CE 103 SURVEYING 3.

Agriculture

Surveying may be defined as the science of determining In agriculture, surveying is used to determine the
the position, in three dimensions, of natural and man- acreage of fields, to locate lines of constant elevation
made features on or beneath the surface of the Earth. for strip farming, to track harvesting machinery to
These features may be represented in analogue form as enable the size of the harvest, and to track the position
a contoured map, plan or chart, or in digital form such of the planting equipment to allow for precise
as a digital ground model (DGM). applications of seeds and fertilizers. The field is known
as high-precision agriculture.
Today the importance of measuring and monitoring our
environment is becoming increasingly critical as our Types of surveying
population expands, land values appreciate, our natural
resources dwindle, and human activities continue to Control surveys establish a network of horizontal and
stress the quality of our land, water, and air. Using vertical monuments that serve as a reference
modern ground, aerial, and satellite technologies, and framework for initiating other surveys.
computers for data processing, contemporary surveyors
Topographic surveys determine locations of natural and
are now able to measure and monitor the Earth and its
artificial features and elevations used in map making.
natural resources on literally a global basis.
Land, boundary, and cadastral surveys establish
A surveyor is a professional person with the academic
property lines and property corner markers. The term
qualifications and technical expertise to conduct one, or
cadastral is now generally applied to surveys of the
more, of the following activities;
public lands systems.
-to determine, measure and represent the land, three-
Hydrographic surveys define shorelines and depths of
dimensional objects, point-fields, and trajectories;
lakes, streams, oceans, reservoirs, and other bodies of
- to assemble and interpret land and geographically water. Sea surveying is associated with port and
related information; offshore industries and the marine environment,
including measurements and marine investigations
- to use that information for the planning and efficient made by shipborne personnel.
administration of the land, the sea and any structures
thereon; and Alignment surveys are made to plan, design, and
construct highways, railroads, pipelines, and other
-to conduct research into the above practices and to linear projects. They normally begin at one control point
develop them. and progress to another in the most direct manner
permitted by field conditions.
Application of Surveying
Construction surveys provide line, grade, control
1. Construction elevations, horizontal positions, dimensions, and
configurations for construction operations. They also
In construction, surveying is used to locate the precise
secure essential data for computing construction pay
location of structures such as roads, buildings, bridges,
quantities.
and so forth.
As-built surveys document the precise final locations
2. Mining
and layouts of engineering works and record any design
In mining, surveying is used to direct the locations of changes that may have been incorporated into the
mining activities according to a systematic plan, to construction. These are particularly important when
make sure mining occurs within the boundaries of the underground facilities are constructed, so their
claim, to connect tunnels and shafts, and to provide locations are accurately known for maintenance
legal records of mining activities. purposes, and so that unexpected damage to them can
be avoided during later installation of other
underground utilities.

Mine surveys are performed above and below ground

to guide tunneling and other operations associated with
mining. This classification also includes geophysical GPS - Used to determine location and elevation.
surveys for mineral and energy resource exploration.
Significant Units
Solar surveys map property boundaries, solar
easements, obstructions according to sun angles, and In recording observations, an indication of the accuracy
meet other requirements of zoning boards and title attained is the number of digits (significant figures)
insurance companies. recorded. By definition, the number of significant
figures in any observed value includes the positive
Optical tooling (also referred to as industrial surveying (certain) digits plus one (only one) digit that is
or optical alignment) is a method of making extremely estimated or rounded off.
accurate measurements for manufacturing processes
where small tolerances are required. To be consistent with the theory of errors, it is essential
that data be recorded with the correct number of
Ground surveys utilize measurements made with significant figures.
ground-based equipment such as automatic levels and
total station instruments. The number of significant figures is often confused with
the number of decimal places. Decimal places may have
Aerial surveys are accomplished using either to be used to maintain the correct number of significant
photogrammetry or remote sensing. figures, but in themselves they do not indicate
significant figures. Some examples follow:
Photogrammetry uses cameras that are carried usually
in airplanes to obtain images, whereas remote sensing Two significant figures: 24, 2.4, 0.24, 0.0024, 0.020
employs cameras and other types of sensors that can be
transported in either aircraft or satellites. Three significant figures: 364, 36.4, 0.000364, 0.0240

Land Information Systems (LISs) and Geographic Four significant figures: 7621, 76.21, 0.0007621,
Information Systems (GISs) are areas of activity that 2400.00
have rapidly assumed positions of major prominence in
Units of Measurements
surveying. These computer-based systems enable
storing, integrating, manipulating, analyzing, and Degrees, Minutes, and seconds
displaying virtually any type of spatially related
information about our environment. LISs and GISs are There are several systems of angular measurement. The
being used at all levels of government, and by most common is the sexagesimal system, in which a
businesses, private industry, and public utilities to assist complete rotation of a line (or a circle) is divided into
in management and decision making. 360 degrees of arc. In this system, 1 degree is divided
into 60 minutes, and 1 minute is further divided into 60
Surveying tools seconds of arc. The symbols for degrees, minutes, and
seconds are °, ', and '', respectively. (35°20'15'' - 35
Chains and Tapes - Pocket tapes are ideal for small-
degrees, 20 minutes, and 15 seconds)
scale measurements while measuring wheels can be
used for larger distances. Grads
Compasses - Used to determine direction The centesimal system of angular measurement is used
in some countries. Here, a complete rotation is divided
Transits and Theodolites - These tools are used to
into 400 grades, or grads, written as 400g.
measure both horizontal and vertical angles.
Radian
Levels - A level can be used to read an elevation and
determine differences in elevation between two points. Angular measurement programmed into most
calculators is the radian, or rad. By definition, one
Poles and Tripods and Mounts - Even the most precise
radian is equivalent to the angle formed between two
of surveying instruments can be thrown off by an
radii in a circle, when the arc length between the radii is
unstable mount. Poles, tripods, and other mounting
the same as the radius, 2π rad= 360°.
accessories are essential for surveyors to ensure solid,
stable readings.
Mills

There are other systems for angular measurement that Systematic Errors are repetitive errors that are caused
find use in astronomy, navigation, and military by imperfections in the surveying equipment, by the
applications. For military use, the mil is used, where one specific method of observation, or by certain
full circumference is equal to 6400 mils. environmental factors, are systematic errors. They are
also referred to as mechanical or cumulative errors.
Field Notes
Accidental Errors or random error is the difference
Field notes are the records of work done in the field. between a true quantity and a measurement of that
They typically contain measurements, sketches, quantity that is free from blunders or systematic errors.
descriptions, and many other items of miscellaneous Accidental errors always occur in every measurement.
information. They are the relatively small, unavoidable errors in
observation that are generally beyond the control of the
Field Notes Requirements
surveyor.
Accuracy. This is the most important quality in all
Mistakes in Data Surveyed
surveying operations.
A blunder is a significant mistake caused by human
Integrity. A single omitted measurement or detail can
error. It may also be called a gross error. Generally, it is
nullify use of the notes for computing or plotting. If the
due to the inattention or carelessness of the surveyor,
project was far from the office, it is time-consuming and
and it usually results in a large difference between the
expensive to return for a missing measurement. Notes
observed or recorded quantity and the actual or true
should be checked carefully for completeness before
value. Blunders may also be caused by a lack of
leaving the survey site and never “fudged” to improve
judgment or knowledge.
closures.
Accuracy of Data
Legibility. Notes can be used only if they are legible. A
professional-looking set of notes is likely to be A discrepancy is the difference between two observed
professional in quality. values of the same quantity. A small discrepancy
indicates there are probably no mistakes and random
Arrangement. Note forms appropriate to a particular
errors are small. However, small discrepancies do not
survey contribute to accuracy, integrity, and legibility.
preclude the presence of systematic errors.
Clarity. Advance planning and proper field procedures
Precision refers to the degree of refinement or
are necessary to ensure clarity of sketches and
consistency of a group of observations and is evaluated
tabulations, and to minimize the possibility of mistakes
on the basis of discrepancy size. If multiple observations
and omissions.
are made of the same quantity and small discrepancies
Kinds of notes result, this indicates high precision. The degree of
precision attainable is dependent on equipment
Four types of notes are kept in practice: (1) sketches, sensitivity and observer skill.
(2) tabulations, (3) descriptions, and (4) combinations
of these. Accuracy denotes the absolute nearness of observed
quantities to their true values. The difference between
Errors in Data Surveyed precision and accuracy is perhaps best illustrated with
reference to target shooting.
An error is the difference between a measured quantity
and its true value, caused by imperfection in the Most Probable Value If two or more measurements of
measuring instrument, by the method of measurement, the same quantity are made, usually different values
by natural factors such as temperature, or by random are obtained due to random errors. As long as each
variations in human observation. It is not a mistake due measurement is equally reliable, the average value of
to carelessness. Errors can never be completely the different measurements is taken to be the true or
eliminated, but they can be minimized by using certain most probable value.
instruments and field procedures and by applying
computed correction factors.
50, 90, and 95 Percent Error

The most probable error is that which has an equal

chance (50 percent) of either being exceeded or not
being exceeded in a particular measurement. It is
sometimes designated as E50. In surveying, the 90 and
95 percent error, or E90 and E95, are a useful criterion
for rating survey methods.

Error of Closure and Relative Accuracy

The difference between a measured quantity and its

true, or actual, value is called the error of closure or
just closure. In some cases, the closure can be taken
simply as the difference between two independent
measurements. For horizontal distances, the ratio of the
error of closure to the actual distance is called the
relative accuracy. Relative accuracy is generally
expressed as a ratio with unity as the first number or
numerator. This is also written as 1:2000. Basically, this
means that for every 2000 m measured, there is an
error of 1 m.