield keyword
and print command were mentioned, the comparative analysis between the
generator and a function also clars the concept of performance improvement
in python programming. Finally, the understanding of co-routines cleared the
learners understanding towards the cooperative multitasking.
362

Data Access
UNIT 16 DATA ACCESS USING PYTHON Using Python
Structure
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Database Concepts
16.3 Creating Database
16.4 Querying Database
16.5 Using SQL to get more out of Database
16.6 CSV files in Python
16.7 Summary
16.8 Solutions to Check your Progress
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Python is the most popular high-level programming language that can be used for
real-world programming. It is a dynamic and object-oriented programming language
thatcan be used in a vast domain of applications, especially data handling. Python
was designed as a very user-friendly general-purpose language with a collection of
modules and packages and gained popularity in the recent times.Wheneverwe think
of machine learning, big data handling, dataanalysis, statisticalalgorithms, python is
the only name which comes first in our mind. It is a dynamically typed language,
which makes it highly flexible. Furthermore, creating a database and linking of the
database is very fast and secure.It makes the program to compile and run in an
extremely flexible environment can support different styles of programming,
including structural and object-oriented. Its ability to use modular components that
were designed in other programming languages allows a programmer to embed the
code written in python for any interface. Due to its enormous features, python has
become the first choice of learners in the field of data science and machine
learning.This unit is specially designed for beginners to create and connect database
in python. You will learn to connect data through SQL as well as CSV files with the
help of real dataset (PIMA Indian Dataset), used most commonly by researchers and
academia in data analysis.
16.2 DATABASE CONCEPTS

The database is a collection of an interrelated, organizedform of persistent data. It
has properties of integrity and redundancy to serve numerous applications. It is a
storehouse of all important information, not only for large business enterprises rather
for anyone who is handling data even at the micro-level. Traditionally, we used to
store data using file systems, which eventually taken by advanced Database
Management Systems software,whichstores, manipulates and secure the data in the
most promising manner. To access the data stored in the database, one must know
query language like SQL, MySQLetc., which can retrieve the information from the
database server and passes it to the client. Thus, client can easily approach the server
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for day to day transactions by hitting the database without worrying about the load
on the processor as it is very fast and consumes power to run the desired query only.
The nature of serendipity in the Python environment is an example of data analysis
in machine learning and datascience.Python is a bucket of packages and libraries
which enables us to perform data classification,prediction and analysis in a very
efficient way.
Now the question is, the database is stored in different forms in different software's
like Oracle, MS-Access etc.,so how any programming language like python can
accessit.For that, we need to learn about database connectivity in python. In this unit
you will learn how to create and connect database in python using MySQL along
with basic knowledge of database and its features.
Database Management system DBMS
Database management systems are software that serves the special purpose of
storing,managing, extracting and modifying data from a database. It contains a set of
programs that allows access to data contained in a database. DBMS also interfaces
with application programs so that data contained in the database can be used by
multiple application and users. It handles all access to the database and responsible
for applying the authorization checks and validation procedures. It acts as a bridge
between users and data, and the bridge is crossed using special query language like
SQL, MYSQL wrote in high-level languages.
A typical DBMS has users with different rights and permissions who use it for
different purposes. Some users retrieve data and some back it up. The users of a
DBMS can be broadly categorized as follows −
END USERS : who actually uses all benefits of DBMS .It could be an
individual or an organisation
DBMS
ADMINISTRATORS: maintain the DBMS and are responsible for
administrating the database.
DESIGNERS:who work to design the layout of the database .they
identify entity,relations and views
Fig 16.1 (a)Basic structure of users of DBMS
As we discussed no information processing is possible without a database. It is the

hub of data in the field of information technology.Some of the major advantages of
the database are listed below:
 Real-world entity − A modern DBMS is more realistic and uses real-world

entities to design its architecture. It uses the behaviour and attributes too. For
example, a school database may use students as an entity and their age as an
attribute.
 Reduced data redundancy: Centralized control of database of avoids
unnecessary duplication of data and effectively reduces the total amount of data
storage required, unlike the non-database system in which each department is
maintaining its own copy of data. Avoiding duplication of data also results in
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the elimination of data inconsistencies that tend to be present in duplicate data Data Access
Using Python
files.
 Data consistency: Centralized control over data, ensures data consistency as
there is no duplication of data. In the non-database system, there are multiple
copies of the same data with each department, whenever the data is updated, the
changes are not reflected in each department which leads to data inconsistency.
For example, change in address of the student is reflected in the teacher's record
but not in account department, which results in inconsistent data.
 Shared data: A database allows the sharing of data by multiple application,
users and programs like a database of students can be shared by the teachers for
making results as well as admin department to keep track of the fees account.
 Greater data integrity and independence from applications programs:
Integrity of data means that data stored in the database is both accurate and
consistent. Centralized control ensures that adequate checks are incorporated in
a database while entering data so that DBMS provide data integrity. DBMS
provide sufficient validations to make sure that data fall within a specified
range and are of the correct format.
 Improved data control: In many organizations, where typically each
application has its own private files. This makes the operational data widely
dispersed and difficult to control. Central database provide the easy
maintenance of the database Access to users through the use of host and query
languages
 Improved data security:The data is protected in a central system. Data is more
secured against unauthorized access control with authentication and encoding
mechanism. Different checks and rights can be applied for the access of
information from the database
 Reduced data entry, storage, and retrieval costs
 Facilitated development of new applications program
Limitations of Database:
 Substantial hardware and software start-up costs:Extensive conversion

costs is involved in moving from a file-based system to a database system
 Database systems are complex, difficult, and time-consuming to design.
 Damage to database affects virtually all applications programs
 Initial training required for all programmers and users.
 Cost: The cost of required hardware, DB development, and DB maintenance is
high.
 Complexity: Due to its complexity, the user should understand it well enough to
use it efficiently and effectively.
DBMS Architecture
DBMS is designed on the basis of architecture. This design can be of various forms
centralized, client-server systems, parallel systems, distributed and hierarchical. The
architecture of a DBMS can be seen as either a single tier or multi-tier. An n-tier
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architecture divides the whole system into related but independent n modules, which
can be independently modified, altered, changed, or replaced. Generally, three-tier
architecture is followed, which consist of three layers:
1. Presentation layer (laptop,PC, Tablet, Mobile, etc.)

2. Application layer (server)
3. Database Server
Client (Presentation layer) Server(Application layer) Database
Fig 16.1(b)Three tier architecture of DBMS
Multiple-tier database architecture is highly modifiable, as almost all its components

are independent and can be changed independently.
Data models
Once the architecture of DBMS is designed, then the next phase is modelling. The
data model represents the logical structure of the database. It decides how the data
will be stored, connected to each other, processed and stored. Many data models
were proposed to store the data like network model, hierarchical model and
relational model where each new model was invented with improved features. The
first model was based on Flat File, where data is stored in a single table in a file,
which could be a plain text file or binary file. It is suitable only for a small amount
of data. Records follow a uniform format, and there are no structures for indexing or
recognizing relationships between records. Later on, the concept of relation is
introduced where data is stored in the form of multiple tables and tables are linked
using a common field.It is suitable for handling medium to a large amount of data.
This is the most promising model ever implemented for DBMS solutions. So,let us
see in detail about the structure and features of the relational model.
Entity-Relationship Model
An Entity-relationship model (ER model) describes the logical structure of a

database with the help of a diagram, which is known as an Entity Relationship
Diagram (ER Diagram).It is based on the notion of real-world entities and
relationships among them. While formulating real-world scenario into the database
model, the ER Model creates an entity set, relationship set, general attributes and
constraints. ER Model is best used for the conceptual design of a database. ER
Model is based on − Entities and their attributes. Relationships among entities.
These concepts are explained below.
 Entity: An entity is a real-world object which can be easily identifiable like in

an employee database, employee, department, products can be considered as
entities.
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 Attributes: Entities are represented by means of having properties called Data Access
Using Python
attributes. Every attribute is defined by its set of values called domain. For
example, in an employee database, an employee is considered as an entity. An
employee has various attributes like empname, age, department, salary etc.
 Relationship: describes the logical association among entities. These
relationships are mapped with entities in various ways, and the number of
association between two entities defines mapping cardinalities. Mapping
cardinalities are one to one, one to many,many to many and many to one.For
example, a doctor can have many patients in a database which shows one to
many relationships.
These E-R diagrams are represented by special symbols which are listed below:
Rectangle: Represents Entity sets.
Ellipses: Attributes
Diamonds: Relationship Set
Lines: They link attributes to Entity Sets and Entity sets to Relationship Set
Fig 16.1(c) E-R diagram
Now let us take an example of an organization where they want to design an entity
relationship between various departments and their employees. So, In the following
E-Rdiagram we have taken two entities Employee and Department and showing
their relationship. The relationship between Employee and Department is many to
one as a department can have many employees however aemployeecannotwork in
multiple departments at the same time. Employee entity has attributes such as
Emp_Id, Emp_Name&Emp_Addr and Department entity has attributes such as
Dept_ID&Dept_Name.
Emp_Name Dept_Id Dept_Name

Emp_Id Emp_Addr
Works I n
Employee Department
Fig 16.1(d)Sample E-R Diagram showing employee and department relationship.

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Structure of Database
A database system is a computer-based system to record and maintain information.

The information concerned can be anything of significance to the organization for
whose use it is intended.The contents of a database can hold a variety of different
things. To make database design more straight-forward, databases contents are
divided up into two concepts:
 Schema
 Data
The Schema is the structure of data, whereas the Data are the "facts". Schema can
be complex to understand to begin with, but really indicates the rules which the Data
must obey. Let us consider a real-world scenario where we want to store facts about
employees for an organization. Such facts may include Emp_ name, Emp_address,
Date of Birth, and salary. In a database, all the information on all employees would
be held in a single storage "container", called a table. This table is a tabular object
like a spreadsheet page, with different employees as the rows, and the facts (e.g.
their names) as columns..Let's call this table EMP, and it could look something like:
Table EMP
Emp_name Emp_address Date of Birth Salary
SmritiKumari B-15 ,ParkAvenue Delhi 1/3/1986 71000
Samishtha Dutta D- 45 ,Sector 37,Delhi 7/9/1989 93000
Rahul Sachdeva C- 6 ,sector 45 Noida 3/2/1982 78000
Fig 16.1(e) Schema of Employee Database
From this information, the Schema would define that EMP has four components,
"Emp_name","Emp_address","Date of Birth","Salary". As database designers, we
can call the columns what we like, a meaningful name helps. In addition to the
name, we want to try and make sure that people don't accidentally store a name in
the DOB column, or some other silly error. We can say things like:
 Emp_name is a string, holding a minimum of 12 characters.

 Emp_address is a string, holding a minimum of 12 characters
 Date of Birth is a date. The company can put validation for age must be greater
than 18 and less than 60 years.
 A salary is a number. It must be greater than zero.
Such rules can be enforced by a database.The three schema architecture separates

the user application and physical database. The internal level schema or Physical
Schema or internal Schema: determines the physical storage structure of the
database.The conceptual Schema is the high-level description of the whole
database. It hides the detail of the physical storage and focuses on the data types,
relationships user operations and constraints.The external view or is the user view
that describes the view of different user groups.
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RELATIONAL MODEL Data Access
Using Python
An eminent scientist E.F.Codd proposed a database model,based on the relational
structure of data.In this model data is organized in the form of tables,which is
acollection of records and each record in a table consist of fields. A relational
database allows the definition of data structures, storage and retrieval operations and
integrity constraints. It is proved to be the most effective way of storing data.
Database Design in Relational Model
 Table: A table is a set of data elements that is organized using a model of

vertical columns and horizontal rows. Each row is identified by a unique key
index or the key field.
 Columns/Field/Attributes: A column is a set of data values of a particularly
simple type, one for each row of the table. For eg.
Emp_Code,Emp_Name,Emp_Address etc.
 ROWS/ RECORDS /TUPLES: A row represents a single, data items in a table.
Each row in a table represents a set of related data,and every row in the table
has the same structure.
 DATA TYPES: -Data types are used to identify the type of data we are going to
store in the database.
In the relational model, every tuple must have a unique identification or key based
on the data. In this figure, an employee code(Emp_code) is the key that uniquely
identifies each tuple in the relation and declares as a primary key. Often, keys are
used to join data from two or more relations based on matching identification.
Primary Key: A primary key is a unique value that identifies a row in a table. These
keys are also indexed in the database, making itfaster for the database to search a
record. All values in the primary key must be unique and NOT NULL, and there can
be only one primary key for a table.
Foreign Key: The foreign key identifies a column or set of columns in one
(referencing) table that refers to a column or set of columns in another (referenced)
table.
TABLE EMPLOYEE
Primary key COLUMNS OR FIELD OR ATTRIBUTES
Emp_Code Emp_Name Emp_Address Sal DOB
101 Madhuri 112,Sector-45 85000 4.12.1982 Row Or record or Tuple 1

,Noida
102 Ankush 82,Sector-75 ,Noida 86000 14.11.1983 Row Or record or Tuple 2
103 Samay 172,Sector-35 78000 2.10.1981 Row Or record or Tuple 3
,Noida
Row Or record or Tuple 4
104 Tripti 52,Sector-85 ,Noida 91000 8.11.1980
Fig 16.1(f)Componentsof Relational Database
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The relational model indicates that each row in a table is unique. If you allow
duplicate rows in a table, then there's no way to uniquely address a given row via
programming. This creates all sorts of ambiguities and problems that are best
avoided. You guarantee uniqueness for a table by designating a primary key—a
column that contains unique values for a table. Each table can have only one primary
key, even though several columns or combination of columns may contain unique
values.
All columns (or combination of columns) in a table with unique values are referred
to as candidate keys, from which the primary key must be drawn. All other
candidate key columns are referred to as alternate keys. Keys can be simple or
composite. A simple key is a key made up of one column, whereas a composite key
is made up of two or more columns.
The relational model also includes concepts of foreign keys, which are primary keys
in one relation,that are kept as non-primary key in another relation ,to allow for the
joining of data.
Now let us see how to choose the primary key in the table.Consider the Product
table given below:
Relating to the employee Table presented in the last section, Now define a second
table, order as shown in the figure provided below:
PRODUCT TABLE
Product_ID EmpCode Order_Date Foreign Key in Product Table
P101 101 5/1/2020

P201 102 10/4/2020
P301 103 15/5/2020
P401 104 20/6/2020
Fig 16.1(g) Demo table of Foreign Key
Product_ID is the PrimaryKeyin above table Product.Emp_code is considered a

FOREIGN KEY in ProductTable, since it can be used to refer to given Product in
the Product table.
COMMANDS TO DEFINE STRUCTURE AND MANIPULATE THE DATA
In a database, we can define the structure of the data and manipulate the data using
some commands.The most common data manipulation language is SQL. SQL
commands are instructions used to communicate with the database to perform a
specific task that works with data. SQL commands can be used not only for
searching the database but also to perform various other functions like, for example,
you can create tables, add data to tables, or modify data, drop the table, set
permissions for users. SQL commands are grouped into four major categories
depending on their functionality:
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 Data Definition Language (DDL) - These SQL commands are used for Data Access
Using Python
creating, modifying, and dropping the structure of database objects. The
commands are CREATE, ALTER, DROP, RENAME, and TRUNCATE.
 Data Manipulation Language (DML) - These SQL commands are used for
storing, retrieving, modifying, and deleting data. These commands are
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE.
 Transaction Control Language (TCL) - These SQL commands are used for
managing changes affecting the data. These commands are COMMIT,
ROLLBACK, and SAVEPOINT.
 Data Control Language (DCL) - These SQL commands are used for
providing security to database objects. These commands are GRANT and
REVOKE.
 Some of the commonly used datatyes in SQL AND MYSQL are listed below:
Data type Description
CHAR(n) Character string, fixed length n ,with a maximum size of 2000
characters . Values of this data type must be enclosed in single
quotes '‘ .the storage size of the char value is equal to the
maximum size for this column i.e. nColumns , that will not be
used for arithmetic operations usually are assigned data types of
char.
CHARACTER Variable length character string , can store upto 4000 characters .
,VARYING(n) varchar is a variable-length data type, the storage size of the
or varchar value is the actual length of the data entered, not the
VARCHAR(n) maximum size for this column i.e .n
,VARCHAR2(n)
INT A normal-sized integer that can be signed or unsigned. If signed,
the allowable range is from -2147483648 to 2147483647.
DATE This data type allows to store valid date type data from January
1, 4712 BC to December 31, 4712 AD with standard oracle data
format DD-MM-YY.
TIME Stores the time in a HH:MM:SS format.
TIMESTAMP A timestamp between midnight, January 1st, 1970 and sometime
in 2037. This looks like the previous DATETIME format, only
without the hyphens between numbers; 3:30 in the afternoon on
December 30th, 1973 would be stored as 19731230153000
(YYYYMMDDHHMMSS ).
SQL COMMANDS
DDL COMMANDS[CREATE, ATLTER,DROP]
 CREATE
It is the mostly used, Data definition command in SQL . It is used to create table
index or view. This command describes the layout of the table. The create statement
specifies the name of the table , names and types of each column of the table . Each
table must have at least one column. The general syntax for creating table is shown
below:
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Syntax for CREATE TABLE is:
CREATE TABLE <table name>
(<attribute name><data type>[<size>]<coloumn constraint>,
(<attribute name><data type>[<size>]<coloumn constraint>,
…………………………………………………………………..)
where
<table name > : It is the name, of the table to be created
<attribute name > : It is the name of the column heading or the field in a table.
<data Type> : It defines the type of values that can be stored in the field or the
column of the table .
Example:
CREATE TABLE Student
( roll_no number (5),
name char(20),
birth_data date ) ;
 ALTER
Alter is a DDL command in SQL which is used to perform the following operations
in table.
1. Add column to the existing table
4. To modify the column of the existing table.
 Adding column(s) to a table

To add a column to an existing table, the ALTER TABLE syntax is:
ALTER TABLE table_name
(ADD column1_name column-definition);
Example :
ALTER TABLE PRODUCT ADD (SALESvarchar2 (50));
This will add a column called sales to the product table.
 Modifying column(s) in a table
To modify a column in an existing table, the ALTER TABLE syntax is:

ALTER TABLE table_name
MODIFY (column1_name column_type ,
[column2_name column_type,]
………………………………);
Example:
ALTER TABLE PRODUCT

MODIFY Prod_name varchar2(100) not null;
This will modify the column called prod_name to be a data type of varchar2(100)
and force the column to not allow null values.
 Drop column(s) in a table
To drop a column in an existing table, the ALTER TABLE syntax is:
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ALTER TABLE table_name Data Access
DROP COLUMN column_name; Using Python
Example:
ALTER TABLE supplier DROP COLUMN Prod_name;
This will drop the column called prod_name from the table called Product.
DML COMMANDS –[INSERT,UPDATE,DELETE]
 INSERT Statement is used to add new rows of data to a tablet.The value of

each field of the record is inserted in the table.
Syntax :
INSERT INTO <table _name> [(col1, col2, col3,...colN)]

VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...valueN);
wherecol1, col2,...colN -- the names of the columns in the table into which you
want to insert data .
Example:If you want to insert a row to the employee table, the query would be like,
INSERT INTO employee (emp_id, emp_name, emp_dept, age, salary )
VALUES (105, 'Vaishnavi', 'Medical', 27, 33000);
NOTE: When adding a row, only the characters or date values should be enclosed
with single quotes.
 SQL SELECT Statement

The most commonly used SQL command is SELECT statement. The SQL SELECT
statement, the only data retrieval in SQL , used to query or retrieve data from a table
in the database.
Syntax of SQL SELECT Statement:

SELECT [distinct] column_list FROM table-name

[WHERE Clause]
[GROUP BY clause]
[HAVING clause]
[ORDER BY clause];
 table-name is the name of the table from which the information is

retrieved.
 column_list includes one or more columns from which data is retrieved.
 The code within the brackets are optional.
Example : Write the query in SQL to perform the following in the given
Table Student.
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R.No Name Course Age Stream Sports Marks Grade
11 Rajat BCA 15 Science Cricket 78 B
12 Anuja MCA 16 Science Football 80 B
13 Munil BCA 15 Science Cricket 78 B
14 Sonia MCA 16 Humanities Badminton 95 A
15 Adya MCA 15 Commerce Chess 96 A
a. Display the name of all students from the table Student .

b. Display the name of students who are in course 'MCA'
c. Display the name of students who play 'Chess'
d. Display the name of students according to the marks obtained in descending
order.
Solution
a. SELECT * FROM student;
SELECT ALL FROM student;
b. SELECT * FROM student where course=’MCA’;

c. SELECT * FROM student where sports=’Chess’;
d. SELECT * FROM student ORDERBY Marks Desc;
Note: SQL is case insensitive
 UPDATE
Update statement is used to modify the existing data of the tables .
UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value, column2=value2,...
WHERE <condition>
Remember : The WHERE clause in the UPDATE syntax specifies which record or
records that should be updated. If you remove the WHERE clause, all records will
be updated by default.
Example :Modify the marks of Anuja from 80 to 87 which was entered wrongly.
UPDATE student
SET marks=87
WHERE name=’Anuja' and marks='80';
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 DELETE Statement Data Access
Using Python
The DELETE statement allows you to delete a single record or multiple records or
all records from the table.
Syntax:
DELETE FROM table

WHERE <condition>;
Example :
DELETE FROM Student WHERE course = 'MCA';
This would delete all records from the Student table where the course opted by
students is MCA
 DCL (Data Control Language)

DCL includes commands such as GRANT and REVOKE which mainly deals with
the rights, permissions and other controls of the database system.
Examples of DCL commands:
o GRANT-gives user's access privileges to database.
o REVOKE-withdraw user's access privileges given by using the GRANT
command.
 TCL (transaction Control Language)
TCL commands deals with the transaction within the database.
Examples of TCL commands:
o COMMIT– commits a Transaction.
o ROLLBACK– rollbacks a transaction in case of any error occurs.
o SAVEPOINT–sets a savepoint within a transaction.
o SET TRANSACTION–specify characteristics for the transaction.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS:
1. Define the term database. List its four important features.

2. What do you understand by DDL and DML?
3. How will you explain the term entity and attributes in the table?
4. What is Primary Key?
16.3 CREATING DATABASE

The Python standard for database interfaces is the Python DB-API. Most Python
database interfaces follow this standard. Python Database API supports a wide range
of database servers such as MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL Server
2000,Informix,Interbase,Oracle,Sybase. As a data scientist, you have the freedom to
choose the appropriate server for our project.To do so,we need to download a
separate DB API module for each database you need to access. For example, if you
need to access an Oracle database as well as a MySQL database, you must download
both the Oracle and the MySQL database modules.
The DB API provides a minimal standard for working with databases using Python
structures and syntax wherever possible. This API includes the following −
 Importing the API module.

 Acquiring a connection with the database.
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 Issuing SQL statements and stored procedures.
 Closing the connection
ANACONDA

JUPYTER /SPYDER
NOTEBOOK
MYSQL.CONNECTOR
MYSQL SERVER
5.1.33
Fig: shows all applications required to install for setting up database connectivity in
python with mysql.
Steps for setting python In Anaconda for Database connectivity

1. Install Anaconda — https://www.anaconda.com/distribution/
2. Select python version 3.7 (preferably )
3. MySQl Server (any version: we have used 5.1.33)
4. Mysql.connector or MySQLdb
NOTE: Anaconda is a python and R distribution that aims to provide everything you
need:
 core python language,

 python packages,
 IDE/editor — Jupyter and Spyder
 Package manager — Conda, (for managing your packages)
Once it is done, we are ready to have database connectivity in python.
Steps to install MySql Setup
1. Download and install MySql Community server —
https://downloads.mysql.com/archives/community/
2. During the installation setup, you will be prompted for a "root" password in the
server configuration step.
3. Launch workbench, at the home page, setup a new connection profile with the
configuration (Connection method: Standard (TCP/IP), Hostname:
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127.0.0.1,Port:3306,Username: root, Password: yourpassword) and test your Data Access
connection. Using Python
4. Double click on your local instance and it should bring you the schemas view
where you can see all your databases and tables.
The following screenshot gives a glimpse of the screen you may get:
Mysql.connector
It is an interface for connecting to a MySQL database server from python. It

implements the Python Database API v2.0 and is built on top of the MySQL C API.
It consist of four methods which are used to establish connection. The following
methods are listed below:
 Steps to install mysql.connector in Anaconda :

To install mysql.connector navigate to the anaconda prompt and type the
following command
1. Using terminal and conda to download

conda install -c anaconda mysql-connector-python
Another way to install mysql.connector is on windows command prompt for using
Python d
1. Download Mysql API, exe file and install it.(click here to download)
2. Install mysql-Python Connector (Open command prompt and execute command)
>pip install mysql-connector
3. Now connect Mysql server using python
4. Write python statement in python shell import mysql.connector

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If no error message is shown means mysql connector is properly installed.
Mysqlconnector has four important methods which is used to establish and retrieve
records from the database.
1. connect() : This method is used for creating a connection to our database it have
four arguments:
a. Host Name
b. Database User Name
c. Password
d. Database Name
2. cursor() : This method creates a cursor object that is capable for executing sql
query on
database.
3. execute (): This method is used for executing SQL query on database. It takes
a sql query
(as string) as an argument.
4. fetchone() : This method retrieves the next row of a query result set and returns
a single
sequence, or none if no more rows are available.
5. close (): This method close the database connection.
 In this chapter, we will be using Anaconda Jupyter notebook for

demonstration of all programs
Connect to MySql
1. Launch Anaconda-Navigator to bring you a list of applications available to

install. The application we are interested in is Jupyter Notebook which is a
web-based python IDE. Install and launch it.
2. In the notebook, create a new python file. In the first cell, write the following
code to test the mysql connection.
importmysql.connector
mydb = mysql.connector.connect( Optional required only

host="localhost", when this error comes:
user="root", ProgrammingError:
passwd="password",charset=’utf8’ 1115 (42000): Unknown
) character set: 'utf8mb4'
print(mydb)
3. If successful, you should get an object returned with its memory address
<mysql.connector.connection_cext.CMySQLConnection object at 0x10b4e1320>
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Data Access
Using Python
Cursor object: The MySQLCursor class instantiates objects that can execute
operations such as SQL statements. Cursor objects interact with the MySQL
server using a MySQLConnection object.
How to create a cursor object and use it import mysql.connector
Example
Following is the example of connecting with MySQL and display the version of the
database.
# Open database connection
creating a connection to our database

mydb = mysql.connector.connect (
host="localhost",
user="root",
passwd="admin123",charset=’utf8’
)
# prepare a cursor object using cursor() method

creates a cursor object that is capable for
mycursor=mydb.cursor()
executing sql query on database.
# execute SQL query using execute() method.
mycursor.execute("SELECT VERSION()")
# Fetch a single row using fetchone() method.
data=mycursor.fetchone() retrieves the next row of a query result set
print ("Database version :",data)
# disconnect from server
mydb.close() close the database connection.
While running this script, it is producing the following result in my machine. (It
could change in your system)
Database version : ('5.1.33-community',)
In the above code we are creating a cursor to execute the sql query to print
database version next line executes the sql query show databases and store
result in mycursor as collection ,whose values are being fetched in data. On
execution of above program cursor will execute the query and print version of
database shown.
Creating Database
1. Let's create a database called TEST_DB IN Python Anaaconda .

377

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="root",
)
mycursor = mydb.cursor()
mycursor.execute("CREATEDATABASETEST_DB")
Next, we will try to connect to this new database.
host="localhost",
user="root",
passwd="admin123",charset=’utf8’,database= TEST_DB
)
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. How will you create a database in mysql .Write the command to create a
database named as Start_db.
2. Name the four arguments required to set connection with
mysql.connector.connect.
16.4 QUERYING DATABASE

In this section, you will learn to execute SQL queries at run time of the Anaconda
environment. To perform SQL queries you need to create a table in the database and
then operations like insert, select, update and delete are shown with examples.
 Creating Table
Once a database connection is established, we are ready to create tables or records
into the database tables using the execute method of the created cursor.
Example
To create table EMPLOYEE in database TEST_DB with following data
FIRST_NAME,LAST_NAME,AGE,SEX,INCOME.
378

Data Access
Using Python
 How to change table structure/(add,edit,remove column of a table) at run

time
To modify the structure of the table, we just have to use alter table query.
Below program will add a column address in the EMPLOYEE table.
import
mysql.connectormydb=mysql.connector.connect(host="localhost",user="root",
passwd ="root",database="school")
mycursor=mydb.cursor()
mycursor.execute("alter table student add (address varchar(2))")
mycursor.execute("desc employee")
for x in mycursor:
print(x)
Above program will add a column marks in the table student and will display the
structure of the table
 INSERT Operation
Insert is used to feed the data in the table created. It is required when you want to
create your records into a database table.
379

Example
The following example, executes SQL INSERT statement to create a record into
EMPLOYEE table –
 UPDATE OPERATION
UPDATE Operation on any database means to update one or more records, which
are already available in the database. Here is an example to show where we run the
query to updates all the records having SEX as 'M'. Here, we increase the AGE of
all the males by one year.
Example
The above code will update the age of all the male employees in the table
EMPLOYEE.
 DELETE Operation
DELETE operation is required when you want to delete some records from your
database. Following example show the procedure to delete all the records from
EMPLOYEE where AGE is more than 20.
380

Data Access
Using Python
The above code will delete all the records from the table EMPLOYEE where age is
greater than 20.
Steps to perform SQL queries in the database using Python
Step1. Import mysql.connector
Step 2. Create a variable and assign it to mysql.connector.connect().
Step3. Provide arguments host,user,passwd,database, charset to

mysql.connector.connect().
Step4. Call cursor() and assign it to variable.
Step5. Prepare SQL query (Insert or Update or delete)
Step 5. Disconnect from the server using close() function.
Please refer to the above examples with their screenshots which will help in better
understanding.
1. Write the syntax of the following commands in SQL : insert, update, delete
16.5 USING SQL TO GET MORE OUT OF

DATABASE
READ Operation
READ operation on any database means to fetch some useful information from the
database.
Once our database connection is established, you are ready to make a query into
this database. You can use either fetchone() method to fetch a single record
or fetchall() method to fetch multiple values from a database table.
 fetchall() − It fetches all the rows in a result set. If some rows have already
been extracted from the result set, then it retrieves the remaining rows from the
result set.
381

 fetchone() − It fetches the next row of a query result set. A result set is an
object that is returned when a cursor object is used to query a table.
 rowcount − This is a read-only attribute and returns the number of rows that
were affected by an execute() method.
 fetchall()
The method fetches all (or all remaining) rows of a query result set and returns a list
of tuples. If no more rows are available, it returns an empty list. The following
procedure queries all the records from the EMPLOYEE table
 fetchone()
To fetch one record from the table fetchone is used in the same manner as fetchall()
is shown in above code. This method retrieves the next row of a query result set and
returns a single sequence, or None if no more rows are available. By default, the
returned tuple consists of data returned by the MySQL server, converted to Python
objects.
# Fetch a single row using fetchone() method.
record = cursor.fetchone()
 rowcount()
Rows affected by the query. We can get a number of rows affected by the query by
using rowcount. We will use one SELECT query here.
382

Data Access
Using Python
In the above code buffered=True. We have used mycursor as buffered cursor which
fetches rows and buffers them after getting output from MySQL database. It is used
as an iterator, but there is no point in using buffered cursor for the single record as in
such case if we don't use a buffered cursor, then we will get -1 as output from
rowcount.
 Manage Database Transaction
Database transaction represents a single unit of work. Any operation which modifies
the state of the MySQL database is a transaction. Python MySQL Connector
provides the following method to manage database transactions.
o Commit – MySQLConnection.commit() method sends a COMMIT

statement to the MySQL server, committing the current transaction.
o Rollback – MySQLConnection.rollback revert the changes made by the
current transaction.
o autoCommit – MySQLConnection.auto-commit value can be assigned as
True or False to enable or disable the auto-commit feature of MySQL. By
default, its value is False.
Steps to perform commit,rollback and auto-commit.
Step 1. Import the MySQL connector python module

Step 2. After a successful MySQL connection, set auto-commit to false, i.e.,
we need to commit
the transaction only when both the transactions complete successfully.
Step 3. Call the cursor() function .
Step4. Execute the queries using a cursor. Execute method.
Step 5 .After successful execution of the queries, commit your changes to
the database using
a conn.commit() .In case of an exception or failure of one of the
queries, you can revert your changes using a conn.rollback()
We placed all our code in the "try-except" block to catch the database
exceptions that may occur during the process.
The following code shows the role of commit, rollback and auto-commit while
performing SQL queries in python.
383

In the above code if update query is successfully executed then commit() method
will be executed otherwise,anexception error part will be executed.Rollback issued
to revert of update query if happened due to error.Finally, we are closing cursor as
well as connection. Here the purpose of conn. Auto-commit = false is to activate the
role of rollback else rollback will not work.
1. What is the purpose of rollback and commit in SQL.

2. Fill in the blank provided :
mydb = mysql.________________.connect(
host="localhost",
_____="myusername",
passwd="mypassword"
)
mycursor = mydb.__________()
mycursor.___________("CREATE DATABASE mydatabase")
16.6 CSV FILES IN PYTHON

As we have studied various operations on databases, the next thing which comes in
our way to implement real dataset for machine learning purpose using python. For
the same, we should be aware about all the basic types of database connectivity
among which the most common type for connecting real dataset is CSV (Comma
Separated Values).
CSV files are ordinarily made by programs that handle a lot of information. Itis just
like a text file in a human-readable format which is used to store tabular data in a
spreadsheet or database.They are a helpful method to send out information from
spreadsheets and data sets just as import or use it in different projects. For instance,
you may trade the aftereffects of an information mining project to a CSV document
and afterwards import that into a spreadsheet to dissect the information, create charts
for an introduction, or set up a report for distribution. The separator character of
CSV files is called a delimiter.Default delimiter is comma (,) others are tab (\t), (: ),
(;) etc.
384

CSV documents are exceptionally simple to work for database connectivity. Any Data Access
Using Python
language that underpins text record info and string control (like python) can work
with CSV documents straightforwardly.
Some of the features of CSV are highlighted below, which makes it exceptionally
useful in the analysis of the large dataset.
 Simple and easy to use.

 Can store a large amount of data.
 He was preferred to import and export format for data handling.
 Each line of the file is a record.
 Each record consist of fields separated by commas(delimiter)
 They are used for storing tabular data in a spreadsheet or database.
Let us see how to import CSV file in python.In this unit, we will be using pandas
module in python to import the CSVfile.Pandas is a powerful Python package that
can be used to perform statistical analysis. In this chapter, you'll also see how to use
Pandas to calculate stats from an imported CSV file.
CASE STUDY OF PIMA INDIAN DATASET
The dataset used here isPima Indian diabetes data for learning purpose.Pima Indian
diabetes dataset describes the medical records for Pima Indiansand whether or not
each patient will have an onset of diabetes within given years.
Fields description follow:
preg = number of times pregnant
plas = Plasma glucose concentration a 2 hours in an oral glucose tolerance test
pres = Diastolic blood pressure (mm Hg)
skin = Triceps skin fold thickness (mm)
test = 2-Hour serum insulin (mu U/ml)
mass = Body mass index (weight in kg/(height in m)^2)
pedi = Diabetes pedigree function
age = Age (years)
class = Class variable (1:tested positive for diabetes, 0: tested negative for diabetes)
(This dataset can be downloaded from

https://www.kaggle.com/kumargh/pimaindiansdiabetescsv?select=pima‐indians‐
diabetes.csv)
It consists of above mentioned eight features, and one class variableandis very
commonly used in the research of diabetes.Given below are the steps and the code to
import CSV file in python.
Steps to import a CSV file into Python Using Pandas.
Step1. Import python module pandas.
385

Step2. Capture the file path where CSV file is stored (don't forget to include
filename and file extension ).
Step3. Read the CSV file using read_csv
Step4. Print the desired file.
Step5 .Run the code to generate the output.
import pandas as pd
df = pd.read_csv ('F:\pimaindiansdiabetescsv\pima-indians-diabetes.csv')
print (df)
Note: #read the csv file (put 'r' before the path string to address any special
characters in the path, such as '\'). Don't forget to put the file name at the end of the
path + ".csv".
This path is taken for reference; it will change as per the location of the file.
Output
6 148 72 35 0 33.6 0.627 50 1

0 1 85 66 29 0 26.6 0.351 31 0
1 8 183 64 0 0 23.3 0.672 32 1
2 1 89 66 23 94 28.1 0.167 21 0
3 0 137 40 35 168 43.1 2.288 33 1
4 5 116 74 0 0 25.6 0.201 30 0
.. .. ... .. .. ... ... ... .. ..
762 10 101 76 48 180 32.9 0.171 63 0
763 2 122 70 27 0 36.8 0.340 27 0
764 5 121 72 23 112 26.2 0.245 30 0
765 1 126 60 0 0 30.1 0.349 47 1
766 1 93 70 31 0 30.4 0.315 23 0
[767 rows x 9 columns]
The above output consists of 769 rows and ninecolumns.TheCSV file is just like
excel file which consists of data in tabular form arranged as rows and columns.But
the columns are without heading.In the next example, column headings are provided
using
Colnames=[ ‘col1 ’,‘ col2’,‘col3’,‘col4 ’]
Any userdefined These are the field names or
name column names
 Calculate stats using Pandas from an Imported CSV File.
Finally you will learn to calculate the following statistics using the Pandas package:
 Mean
386  Total sum

 Maximum Data Access
 Minimum Using Python
 Count
 Median
 Standard deviation
 Variance
Simply functions for each of the above mentioned stats is available in pandas
package which can be easily applied in the following manner.
import pandas as pd
colnames=['pre','pgc','dbp','tsf','2hs','bmi','dpf','age','class']
df=pd.read_csv('F:\pimaindiansdiabetescsv\pima-
indiansdiabetes.csv',names=colnames)
mean1 = df['age'].mean()
sum1 = df['age'].sum()
max1 = df['age'].max()
min1 = df['age'].min()
count1 = df['age'].count()
median1 = df['age'].median()
std1 = df['age'].std()
var1 = df['age'].var()
# print block 1
print ('Mean Age: ' + str(mean1))
print ('Sum of Age: ' + str(sum1))
print ('Max Age: ' + str(max1))
print ('Min Age: ' + str(min1))
print ('Count of Age: ' + str(count1))
print ('Median Age: ' + str(median1))
print ('Std of Age: ' + str(std1))
print ('Var of Age: ' + str(var1))
Output:
Mean Age: 33.240885416666664
Sum of Age: 25529
Max Age: 81
Min Age: 21
Count of Age: 768
Median Age: 29.0
Std of Age: 11.76023154067868
Var of Age: 138.30304589037365
Here is a table that summarizes the operations performed in the code:
Variable Syntax Description

mean1 df[‘age’].mean() Average of all values under the age column.
sum1 df[‘age’].sum() Sum of all values under the age column.
max1 df[‘age’].max Maximum of all values under the age column.
min1 df[‘age’].min() Minimum of all values under the age column.
count1 df[‘age’].count() Count of all values under the age column.
median1 df[‘age’].median() Median of all values under the age column.
387

std1 df[‘age’].std() Standard deviation all values under the age
column.
var1 df[‘age’].var() Variance of all values under the age column.
We have learnt how to calculate simple stats using Pandas and import any dataset
for machine learning purpose.
16.7 SUMMARY
 A database is an organized,logical collection of data.It is designed to facilitate
the access by one or more applications programs for easy access and analysis
and to minimize data redundancy.
 DBMS is a software system that enables you to store, modify, and extract
information from a database. It has been designed systematically so that it can
be used by multiple applications and users
 A relational database is a collection of related tables
 An entity is a person place or things or event.
 Tables in the database are entities.
 An attribute is a property of entity. Attributes are columns in the table.
 A relationship is the association between tables in the database.
 Each columns of the table correspond to an attribute of the relation and is
named
 Fields : Columns in the table are called fields or attributes.
 Rows of the relation is referred as tuples to the relation . A tuple or row
contains all the data of a single instance of the table such as a employee number
201.
 Records : Rows in a table often are called records . Rows are also known as
tuples.
 The values for an attribute or a column are drawn from a set of values known as
domain.
 Primary key : An attribute or a set of attributes which can uniquely identify
each record (tuple) of a relation (table). All values in the primary key must be
unique and not Null, and there can be only one primary key for a table.
 Foreign Key : An attribute which is a regular attribute in one table but a
primary key in another table.
 Mysql.connector is an interface for connecting to a MySQL database server
from python
 connect() is a method used for creating a connection to our database.
 Connect has four arguments:hostname,username,password,databasename .
 fetchall() − It fetches all the rows in a result set. If some rows have already
been extracted from the result set, then it retrieves the remaining rows from the
result set.
388

 fetchone() − It fetches the next row of a query result set. A result set is an Data Access
Using Python
object that is returned when a cursor object is used to query a table.
 rowcount − This is a read-only attribute and returns the number of rows that
were affected by an execute() method.
 Commit,rollback and autocommit are database transactions commands.
16.8 SOLUTIONS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Section 16.2Solutions
1. Database is a collection of interrelated, organized form of persistent data. It has

properties of integrity and redundancy to serve numerous applications. It is
storehouse of all important information, not only for large business enterprises
rather for anyone who is handling data even at micro level. Its features are
 Real world entity.
 Reduced data redundancy.
 Data consistency.
 Sharing of Data.
2. DDL and DML (Refer to section 16.2 SQL Commands)
3. Entity and attributes (Refer to section 16.2 Entity-Relationship Model)
4. Primary key: A primary key is a unique value that identifies a row in a table.
These keys are also indexed in the database, making it faster for the database to
search a record. All values in the primary key must be unique and NOT NULL,
and there can be only one primary key for a table.
Section 16.3 Solutions
1. Create a database called Start_db in Python Anaaconda.

host="localhost",
user="root",
)
mycursor.execute("CREATEDATABASEStart_db")
Next, we will try to connect to this new database.
host="localhost",
user="root",
passwd="admin123",charset=’utf8’,database= Start_db)
2. Refer to question 1 second part (host,user,passwd,databse)
1. Syntax of Insert :
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (column1, column2, column3,...columnN)
389

VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...valueN);
Syntax of Update:
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2...., columnN = valueN
WHERE [condition];
Syntax of Delete:
DELETE FROM table_nameWHERE [condition];
1. Rollback and commit(Refer to section 16.5 Manage Database transaction)
2. importmysql.connector
host="localhost",
user="myusername",
passwd="mypassword"
)
mycursor.execute("CREATE DATABASE mydatabase")
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Which SQL keyword is used to retrieve a maximum value?
a. MAX
b. MIN
c. LARGE
d. GREATER
2. Which SQL keyword is used to specify conditional search?
a. SEARCH
b. WHERE
c. FIND
d. FROM
3. A relation /table is a
a. Collection of fields
b. collection of records
c. collection of data
d. collections of tables
4. ________________is a collection of interrelated data and a set of program

to access those data .
a. table
b. record
c. Database
d. Field
5. A row in a table is called as ___________
a. table
b. tuple
390

c. Database Data Access
d. Field Using Python
6. Each table in a relational Database must have _______________.

a. primary key
b. candidate key
c. Foreign key
d. composite key
7. Attribute combinations that can serve as a primary key in a table are
a. primary key
b. candidate key
c. Alternate key
d. composite key
8. Duplication of data is known as _____________
a. Data redundancy
b. Data consistency
c. data management
d. data schema
9. _____________ is the total number of rows/tuples in the table .
a. degree
b. cardinality
c. records
d. domain
10. ___________ is the total number of columns/fields in the table
a. degree
b. cardinality
c. records
d. domain
11. A collection of fields that contains data about a single entity is called
a. table
b. record
c. database
d. Field
12. A set of related characters is called as
a. table
b. record
c. database
d. Field
13 _____________is the independence of application programs from the details
of the data representation and data storage.
a. Data redundancy
b. Data consistency
c. data independence
d. data schema
14. The ___________ is used for creating a connection to the database in
python.
a. connect()
b. cursor() 391

c. execute()
d. close()
15. Which of the following module is provided by python to do several
operations on the CSV files?
a. py
b. xls
c. csv
d. os
Ans 1- a 2- b 3- b 4- c 5- b
6- a 7- b 8- a 9- b 10- a
11- b 12- d. 13- c 14- a. 15- c
392

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MCS-201

Advanced features in python 4

Python is the most popular high-level programming language that can be

Unit - 14Makes you to understand the concept of exception handling in

Unit - 16 introduces you to work with databases and datasets in Python.

Prof. (Retd.) S.K. Gupta Prof. V.V. Subrahmanyam

BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

Dr.Parmod Kumar, Assistant Professor (Sr.G) , Prof.Parmod Kumar (Language Editor)

Course Coordinator: Dr.Sudhansh Sharma

13.0 INTRODUCTION TO OBJECT

 Understand concepts of Object Oriented programming in Python

A class is a group of similar types of objects.For example, a university is a class, and

To create a class we use keyword ‘class’. Following is the syntax of class:

In Python, whatever value we are storing everything is taken as an object. For

Whenever an object object1is created of the class Rectangle(),the separate

Let us describe the various methods of the class Rectangle:

setsides(x,y) : method to describe the sides of rectangle (height and width).

Eample1: Program to calculate area and parameter of a rectangle.

13.3 CLASSES METHOD CALLS

Table.13.1 Comparison between class and method

13.4 INHERITANCE AND

Example 4: Calling method of parent class by object of child class.

When an inherited class is inherited by another class, this is called multilevel

When a single class inherit two or more classes,then it is called multiple

The behaviour of constructor in inheritance:

Example 6: Constructor of class

Creating an object of child classwill first search the__init__method of the child

Example 8: Use of super keyword to call a method of the parent class.

Example 9: Uses of the super keyword in multiple inheritances.

13.5 STATIC AND CLASS METHODS

Example 10: Implementation of static variable.

Example 11: Implementation of an instance method.

13.6 OPERATOR OVERLOADING

Here it performs arithmetic addition of two numbers.

Here it performs concatenation of two lists.

>>> ‘IGNO’+ ‘U University’

Here it performs concatenation of two strings.

The operator ‘+’ is said to be an overloaded operator. If an operator is defined for

x._ _ add_ _(y) equivalent to x+y

>>> ‘IGNO’. _ _add_ _ ‘U University.’

Operator Method Number List &String

Consider a Student class

Here we overloaded operator add.

Suppose we want to compare s1and s2

because the value of s2 is higher than s1 hence s2 wins.

Now, what will happen if we want to print object s1

Thus in terms of object orientation due to polymorphic characteristic object behave

There are four ways to implement polymorphism in Python:

Example 18: Duck Typing principle

Example 20: Implementation of method overloading.

Example 21: Implementation of method overriding.

Example 22: Method overriding with the super keyword

Check Your Progress - 1

SOLUTIONS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

 Understand the requirement of exception handling in programming

14.2 DEFAULT EXCEPTION HANDLER

Name of Error is :IndexError

Name of Error is : Name Error

Name of Error is :ValueError

Creating an object of child classwill first search theinitmethod of the child