Chapter 3

Total Quality Management -An Overview

3.1 Quality
Contents

3.2 Total Quality

3.3 Total Quality Management

3.4 References

3.1 Quality

Literally, for the business world ‘quality’ is defined as the degree of

excellence. The quest for quality is not the outcome of a particular day. The
various stages of economic development and technological advancement resulted
in severe competition in the business field. As a result industries were forced to
manufacture products as per the requirements of consumers, that also in
conformity with the quality and standards expected by the consumers. Thus
quality is an evolutionary concept. The era before the Industrial Revolution was
producer - oriented. Whatever be the products manufactured by the industrialists
the consumers were forced to accept them. But, after the Industrial Revolution the
trend in the market changed. Manufactures were forced to manufacture products
and provide services as per the requirements of the consumers making the market
consumers oriented. Further, technological advancement in various sectors and

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the globalization process forced the industrial sector to think more effectively
regarding quality and effective development of various business inputs driving the
business concerns to excellence in various activities. Thus in the present
environment every enterprise is striving towards excellence in their activities.

3.1.1 Evolution of quality

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Quality Quality Productivity Quanlity Total Total Kaizen Total

of Circles Quality Quality Productive
Worklife Control maintenance
Management

Employees’ Employees’ Self Self

Attitudinal
Attainment
Involvement Empowerment Directed Directed change
Change
Team &
Self
Managed
Teams

OPERATIONS CUSTOMERS INNOVATIONS PERFORMANCE

EXCELLENCE

Figure 3.1: The Evolution of Quality - Means and Focus

Source : Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr. D.D
Sharma

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Education

Performance
Excellence

Total
Quality
Management

Total
Quality Control &
Company wide control

Total Quality Control

Statistical Quality Control

Inspection

Foremen
Operator

1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 1990 2000 2010

Figure 3.2: The Evolution of Quality over the Years

Source : Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr.D.D

Sharma

3.1.2 Definitions of Quality

Among the number of definitions given in respect of quality, those given

by ‘quality gurus’ which are widely recognized and have been evolved over a
period of time are as follows:

1. Quality is fitness for use or purpose – Joseph M. Juran

2. Quality is conformance to requirements – Philip B. Crosby

3. A predictable degree of uniformity and dependability at low cost and

suited to market – W. Edwards Deming.

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 4. ….. Development, manufacture administration and distribution of
consistently low cost products and services that customers need and want
– Bill Conway

5. Total composite of product and service characteristics of marketing,

engineering, manufacturing and maintenance through which the product
and service in use will meet the expectations of the customers – Armand
V. Feigenbaum.

6. Quality is the degree of excellence at an acceptable price and control of

variability at an acceptable cost – Broth.

7. The totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear

on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs of customers. – ISO 8402 :
Quality Vocabulary

Thus quality can be defined as the ability of a product or service to

satisfy the requirements of a consumer permanently at a lower cost as per
the standards expected by the consumer.

3.1.3 New Definition of Quality

There is a new thinking regarding quality which replaces the old thinking.
As per old thinking quality is about products, it is technical, it is for inspectors, it
is led by experts, good quality is of high grade and quality is about control (little-
q); whereas according to the new line of thinking quality is about organizations,
it is strategic, quality is for every one, quality is led by appropriate grade,
and is about improvement – Big Q

Thus a good quality process changes the way. Things are done by

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  Driving the business from customer needs
 Setting a clear vision which is deployed down into co-ordinated action.
 Using the contribution of every person to the full.
 Managing well beyond company boundaries.
 Managing processes to their optimal capability.
 Partnering with customers and suppliers (both internal and external)
 Developing workers to manage and managers to lead.
 Breaking down hierarchy and functional divisions.
 Becoming faster, leaner and more responsive to market opportunities.
 Integrating all the above for competitive advantage.

3.1.4 Benefits of Quality Efforts

 High employee morale
 More efficient processes
 Higher productivity
 Less fire fighting resulting in more time for innovation and creativity
 Improved quality of products and services
 Increased market share
 Lower costs
 Increased customer satisfaction
 Higher profits

3.1.5 Dimensions of Quality

As it is the customer who decides to buy or not to buy a product or

service, according to his or her perceptions of quality, quality should be perceived
from the customer’s point of view.

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3.1.6 Various dimensions of quality
Safety : How much Performance : How Features : What
care has the company well does the product special features does
taken to make the perform with respect the product have? Eg :
product safe for users to its intendance 1200 watt of sound,
before, during or after Eg : good picture and flat picture tube,
use? Eg : TV having sound effects of a T.V. picture – in - picture
features to protect the feature etc. in a T.V.
eyes of viewers from
harmful radiations.
Customer service : Various Reliability : How
How is the behavior of Dimensions much is the
the seller with the of quality probability of
customer before, breakdown, need for
during, and after the adjustments,
sale of the product? Eg: replacement of parts
treatment given by the etc in the product. Eg:
sales staff may prompt a TV performing well
a customer to buy every time it is
another TV of the same switched on
brand from the same
dealer
Appearance : How Durability : How long Serviceability : How
pleasant is the outward can the product easily, cheaply and
look, smell, taste, feel perform well without speedly can the
or sound of the substantial repair or product be repaired
product? Eg : Super replacement of parts. and serviced. Eg : a
thin flat TV (which can Eg : performance of a company providing
be hung on a wall like TV for 10 years on-spot repairs of TVs
a picture). without needing any within one hour of
repair customer complaint at
nominal charges.

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3.2 Total Quality

Attainment and maintenance of quality in respect of an activity or division

of an organization will not result in total quality. ‘Zero defective stage’ also does
not mean total quality. In the words of Atkinson, total quality is a strategic
approach to producing the best product and service possible through constant
innovation. Concentration should not be only on the production side but also on
the service side of a business. Thus total quality means the movement of the
whole organization to achieve quality continuously, economically and in entirety.
Thus it ensures quality maintenance in each and every activity and function of the
organization.

3.2.1 Total Quality Control

The meaning assigned to the term quality at present is not limited to

‘conformance to standards of specifications’, ‘fitness to use or purpose’ and
reliability. Today it means total quality control (TQC) effort – that means an
effort in which everybody and every function of the organization participates.
TQC can be defined as “an effort of continuous quality improvement of all
processes, products and services through universal participation that results in
increasing customer satisfaction and loyalty and improved business results. Thus
TQC includes efficiency, productivity, customer satisfaction and good
management of key areas such as planning and human resources. It is an effective
system for integrating the quality – development and improvement efforts of
various groups in an organization so as to enable marketing, engineering,
production and service at the most economical levels which allow for full
customer satisfaction.

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3.2.2. Dimensions of Quality – KANO’s MODEL)
Noriaki Kano and others have proposed two dimensions of product
quality; firstly must - be (expected and performance) quality and secondly
attractive (excitement) quality.

Expected features
 Fundamental features must be present
 Absence of these features dissatisfies, where as presence does not satisfy.

Performance Features
 These features create satisfaction if customers’ expectations are exceeded.
 There will be dissatisfaction if they fall short of expectations.
Excitement Features
 Innovations beyond customers’ awareness
 Even minor items, if perceived by customers of superior value, can
enhance market share.
 They must be based on intimate knowledge of customer perception,
product function and usage conditions to be successful.

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 Figure 3.3 Two Dimensions of Quality (Kano, 1984)

Figure 3.4 Kano’s Model Customer Satisfaction Relative to Classes of

Product Features (Kano, 1984)

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 Evolutionary Phases of Quality Activity Focus

Source : Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr. D.D
Sharma

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3.3 Total Quality Management

The present modern world is witnessing an attitudinal change in the

behavioural approach and consumption pattern of the consumers. This
necessitated an emergence in the concept of total quality. Today the products and
services are needed that fully satisfy and delight customers, that will meet their
needs and expectations in every respect, that too on a continuous basis. Total
quality is the performance leadership in meeting customer requirements and doing
right things right the first time and everytime. To meet the new emerging needs of
the customers, and to satisfy them, quality assurance on a continuous basis is to be
ensured in respect of each and every function, process as well as operation in the
organization. Such a total change can be effected in an organization only through
the concept of Total Quality Management (TQM). The principles of TQM are
now recognized and accepted by most of the successful business all over the
world. The changing demands of the customers, and the need for cost reduction
under different situations, make TQM a practice of paramount importance for
every enterprise, big or small. Meeting customer specifications, dependability of
service and speed of delivery are the very distinguishing features of success.
There is no other theory of business management than TQM that addresses these
issues fully. TOM is both a philosophy and technique which has a set of
guiding principles that represent the foundation of a continuously
improving organisation. TQM employs quantitative methods to
continuously improve an organisation's process. It is an approach to
managing work, based on the analytical evolution of work process, the
development of quality culture, and the empowerment of employees.

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3.3.1 TQM and Indian Scriptures

The Western world claims that the TQM concept was originated in the
West and exported to the East after the Second World war when spurned by
Western industries as impracticable. But a number of management experts have
expressed the view that TQM is not new to India and has its roots in ancient
Indian scriptures like the Upanishads and the Srimad Bhagavadgita. According to
Mr. Subodh Bhargava, group chief executive of Eicher, the term TQM is
comparable with some of the Vedic terms. The total, which literally means 100
percent, is the whole space or Advaita. Quality will put down the boundary which
‘Dharma” gives the permission to achieve. And finally “Karma” and
“Purushartha”, parallel to the term management, suggest what one must perform.
This means TQM concept is embedded in the scriptures and culture of India.

As stated by Mr. Sunil Kumar, a teacher of Sri. Sringeri Sharda Institute

of Management, “The West only discovers what the East already knows”. He
quotes the Indian scriptures to the effect – “At Manar Veddi” – know your inner
strength.

Likewise a management consultant and a strong proponent of the Indian

style of management, Mr. M.B. Athreya talks about “Vivek” (mind) management
model and emphasizes that the Indian way of working is very different; all
American models will fail in our context. Mr.Athreya in TQM context identifies
some down-to-earth concepts from the “Vedas” that he feels can guide the
corporate world today. Profit is compensation for service to society and
companies exist to satisfy the need of people (Yogya – arthat karmanaha
parasparam bhavayantaha). Every person has immense potential (Aham

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brahmasmi). My customer is not different (vasudhaiva kutumbakam). That covers
all TQM aspects like social-cost benefit HRD, customer focus and globalization.

3.3.2 Definition: TQM

British Quality Association defined TQM as a corporate management

philosophy which recognizes that customer needs and business goals are
inseparable. It is appropriate within both industry and commerce.

Indian Statistical Institute, Hyderabad, defined TQM as an integrated

organizational approach in delighting customers (both internal and external) by
meeting their expectations on a continuous basis through everyone involved with
the organization working on continuous improvement in all products, services and
processes along with proper problem solving methodology.

Thus TQM is a concept or a philosophy and not a method. It will have the
dual benefit of satisfying customers and doing so in such a way that the
organization gains significantly in its profitability. To put differently externally
the customers are to be satisfied and internally it must result in a capacity for
internal cost savings achieved by reduction in waste and inefficiency and a
concentration on doing things right first time and every time. TQM ensures
maximum effectiveness and efficiency within a business and secures commercial
leadership by putting in place processes and systems which will promote
excellence and prevent errors. It ensures that every aspect of the business is
aligned to customer needs and the advancement of business goals without
duplication or waste of efforts. Thus the TQM process aims at galvanizing the
entire work force to pursue the specific corporal goal of achieving customer
satisfaction with regard to quality, price and delivery.

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3.3.3 TQM Principles

In order to implement the TQM philosophy in an organization effectively

and efficiently and to reap its benefits certain fundamental principles are to be
followed in an organization. Eventhough these principles are to be modified as
per the requirements of each and every organization, the TQM concept is to be
implemented within the framework of these fundamental principles. The
fundamentals are :

1. Customer - focused organization : Organisations depend on their customers

and therefore should understand current and future customer needs, meet
customer requirements and strive to exceed customer expectations.

2. Leadership : Leaders establish unity of purpose and direction of the

organization. They should create and maintain the internal environment in which
people can become fully involved in achieving the organisation’s objective.

3. Involvement of people : People at all levels are the essence of an organization

and their full involvement enables their abilities to be used for the organisation’s
benefit.

4. Process approach : A desired result is achieved more efficiently when related

sources and activities are managed as a process.

5. System approach to management : Identification, understanding and managing

a system of interrelated process for a given objective to improve the
organisation’s effectiveness and efficiency.

6. Continual Improvement : Continual improvement should be a permanent

objective of the organization.

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7. Factual approach to decision making : Effective decisions are based on the
analysis of data and information.

8. Mutually beneficial supplier relationships : An organization and its suppliers

are interdependent, and a mutually beneficial relationship enhances the ability of
both to create value.

3.3.4 TQM Models

Different experts have developed different TQM models keeping in mind

their thinking and prevalent situations in their environment. The important TQM
models are:
3.3.4.1 Fuji Xerox Model(1988)

In the words of Yotaro Kobayashi “TQM should be a simple blend of

charisma and process discipline to be effective”. His model requires continuous
harnessing of three forces : vision, sensitivity and technology. This is named as
Fuji Xerox Model.

3.3.4.2 Norman Rickad Model

Norman Rickad Model has six key enabling factors namely, training,
quality network role modeling for senior management, recognition and rewards,
communication and standards and measures put in form of a fishbone. This six
key enables lead to two priorities viz. customer satisfaction and employee
satisfaction and four business results, viz, revenue, profits, return on assets and
market share.

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 Figure 3.5 Norman Rickad Model

3.3.4.3 Eicher Group Model

This model is developed by the Eicher group. In this model TQM is described as a
three –legged stool. The three TQM elements constitute the three legs of the stool.
They are : statistical process control (SPC), Just-in-time (JIT) and Total Employee
Involvement (TEI). All these three elements are surrounded by continuous
improvement for manufacturing class products.

Figure 3.6: Three - legged Stool Model of Eicher Group

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Source: Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr.D.D
Sharma

3.3.4.4 Basic Frame Work Model

The difference between Basic Frame work Model and Eicher Three Leg Model is
that the developers of Basic Frame work Model put TQC in the place of SPC.
They included systems, SPC and problem solving tools under the head TQC.

Figure 3.7: Total Quality Management – the Basic Frame Work

Source: Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr. D.D
Sharma

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3.3.4.5 Operational Model

The experts who put forward the Operational Model use three elements, viz. total
participation, problem solving tools and management support and commitment as
the three angles of a triangle. The centre of the triangle shows the Quality
Management Systems (QMS).

Figure 3.8: Operational Model of TQM

Source: Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr. D.D
Sharma

3.3.4.6 Diamond Model

The supporters of the Diamond Model lay stress on four characteristics of Total
Quality Management movement – totality, documentation, foundation and
improvement. These four elements surround TQM which is the centre of the
diamond.

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 Figure 3.9: Diamond Model of TQM

Source: Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr.D.D

Sharma

3.3.4.7 Umbrella Model

Experts like Atkinson put TQM model in the form of an umbrella. All TQM
elements, viz, JIT, TEI, SPC, Kaizen, Customer satisfaction, quality assurance,
Taguchi methods, Quality Circles etc are included under the Umbrella.

Figure 3.10: Umbrella Model of TQM

Source : Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr. D.D
Sharma

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3.3.4.8 Accelerated Business Improvement Model

This model is put forward by Smith and is termed as a quality revolution model
for the companies which intend to attain world class excellence through TQM.
Smith model comprises belief, strategy, leadership, customer satisfaction, process,
people, discipline, energy and change. This model keeps belief in the centre and
other elements are surrounded by energy change and accelerated business
improvement. Smith emphasizes that a lot of energy is required to be unleashed
for bringing out the change for implementing the other elements of his model.

Accelerated Business Improvement

Energy
Leaders
Strategy customers
Belief
Disciplines process
People
Change
Accelerated Business Improvement

Figure 3.11: Accelerated Business Improvement Model

Source : Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr. D.D
Sharma

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3.3.4.9 Kano’s Basics of TQM Model

This model is developed by Dr.Nojiaki Kano, Professor of Tokyo University.

According to him there are three pillars for his model.

Firstly, the basic concepts – putting the customers first, management by facts,
PDCA principle, focus on prevention, employees involvement through respect,
and cross functional management. Secondly the promotional vehicle – policy
management, daily management, team activity and vendor quality. Third pillar is
basic technology. The foundations of these pillars should be sound intrinsic
technology and skills to have strong company process and motivation amongst
people for quality.

Figure 3.12: Kano’s Basics of TQM Model

Source: Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr.D.D

Sharma

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3.3.4.10 Westing House Model of TQM

This model developed by Westing House Electrical Corporation has three major
dimensions, viz., requirements, measurements and imperatives. The dimensions
of requirement consist of customer satisfaction, stake holders’ values, employee
satisfaction, and public approval. Under measures the model explains : value /
price ratios, value / cost ratios, and error free performance. The imperatives
dimensions describe : customer – orientation, human resources excellence,
product – process leadership and management leadership.

Figure 3.13: Westinghouse Electric Corporation Model

Source : Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr. D.D
Sharma

3.3.4.11 Itoh Model

Itoh Model integrates TQC and time management. This model shows the portion
of time spent on different activities by different management levels. The major
activities are categorized into routine or maintenance, improvement and break

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through development activities. According to this model the top management
spends more time on breakthrough and development whereas lower management
spends more time on routine and maintenance activities. The improvement
activities are equally distributed throughout all levels of management. By
overlaying five major TQM aspects on the basic Itoh model, Sarv Sing Soin
integrated the model with the TQM aspects. The TQM aspects are: customer
obsession, planning process, improvement cycle, process management and
employee participation. According to this all lower level employees must
participate in maintenance; daily process management and improvement cycle,
and customer satisfaction must be shared between middle and top management
whereas planning process must start from the top management.

Figure 3.14 : The TQC Elements Overlaid in the Itoh Model

Source : Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr. D.D
Sharma

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3.3.4.12 Paratec TQM Model

Paratec puts TQM practice as three typical steps, viz, six basic concepts which
should be understood for all quality successes; six management elements must be
integrated into practice and systems; and six stages of review and plans which
convert from the existing situation to the launch of the TQM.

Figure 3.15: Paratec TQM Implementation Framework

Source : Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr. D.D
Sharma

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3.3.4.13 Kehoe’s TQM Model

Dimensions of quality management as explained by Dennis F. Kehoe are: people,

techniques and systems. According to him these dimensions must be supported by
training and understanding, teamwork, communications, improvement and
commitment. He also put forward the following components of TQM: senior
management leadership improvement orientation, customer focus, company -
wide involvement, commitment to training and education, ownership of the
process, emphasis on measurement and review, and teamwork.

Figure 3.16 : The Dimensions of Quality Management (Kehoe, 1996)

Source : Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr.D.D

Sharma

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3.3.4.14 Oakland Model of TQM

Oakland model defines TQM as a pyramid representing five distinct components.

The different components are:
 Management commitment : This identifies the role of leading and
introducing change from the senior management team and the
commitment has to be reflected at all levels.
 Customer supplier chain : It reflects process ownership, process
management and process improvement propelled throughout the chain.
 Systems : The approach insists on having documented sets of procedures
and standard of doing things right first time and everytime.
 SPC tools : This important aspect of TQM indicates the need to
continuously measure and control conformance to consumer requirements
and agreed standards.
 Teamwork : A culture based on continuous improvement has to be
cultivated, encouraged and implemented throughout the organization.

Figure 3.17: The Oakland Model

Source : Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr.D.D

Sharma.

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3.3.4.15 An integrated TQM Model

This model discusses quality in terms of TQC rather than TQM. The integrated
model stresses that continuous improvement in quality has to come from an
integrated approach of controlling quality through action plans in different
operations of the business cycle. Here control means the management of quality at
various stages of the process. This model consists of five important elements, viz;

 Customer focus : All individuals in the organization concentrate on quality

of the process in delivering services to customer.

 Management commitment : In the form of changing attitudes, expectations

and establishing systems for quality measurement and control.

 Total participation from the grass root level to the top.

 Statistical quality control

 Systematic problem solving process basesd on customer focus which

relies on PDCA cycle to improve the whole business process.

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 Figure 3.18: An Integrated TQM Model

Source : Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr, D.D
Sharma.

3.3.4.16 Eight Components Model

This model consists of eight components and looks at organizational and human
resource factors more closely than techniques, systems and standards. The eight
components are:

Changing organizational culture : To develop a sense of belongingness and

feeling of loyalty and commitment throughout the power of organisation’s should
be distributed. For this five steps are suggested 1. Make management commitment
genuine and evident; 2. The process has to be kept serious, but people should be
allowed to have fun 3. Every aspect of the process should be made positive. 4.

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Every level of management and supervision has to be made fully conversant with
notion of how to achieve quality; 5. The requirements have to be made explicit to
be easily understood by all parties.
 Involving the employees : The employees should play a role in decision
making, their advice has to be sought, they should be encouraged to state
their opinions, and forums and gatherings of workers and management
should be arranged.
 Building incentives : To improve productivity and quality, employee
incentive programmes should be introduced.
 Satisfying the customer
 Eliminating barriers : Eliminate bureaucracy, focus on process control
mechanisms and make sure that lines of authority and responsibility
become means of facilitating the implementation of TQM rather than
hindering it.
 Using technology and innovation : Technology is often at the forefront of
improving quality. Technology can also provide organizations with
flexibility to react to changes. It can ensure a continuous flow of
information.
 Working with suppliers and contractors : Good supplier – customer
relationship facilitates to discuss and understand different problems and
aspects, which will facilitate elimination of errors and problems.
 Measuring progress : TQM measurement can only be related to how well
the organizations are being controlled and led. In order to strive for quality
and productivity improvement, some yardsticks have to be present in its
processes / activities; various goals and objectives, and recording,
analyzing and measurement of progress.

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 Figure 3.19: Eight Components Model

Source : Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr. D.D
Sharma

3.3.4.17 Building Blocks Model

This model, proposed by Zairi, looks at TQM from three levels. This model
argues that TQM depends on various building blocks which together determine
the strength and safety / security of the organization. It also argues that a
weakness in any one block / area will have a disastrous effect on the TQM
programme as a whole. The three levels are.

 Total quality – The foundation : It describes that the ethos of TQM is

internal improvement, introduction of change, flexibility and adaptability.

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  Total quality – The pillars : The pillars of any TQM programme are the
means by which the human creativity inputs can be channeled through and
converted into outputs which benefit the end customer. The pillars are
represented by various quality systems which represent procedures,
documentation recording and analysis mechanisms, the use of statistical
techniques, work place design, ergonomics, technological innovation,
computerized management control systems, and the strength of customer-
supplier chain.

 Total quality – The top. It is the most important part, like the roof of a
building. It shields the organization from adverse external factors and
protects it all the time. The top of TQM has to be supported by quality
systems which again, will depend on how deep - rooted the philosophy is
in the organization. Quality planning and senior management vision can
only be converted into reality.

Figure 3.20: Total Quality management – The Building Blocks (Zairi – 1991)

Source : Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – D. D.D

Sharma

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3.3.4.18 Dhruv Model for Excellence

Dhruv model for world class excellence emphasizes that statistics has to be taught
to each and every persons in all organizations. Secondly, technologies and
processes have to be improved adhering to set standards. Thirdly, management
concepts and applications have to be taught to every individual for effective
accomplishment of objectives. TQM has to be implemented through continuous
improvement for producing and delivering quality products / services of world
class label.

Figure 3.21: Dhruv Model for World - class Excellence through TQM

Source : Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr.D.D

Sharma

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3.3.5. TQM GURUS

TQM gurus are the expert thinkers with regard to TQM concept who have
contributed valuable principles and theories which are communicated to the TQM
field. Starting immediately after World War II a number of philosophers and
thinkers have made their contributions to the ‘Total Quality Management’
movement. It is considered that the name ‘Total Quality Management’ was first
suggested by Nancy Warren, a behavioural scientist in the US Navy. Thereafter a
number of TQM gurus have made their significant contributions. Many of them
are Americans and a few of them are Japanese.

3.3.5.1 W. Edwards Deming

Deming is regarded as the quality guru who never gave up. Beneficial effects of
Deming’s programmes were seen such as reduction in scrap and rework. After
World War II Deming was invited by Japan as an advisor to the Japanese Census.
He became involved with the Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers (JUSE)
after its formation – in 1946. In 1951, Japan instituted the much cherished
Deming Prize for corporate quality in honour of Dr.Deming. In 1956, Deming
was awarded the Shewhart Medal by American Society for Quality Control. In
1960 Deming’s teachings were widely known in Japan and the Emperor awarded
him the second order of the Sacred Treasure. In the late 1990s, Deming’s thinking
could perhaps best be expressed as “management by positive co-operation”.
Deming encouraged Japanese managers and engineers to go beyond the utilization
of statistics and strive for continuous improvement. The Shewhart Cycle of “Plan-
Do-Check-Act” was revised by Deming to include “study” rather than “check”
which has been referred to as “Deming wheel” or PDCA cycle.

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Deming strongly believed that quality improvement had to be management - led.
He saw management responsibility in two main areas: 1. To create a positive
climate for quality improvement, and 2. To emphasise the knowledge of workers
rather than rigid systems. Based on this vision Dr.Deming developed and
propagated his, major contribution, Fourteen Points, to the TQM field. Deming’s
Fourteen Points can be seen as the ingredients which organizations require to
carry out the total transformation that is based on company – wide quality
improvement philosophy.

Deming’s Fourteen Points

 Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product and service,

with the aim to become competitive and thus to stay in business, and to
provide jobs.
 Adopt the new philosophy. We are in a new economic age. We no longer
need to live with commonly accepted delays, mistakes, defective materials
and defective workmanship.
 Cease dependence on mass inspection to achieve quality. Eliminate the
need for inspection on a mass basis by building quality into the product in
the first place.
 End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag. Instead,
minimise total cost. Move toward a single supplier for any item, on a long-
term relationship of loyalty and trust.
 Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service, to
improve quality and productivity, and thus constantly decrease costs.
 Institute modern methods of training and education on the job, including
management.

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 Institute leadership. The aim of supervision should be to help people,
machines and gadgets to do a better job.
 Drive out fear, so that everyone may work effectively for the company.
 Break down barriers between departments. People in research, design,
sales and production must work as a team to foresee problems of
production and in use that may be encountered with the product or service.
 Eliminate slogans, exhortions and targets for the workforce asking for zero
defects and new levels of productivity. Such exhortions only create
adverse social relationships, as the bulk of the courses of low quality and
low productivity belong to the system and thus lie beyond the power of the
workforce.
 Eliminate work standards (quotas) on the factory floor, substitute
leadership.
 Eliminate management by objectives. Eliminate management by
numbers.
 Remove barriers that rob the houry worker of the right to pride of
workmanship. The responsibility must be changed from sheer numbers
to quality.
 Remove barriers that rob people in management and in engineering of
their right to pride of workmanship. This means. Inter alia,
abolishment of the annual or merit rating and of management by
objectives.
 Institute a vigorous programme of education and self-development.
 Put everybody in the company to work to accomplish the transformation.
The transformation is everybody's job (through company- wide quality
improvement).

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Deming’s Deadly Diseases and Sins

Deming also warns about the obstacles which may inhibit the implementation of
the fourteen principles. These obstacles are referred to as the “deadly diseases”
and the “deadly sins”

Deadly Diseases
1. Lack of consistency
2. Short term profits
3. Performance appraisal
4. Mobility of management : Job hopping
5. Use of only visible figures

Deadly Sins
1. Evaluation of performance
2. Running a company on visible figures only

Deming’s fourteen management principles are considered to be of paramount

importance, universally. His philosophy on corporate quality management can be
characterized thus:
 It is management - led
 Everyone in the organization has to take part in it.
 It is based on a continuous process of improvement
 It is scientifically oriented
 It aims at serving the customers better all the time.

3.3.5.2 Joseph M. Juran

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Dr.Joseph M. Juran has also contributed a lot to the total quality movement. Juran
was an engineer in the USA. He was invited by the Japanese in 1954 to contribute
to the rebuilding of Japanese economy and speak on planning, organizing and
managing quality programmes. Juran is the founder chairman of Juran Institute.
He was awarded the second order of Secret Treasure by the Emperor of Japan, the
highest decoration given to a non-Japanese citizen for helping the development of
quality control in Japan. Juran is known for his development of the concepts of
determining the avoidable and unavoidable costs of quality, company-wide
quality management and quality trilogy. Juran’s approach to quality control and
its management is two sided: firstly, the company’s mission in terms of fitness for
use and secondly, the role of senior managers in providing leadership.

In the opinion of Dr.Juran one of the main obstacles to achieving quality is

disagreement over the meaning of quality and the key words associated with it.
He defines quality as “fitness to use”, which is broken into two components,
namely, (1) quality consists of those product features that meet customer need and
(2) quality consists of freedom from deficiencies.

Juran’s Quality Trilogy

Under his quality trilogy, Juran proposes three managerial processes, which he
thinks are necessary for the structural implementation of a total quality
programme, namely (1) quality planning (2) quality improvement and (3) quality
control. The three managerial processes consist of a number of sub processes as
follows:

1. Quality Planning
 Identify customers
 Determine customers needs

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  Develop product features
 Establish quality goods
 Develop a process
 Prove process capability

2. Quality Control
 Choose control subjects (What to control?)
 Choose units of measurement
 Establish measurement
 Establish standards of performance
 Measure actual performance
 Interpret the difference (actual vs. standard)
 Take action on the difference

3. Quality Improvement
 Prove need for improvement
 Identify specific projects for improvement
 Organise to guide the projects
 Organise for diagnosis – for discovery of causes
 Diagnose to find the causes
 Provide remedies
 Prove that remedies are effective under the operating conditions
 Provide for control to hold gains
Juran developed a quality trilogy to assist management in the implementation of
strategic quality planning, which appears as follows.
Juran’s six stage methodology
Juran proposed a six stage methodology in terms of the quality improvement
process;

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  Proof of need
 Project identification
 Organisation for breakthrough
 The diagnostic journey
 The remedial journey
 Holding the gains

Juran’s 10 steps of quality improvement

Juran’s quality improvement process is often summarized as a ten - step process:

1. Build awareness of the need and opportunity for improvement.
2. Set goals for improvement
3. Organise to reach the goals (eg: establish a quality council, identify
problems, select processes that need improvement, appoint teams, train
facilitators and team members)
4. Provide training throughout the organization
5. Carry out projects to solve problems
6. Report progress
7. Give recognition
8. Communicate results
9. Keep score
10. Maintain momentum by making actual improvement part of the regular
systems and processes of the company.

3.3.5.3 Philip B. Crosby

Philip B. Crosby was a former corporate vice president, vice president for quality
at ITT and the founder of the Crosby Quality College. Crosby is perhaps best

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known for his more vocational style and popular programmes and dicta such as
Zero defects (ZD), conformance to requirements and quality is free. The essence
of Crosby’s quality drive is prevention. According to him the major objective of
organizations implementing total quality should be zero defect. Acceptable
Quality Levels (AQL) should be forbidden because they compromise the
commitment towards the achievement of zero defects. In the opinion of Crosby
there are two major problems which are the causes for poor quality in industry; i.
Those which are due to employees poor awareness and knowledge and ii. Others
which are due to carelessness and lack of attention.

Crosby’s Four Absolutes of Quality

Crosby states that if managements are serious about achieving ZD, they have to
be serious about prevention. He proposes some guidelines for managers which he
calls the four absolutes of quality management. Crosby’s four absolutes of quality
are:
1. Quality means conformance to requirements.
2. Quality comes from prevention
3. Quality performance standard is zero defects.
4. Quality measurement is the price of non-conformance

Crosby’s six C’s

A key to the improvement process is education beginning with management and

flowing down to all employees. Crosby summarises the education process in the
six C’s as follows:

1. Comprehension : Understanding what is necessary and the abandonment

of the conventional ways of thinking.

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 2. Commitment : Expression of dedication first by management and
everyone else soon after.
3. Competence : Implementation of the improvement process in a methodical
way.
4. Correction : Elimination of possibilities for error by identifying current
problems and taking them back to their basic cause.
5. Communication : Complete understanding and support of all people in the
process including suppliers and customers.
6. Continuance : Unyielding remembrance of how things used to be and how
they are going to be.

Crosby’s 14 Steps of Quality Improvement Plan

A fourteen- steps plan for quality improvement has been put forward by Crosby.
This plan includes steps which are to be taken simultaneously or in parallel. The
first six steps in the sequence are performed by management and need to be done
first. The fourteen steps as proposed by Crosby are:
1. Management commitment
2. Quality improvement team
3. Quality measurement
4. Cost of quality education
5. Quality awareness
6. Corrective action
7. Zero defect planning
8. Employee education
9. Zero defect day
10. Goal setting
11. Removal of causes of error

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 12. Recognition
13. Quality councils
14. Do it all over again

3.3.5.4 Armand V. Feigenbaum

Along with Deming and Juran, Armand V. Feigenbaum became known to the
Japanese at the same time. He was the head of quality at General Electric (USA)
and had extensive contacts with Japanese companies. But he became best known
through his book titled Total Quality Control. He was the first to argue that
quality should be considered at all the manufacturing function. In the words of
Feigenbaum the underlying principle of the total quality view and its basic
difference from all other concepts is that it is to provide genuine effectiveness.
Control must start with identification of customer quality requirements and end
only when the product has been placed in the hands of a customer who remains
satisfied. Total quality control guides the co-ordinated actions of people,
machines and information to achieve this goal. The first principle to recognize is
that quality is everybody’s job. According to Feigenbaum, from quality point of
view new products progress in the factory through smaller stages of what he terms
the Industrial Cycle’

Stages of Industrial Cycle

1. New design control
2. Incoming material control
3. Product or shop floor control

Feigenbaum also made a major contribution by studying quality costs. He

identified the various costs in what he called ‘the hidden plant’. This is proportion
of the total plant capacity which specifically deals with rework and corrections.

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He considered that the size of the hidden plant can vary from 15 to 40 percent of
the total plant capacity.

3.3.5.5 Bill Conway

Bill Conway has been referred to as Deming’s disciple. He considers that quality
management is the management of the various stages of the development,
manufacturing, purchasing and distribution processes with consideration of
economic viability and a desire to improve on various activities to reduce material
waste and time wastage. He considers that quality problems are often caused by
the management’s lack of convictions and commitment Quality improvement
according to Conway has to come from a new way of management thinking and
also the wide utilization of statistical tools. He proposes six guidelines in this
respect.

Conway’s Quality Improvement Tools

1. Human relation skills : Management’s responsibility is to create
harmonious working climate built on trust, mutual respect and common
goals.
2. Statistical surveys : Use the power of surveys to identify areas for
improvement and to be better informed about various developments.
3. Simple vs statistical techniques. Use simple charts, diagrams to highlight
problems, analyse them and propose various solutions.
4. Statistical process control. Minimise variations within various processes
using control charts.
5. Imagineering : Use of problem solving techniques using problem
visualization with a view to identifying ways for waste elimination.

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 6. Industrial engineering : The use of various techniques to redesign work
methods, and plant layout for the purpose of achieving major
improvements

3.3.5.6 Kaoru Ishikawa

Kaoru Ishikawa is considered as Japan’s leading figure in the area of Total

Quality Management. He got inspiration from the work of Deming, and Juran and
to some extent, from that of Feigenbaum.

Ishikawa’s Major Contributions to TQM

1. Quality Control Circles : He was the first to introduce this concept and to
have put it into practice successfully.
2. He is the originator of fishbone diagrams or Ishikawa diagrams which are
now used worldwide for problem solving and continuous improvement
through cause-effect analysis.
3. Ishikawa has commented that Feigenbaum’s approach to Total Quality
Control includes many non-specialists and therefore, the input on quality
problem solving may be limited. He argues that Company Wide Quality
Control (CWQC) has to rely on the wide use of statistical techniques. He
has classified the statistical techniques into three categories. Ishikawa
argues that nearly 90-95 percent of the problems can be solved using the
elementary statistical techniques which do not require specialized
knowledge.

Ishikawa’s statistical techniques to CWQC

1. Elementary statistical techniques

 Pareto analysis (vital few versus trivial many)

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  Cause and effect diagram (not a true statistical technique)
 Stratification
 Check list (tally sheet)
 Histogram
 Scatter diagram
 Graphs and shewhart control chart.

2. Intermediate statistical methods

 Theory of sampling surveys
 Statistical sampling techniques
 Various methods of statistical estimation and hypothesis testing
 Methods of utilizing sensory tests
 Methods of experimental design

3. Advanced statistical methods (using computers)

 Advanced experimental design
 Multivariate analysis
 Operations research methods

3.3.5.7 Genichi Taguchi

Genichi Taguchi worked as Director of the Japanese Academy of Quality during

1978-82. He was awarded the Deming Prize in 1960 for his contribution in
developing techniques for industrial optimization. He has developed methods for
on-line and off-line quality control which form the basis for his approach towards

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total quality control assurance. In 1989, Taguchi received MITI’s purple ribbon
award from the Emperor of Japan for his contribution to Japanese industrial
standards. He is known as international consultant in quality control and
assurance.

Taguchi’s methods incorporate the use of statistical techniques. They are

primarily intended for designers and engineers to optimize the setting so that
products are robust. These statistical methods are intended as a trouble
shooting/problem solving tool in the early stages of the product development
cycle. Besides control variables which are dealt with by SPC, Taguchi methods
enable engineers/designers to identify ‘noise variables’ which if not controlled
can affect product manufacture and performance. Taguchi defines the quality of a
product as the loss imparted by the product to the society from the time the
product is shipped. The loss may include various things such as customer
complaints, added warranty costs, damage to company reputation, and loss of
market lead amongst others. According to Taguchi products do not start causing
losses until it is out of specification but more importantly when there is deviation
from the target value. The Quality Loss Function (QLF) can also be represented
by a quadratic formula L=D2C. (Loss increases by the square of deviation from
the target value). QLF is useful because it not only gives warnings about
deviations at the early stage of a new product but also provides managers with
cost estimates.

Taguchi’s methods emerged because of his disagreement with the use of zero
defects as a principle to produce quality products. The zero defect principle is that
the robustness derives from consistency. Taguchi argues that product robustness
comes from having consistent deviation which then makes the task of elimination

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much easier. He proposed the list of quality imperatives as guidelines to quality
improvement.

Taguchi’s Quality Imperatives

1. Quality losses result from product failure after sale. Product robustness is
more a function of product design than on-line control, however, stringent
be the manufacturing process.

2. Robust products deliver a strong ‘signal’ regardless of external ‘noise’ and

with a minimum of internal noise. Any strengthening of a design, that is,
any market increase in the signal-to-noise ratios of component parts will
simultaneously improve the robustness of the product as a whole.

3. To set targets at maximum signal-to-noise ratios, develop a system of

trials that allows you to analyse change in overall system performance
according to the average effect of change in component parts, that is, when
you subject parts to varying values, stresses, and experimental conditions.
In new products, average effects may be most efficiently discerned by
means of "arthogonal arrays".

4. To build robust products, set ideal target values for components and then
minimise the average of the square of deviations for combined
components, averaged over the various customer-user conditions.

5. Before products go on to manufacturing, tolerances are set. Overall quality

loss then increases by the square of deviation from the target value, that is,
by the quadratic formula L= D2C, where the constant C, is determined by

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 the cost of the counter-measure that might be employed in the factory.
This is the "quality loss function".

6. Virtually nothing is gained in shipping a product that just barely satisfies

the corporate standards over a product that just fails. Get on target, don't
just try to stay in specification.

7. Work relentlessly to achieve designs that can be produced consistently;

demand consistency from the factory. Catastrophic stack-up is more likely
from scattered deviation within specifications than from consistent
deviation outside. Where deviation from target is consistent, adjustment to
the target is possible.

8. A concerted effort to reduce product failure in the field will

simultaneously reduce the number of defectives in the factory. Strive to
reduce variances in the components of the product and variance will be
reduced in the production system as a whole.

9. Competing proposals for capital equipment or competing proposals for on-

line interventions may be compared by adding the cost of each proposal to
the average quality loss, that is, the deviations expected from it.

3.3.5.8 Shigeo Shingo

Shigeo Shingo has pioneered the area of Zero Quality Control. Shingo
argues that the effort put into tightening tolerance does not necessarily raise
production costs significantly as is widely believed. Zero quality control, Poka-
Yoke and Jidoka are the major contributions of Shingo. He has been teaching
concepts of production engineering to many Japanese managers and is still

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promoting the idea of ‘zero quality control’ by arguing that inspection processes
or the use of statistical quality control should be completely eliminated. Shingo
believes that quality should be controlled at the source of the problem, not after
the problem has manifested itself. Consequently he recommends that inspection
should be incorporated within the process where the problem has been identified
and where it should be eliminated. He considers that Statistical Quality Control
(SQC) tends to focus on the effect, rather than the cause which is due to process
imperfections and abnormalities.

Shingo developed a concept called ‘Poka-Yoke’ (foolproofing). Poka-

Yoke means that checklists for each operation are provided so that human error is
completely eliminated. It is also similar to the concept of automation (Jidoka)
based on low-cost automated process which stops automatically when the
required operations are completed or when mistakes or abnormalities develop.

Guidelines for Implementation of Poka-Yoke

1. Control upstream goes to the source of the problem.

2. Establish control mechanisms to deal with different problems to enable

operators to know which problem to cure and how to cure it with minimal
disruption to the operating systems.

3. Take a step by step approach by looking at small articles, simplifying

control systems and having economic viability in mind. Efficiency,
technological sophistication, available skills, work methods have all got to
be carefully studied for effective usage of Poka-Yoke.

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 4. Do not delay improvement by over analyzing. Poka-Yoke encourages
inter-departmental co-operation and is a main vehicle for continuous
improvement because it encourages continuous problem solving activity.

3.3.5.9 W.G. Ouchi

W. G. Ouchi is the expert who developed ‘Theory Z”. He conducted

research on the impact of Japanese management philosophy on American
business. He reached at the conclusion that the success of Japanese business is
mainly due to their commitment to quality and their participative style of
management. As observed by Ouchi “In United States we conduct our careers
between organizations but with a single speciality. In Japan people conduct
careers between specialties but within a single organization”

Theory Z and the thirteen steps for its implementation

1. Understand the type Z organization and your role.
2. Audit your company’s philosophy
3. Define the desired management philosophy and involve the company
leader.
4. Implement the philosophy by creating both structures and incentives.
5. Develop inter-personal skills
6. Test yourself and the system.
7. Involve the union
8. Stabilize employment. Avoid layouts and share the misfortune.
9. Decide on a system for showing evaluation and promotion.
10. Broaden career path development.
11. Prepare for implementation of the first (bottom) level.
12. Seek out areas to implement participation.

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 13. Permit the development of relationship.

3.3.5.10 Vilfredo Pareto

Vilfredo Pareto is an Italian management expert who developed Pareto’s

Law. While studying the concentration of wealth of his country Pareto found that
a very large portion of the total national income was concentrated in the hands of
about 20 percent of the population. Being an engineer having mathematical
orientation he developed cumulative curves from the income and number of
persons.

Pareto’s Law

Pareto’s observation was considered an interesting phenomenon with very

little practical use for many years. However, immediately before the World War,
inventory control expert’s analysis revealed that when inventory items were
plotted on cumulative percentage graphs in the order of descending value,
Pareto’s relationship seemed to emerge. It was observed that 10-20 percent of
items in a given inventory accounted for 80 – 90 percent of the total value of the
inventory. The remaining large number of items then accounted for a very small
portion of the inventory value. It its observed that Pareto’s Law has shown
widespread applicability. For example, very few students cause problem in
schools.

3.3.5.11 Tom Peters

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 On the basis of the study conducted in a number of companies Tom Peters
identified two ways of sustaining superior behavior:

i. Taking care of the customers via superior service and quality and ii.
constant innovation. Peters with Waterman Jr. wrote the popular book In Search
of Excellence. He wrote another book titled A Passion for Excellence with Nancy
Austin. In the first book Tom Peters puts forward eight points as the attributes of
excellent companies, viz, a bias for action, close to the customer, autonomy and
entrepreneurship, productivity through people hands on value driven, stick to the
knittings, simple form, lean staff and simultaneous loose-tight properties. Tom
peters in the second book developed the concept of ‘management by wandering
around’ (MBWA), that is wandering around with employees, suppliers and
customers for attaining excellence. Tom Peters is known as a ‘guru’ on achieving
actual excellence in organizations.

3.3.5.12 S.R.Udpa

S.R.Udpa is the founder Executive Director of Quality Circle Forum of

India (QCFI). A few quality circles were formed in 1980 in Bharath Heavy
Electrical Limited, Hyderabad, at the initiative of Mr.Udpa. He was the General
Manager (operations) at that time. QCFI propagated the participative concept
throughout India under the guidance of Mr.Udpa. He conducted several ‘in house’
and ‘institutional’ training programmes on quality circle implementation in our
millieu. Dr.Udpa wrote a book titled Quality Circles: Progress through
Participation which provides directions and guidance for quality circle formation
and operations in various Indian organisations.

3.3.5.13 Stephen Covey

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 The book titled The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People was written
by Stephen Covey. The seven habits are 1. Be proactive 2. Begin with the end in
mind, 3. Put first things first 4. Think win-win, 5. Seek first to understand and
then to be understood 6. Synergise, and 7. Sharpen the saw by continuous
personal and organizational improvements. Convey has contributed several
articles on leadership and change, quality in life through focus on principles etc.
Stephen Covey is a consultant and trainer on TQM.

3.3.5.14 J.S. Oakland

J.S. Oakland is a thinker of recent times on Total Quality Management. He

wrote a book titled Total Quality Management in which he gives his model of
TQM. Oakland model defines TQM as a pyramid representing five distinct
components viz, 1. Management commitment, 2. Customer- supplier chains 3.
Systems, 4. SPC tools and 5. Teamwork. The model is characterized by hard
necessities, soft outcomes, and prerequisites. At the heart of the model is the
customer - supplier chains where the interplay of supplier and customer processes
determines the strategy for continuous improvement through process feedback
and customers feedback.

The hard necessities include: the introduction of quality teams, utilization

of tools and techniques, and quality systems which are not needed to be
introduced in a sequential manner.

The software outcomes result from the introduction of hard building

blocks which mark the start of a change of communication process. The requisite
is management commitment. It has to be inherent within the beliefs of senior
managers who are responsible for implementation of TQM.

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Thirteen Steps of Oakland Approach to TQM
1. Understanding quality
2. Commitment to quality
3. Policy on quality
4. Organisation for quality
5. Measurement of costs of quality
6. Planning for quality
7. Design for quality
8. System for quality
9. Capability for quality
10. Control for quality
11. Teamwork for quality
12. Implementation of TQM.

3.3.6. Tools And Techniques For TQM

1. 5 S Campaign.
2. Total Quality Control (TQC)
3. Total Employee Involvement (TEI).
4. Plan – Do – Check - Act Cycle of Deming’s (PDCA Cycle).
5. Quality Control Circles.
6. Statistical and Process Tools in QC.
7. Quality Function Deployment (QFD).
8. Taguchi Technique — Design of Experiments. Multi Variate Analysis.
9. Design Review.
10. Failure Mode & Effect Analysis (FMEA) & Fault Tree Analysis (FTA).
11. Poka-Yoke-Failure Proofing.
12. Kaizen-Continuous Improvement.

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13. Seven New Quality Improvement Tools.

3.3.6.1 The 5 S Campaign

Upkeep of the workplace is of paramount importance which helps in

quality and productivity improvement. It is a myth that good housekeeping and
productivity cannot go together. It has been proved by Japanese beyond doubt that
the first step towards quality improvement is work place utilization. The Japanese
have developed five simple words as a directive for achieving workplace
utilization.

(A) SEIRI — Proper Arrangement -

"Seiri" means to sort out unnecessary items. In a workplace, permitting of

unwanted things will lead to occupation of space and creation of confusion and
obstacle to working.

(B) SEITON — Orderliness

"Seiton" means a place for everything and everything in its place. Seiton is
a simple method by which everything is kept in a predetermined place and
maintained so that whenever it is required by anybody searching is not needed.

(C) SEIKETSU — Cleanliness

"Seiketsu" means prevent problems by keeping things clean". It is very

important to keep the work area very clean with no oil spots, burrs, dirt or dust.
Seiketsu is the method of keeping a clean workplace which will provide a
pleasant working environment and result in quality products.

(D) SEISO — Clean up

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 "Seiso" means after - work cleaning up and maintenance. It is very
important to clean the machine and workplace and to have routine checks for the
machines like lubrication, checking air pressure etc. every day to have consistent
quality output.

(E) Shitsuke — Discipline

"Shitsuke" means maintaining good habits like following work

instructions/standards, safety precautions etc. to achieve consistent desired quality
of products. Shitsuke provides the guidelines for getting better discipline and
work culture.

3.3.6.2 Total Quality Control (TQC)

The concept of total quality control was introduced by Dr. A. Feigenbaum

first in 1961 and in revised form in 1983. He has stressed the fact that
responsibility for quality control rested with all departments, not just with the
quality control department. He has outlined activities of each department to
guarantee good quality.

TQC is an integrated system and methodology throughout the organisation

that helps to design, produce and service quality products/services which are most
economical for their value, most useful and always satisfactory to the customer.

Elements of TQC.

(a) Quality at source.

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(b) Variability reduction through systematic problem solving methods,
systems and procedures.

(c) Right the first time.

(d) Inching towards zero variability.

3.3.6.3 Total Employee Involvement (TEI)

Quality is not achieved by a few engineers or managers alone. To achieve

quality, everyone in the organisation from the chief executive to the last operator
(worker) has to cooperate and get involved. It means involvement of all
employees in the activities relating to quality, including analysis of a particular
problem and finding solution for it.

3.3.6.4. Plan – Do – Check – Act Cycle of Deming (PDCA Cycle)

A problem is an undesirable result of a job. Deming’s PDCA Cycle is the
basic approach to problem solving
 Plan : A course of action is selected keeping in mind the customer’s
requirements and service conditions

 Do : Execute the work according to the plan

 Check : Verify the results of the work with original plan

 Action : initiate necessary corrective action and feed forward results to

start the next plan

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 Figure 3.22: Plan – Do – Check – Act Cycle of Deming (PDCA Cycle)

Source : Total Quality Management Principles, Practice and Cases – Dr, D.D
Sharma

3.3.6.5. Quality Circles

It is a volunteer group of people irrespective of their status, which meets

once in a week for an hour to identify the problems of their
organization/department/section. Priority is attached to the problems to be solved,
make the solution of at least one problem and present it to management for its
approval. After getting the approval, the solution is implemented and monitored
by the QC members.

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3.3.6.6 Statistical Process Control (SPC)

SPC recognises that every process has some variation. "Common cause
variation" is random and predictable and describes the variation inherent in a
process. Hence it cannot be reduced without a process change. "Special cause
variation" is variation outside that expected for a process and hence due to some
special cause which can be isolated and eliminated.

The process is "in-control" when measurements show on the common

cause variation. "In-control" does not necessarily mean the process is producing
products in specification. It can be "in-control" and also not capable of producing
the desired products. If so, only a better process can provide the desired product.

Process control is essential if a production operation is to consistently

meet demanding specifications. Control charts have been usedas a diagnostic and
maintenance tool in control of production processes since first introduced by
Shewart, years ago.

Control charts can be used as a management tool to bring a process into

control, keep a process in control and determine process capability to meet
specifications. Control chart is a graphic representation of measured actual
process performance relative to computed control limits.

3.3.6.7 Quality Function Deployment (QFD)

QFD is a tool which transforms customer requirements into product

parameters. It is basically a matrix indicating "what is required" on the vertical
axis and "how to achieve it" on the horizontal axis. It helps in identifying a
specific product parameter which could satisfy a specific customer requirement. It

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also helps in identifying inter-relation between parameters at the time of making
changes.

This tool can also be used for transforming product parameter

requirements to process requirement, process requirement to tooling requirement
etc. treating one as customer and the other as supplier.

3.3.6.8 Parameter Design — Taguchi Approach for Quality

Taguchi's main contribution has evolved combining engineering and

statistical methods to achieve rapid improvement in cost and quality by
optimising the product design and manufacturing processes.

The aim of Taguchi's method is to integrate product design and

manufacturing process. One of the main ways this is accomplished is by training
both design engineer and manufacturing personnel in Taguchi methods, in order
to break down the barriers between these two groups.

3.3.6.9 Design Review

Design review is an important tool used to study newly developed designs

and concepts under development. It is very much like the QFD. Both the short
term and long term performance requirements of products, the sub assemblies,
and the components are written down and each item is studies with great care and
in detail as to whether it is capable of carrying out the function demanded of it
even under the extreme conditions.

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3.3.6.10 Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) and Fault Tree Analysis
(FTA)

FMEA and FTA are tools used for reviewing the design of any new
product before it is sent for production. It can also be used as effective tool to
eliminate future quality problems on a running product. It helps to review the
design of the product to meet the customer requirements or specified product
performance.

 FMEA

It is basically used for analysing the effect of failure of individual

components on the system as a whole. FMEA looks at the product and its
elements from the points of how and in what manners it can fail.

 FTA

Fault Tree Analysis starts from system or product failure or major

assembly failure to sub assemblies failure to component failure. A failure mode
for the system is imagined and the root cause is analysed upto individual
components. As the name implies, it is a tree of analysis starting from product
down to the individual component or function

3.3.6.11. Poka-Yoke

Poka-Yoke is a Japanese word meaning "To avoid unintentional errors".

The basic philosophy of Poka Yoke is that human beings are liable to commit
error unknowingly during any operation they perform. If there is a system which
prevents them from committing the error the mistake can be eliminated. Poka-

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Yoke constantly aims at the total elimination of the possibility of human error.
Poka Yoke is a very effective method to achieve Zero Defect.

3.3.6.12. Kaizen - Continuously Improve (Based on P-D-C-A Cycle)

‘Kaizen’ is a Japanese word meaning "Continuous Improvement".

Basically ‘kaizen’ means small improvements but carried out on a continuous
basis and involving all the people in the organisation. Kaizen is the opposite of
big spectacular innovations. Kaizen requires very little or sometimes no
investment. Kaizen believes in the principle that "a very large number of small
improvements are more effective in an organisational environment than a few
improvements of large value. It is one of the most powerful TQM tools. Another
basic philosophy of Kaizen is "do not believe what is practiced now is the best
there could be a better method of doing things". Kaizen is a part of total employee
involvement (TEI)

3.3.6.13. Seven New Quality Improvement Techniques

In addition to Ishikawa's statistical techniques, there are seven new tools

(although it is claimed that they originated in 1972 in Japan). These techniques
are thought to have been developed for the purpose of "creative output" or
"quality thinking". These tools are in fact "part of the art" of scientific thinking
and can also be termed as seven management tools. These are useful for general,
intermediate and detailed planning to achieve goal setting and ultimately problem
solving.

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 The Seven New QC Tools Affinity Diagram

Also known as Kawakita Jiro (KJ) diagram this diagram gathers large
amount of data and organises them into groupings based on natural relationship
between each item, so that these data can be analysed systematically.

 Inter relationship Diagram(Cause Identification)

Used to relate complex cause and effect relationships, this diagram

explores and displays interrelated factors involved in complex problems. It shows
relationships between inter-related factors.

 Tree Diagram (Systematic Diagram)

This diagram systematically maps out the full range of tasks/ methods
needed to achieve the goal. This diagram helps planning effectively so that
objectives are achieved. It does this by showing the sequencing and inter
relationships so that the resulting actions are error free.

 Matrix Diagram

These diagrams display the relationship between necessary tasks and

people or other tasks, often to show responsibility for tasks. These have many
shapes viz L, T, Y, X or C configuration. This helps to clarify the problems
through multidimensional thinking.

 Matrix Data Analysis

It requires complex mathematical skills as it relies on systematic

organisation and presentation of data so that relations can be examined. It shows

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the strength of the relationship between variables which have been statistically
determined.

 Detailed Planning Purpose Tools PDPC (Process Decision Program

Chart)

This helps to select the best process to be used to obtain the desired
results. It not only evaluates existing processes but also looks at alternatives
through newly gained knowledge. Being a dynamic approach, PDPC maps out
every conceivable event that may occur when moving from a problem statement
to the possible solution.

 Arrow Diagram

This diagram is used to plan the most appropriate schedule for any task
and to control it effectively during the progress. This is a combination of Gantt
chart and PERT/CPM charts. This diagram helps to establish the most suitable
plan for a project and also controls its progress. Use arrows to define all the tasks
required for the project.

3.3.7. Impediments To TQM

A significant number of barriers in organizations impede the successful

implementation of TQM. Generally these barriers can be divided into two broad
categories : organisational and attitudinal. Both categories of barriers can be
tackled by systematic education, training and participation.

3.3.7.1 Organisational barriers

These consist of lack of senior management commitment, unwillingness

and non-involvement of middle management, lack of trainer like spirit among first

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- line supervisors, staff treating themselves as local experts and not being
amenable to suggestions from line people etc.

3.3.7.2 Attitudinal or behavoural barriers

These include attitudes, the amount of training needed, management

styles, level of success and artificial organizational structures. People do not
favour implementation of TQM in their organisation because of their having
developed a negative attitude and dislike towards it over the past years.

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