REVIEWER EARTH SCIENCE

EARTH'S PLANETARY STRUCTURE mi). These explorations have been helpful in

providing information about the solid Earth. For
The science of physical geography example, they have helped establish the notion
predominantly focuses on that part of the Earth of the geothermal gradient that temperature
system that lies at the interface of the increases with increasing depth inside Earth.
atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and
lithosphere, and these come together at Earth's Most of what we know about Earth's internal
surface. Still, basic knowledge of our planet's structure and composition has not been
internal structure, composition, properties, and determined directly but has instead been
processes is needed to understand many deduced through indirect means by various
aspects of Earth's natural surface forms of remote sensing.
characteristics.
The most important evidence that scientists
Earth's interior is primarily composed of solids, have used to gain indirect knowledge of Earth's
the densest of the three states of matter. interior is the behavior of various shock waves.
known as seismic waves, as they travel through
• Liquids are not as dense as solids, thus the planet.
most of Earth's liquid water lies at the
planet's surface thousands of Scientists generate some of these shock waves
kilometers above the densest solids artificially through controlled explosions, but
located deep inside Earth. they mainly use evidence derived by tracking
• Gases, with an even lower density than the natural seismic waves of earthquakes as
liquids, have the weakest gravitational they travel through Earth.
attractive force and are held more
loosely around Earth as the A sensitive instrument called a seismograph can
atmospheric envelope. record seismic waves from an earthquake when
• density continuum (spectrum) extends the earthquake is centered thousands of
from the densest materials at Earth's kilometers away from the seismograph's
center to the least dense substances at location
the outer edge of the atmosphere.
Earthquakes produce two major types of
Planet Earth has a radius of about 6400 seismic waves that travel at different speeds
kilometers (4000 mi). Through direct means by through varying types and densities of Earth
mining and drilling, we have been able to material. Of the two types,
penetrate and examine only an extremely small P (primary) waves travel faster and are the first
part of that distance. to arrive at a recording seismograph
S (secondary) waves travel more slowly than P
In South Africa, the lure of gold has taken waves,
miners to a depth of 3.5 kilometers (2.2 mi), • Seismic waves refract if they cross a
whereas in drilling for oil and gas our machinery boundary and continue traveling but
has reached a depth of about 12 kilometers (7.5

BY: VSB
 REVIEWER EARTH SCIENCE

with a shift in direction caused by the • Earth scientists know that the outer
change in material density. core is molten, that is, it consists of
• P waves pass through all types of liquid (melted) rock matter. The high
matter, including liquids and gases. In density of both sections of Earth's core
fact, P waves traveling through the supports the notion that they are
atmosphere are responsible for the composed of iron and nickel.
rumbling sound that we hear during an • Temperatures are estimated to be
earthquake. 4800°C (8600°F) at the top of the outer
• S waves, however, can only move core, increasing to 6900°C (12,400°F) at
through solids; they do not travel the very center of Earth.
through fluids, whether liquid or gas
Inge Lehmann
Core (1888-1993)
Seismologist and geophysicist
Earth's innermost section, the core, contains
one third of Earth's mass and has a radius of Inge Lehmann helped to set up seismological
about 3360 kilometers (2100 mi), which is observatories in Denmark and Greenland. In
larger than the planet Mars. Earth's core is 1936 she presented a paper which interpreted
under enormous pressure several million, times seismic echoes and anomalies as an indication
atmospheric pressure at sea level. Scientists that Earth has a solid inner core surrounded by
have deduced that the core is composed a molten liquid core. Her view gradually gained
primarily of iron and nickel and consists of two acceptance, but was only proven by computer
distinct sections, the inner core and the outer modeling in 1971.
core.
Mantle
• Earth's Inner core has a radius of about
960km (600mi) and consist of solid Iron With a thickness of approximately 2885
(Fe) 80% and Nickel (Ni) 20%. kilometers (1800 mi) and representing nearly
• The outer core forms a 2400km (1500 two thirds of Earth's mass, the mantle is the
mi) thick band around the inner core. It largest of Earth's interior zones. Seismic P and S
is a liquid Iron 88% (Fe) and Sulfur 12% waves both pass through the mantle, indicating
(S). that it is composed of solid rock matter, in
• Rock matter at the top of the outer core contrast to the molten outer core that lies
has a density of about 10 grams per beneath it. Mantle material is also less dense
cubic centimeter (0.4 lb/in.). Because than that of the core, with values ranging from
the outer core blocks the passage of 3.3 to 3.5 grams per cubic centimeter (0.12-0.20
seismic S waves by reflecting them, but lbs/in.).
allows continuation of refracted P • Scientists agree that the mantle consists
waves, of silicate focks (high in silicon and

BY: VSB
 REVIEWER EARTH SCIENCE

oxygen) that also contain significant • The crust is cold compared with the
amounts of iron and magnesium. mantle and behaves in a more rigid and
brittle fashion, especially in its upper 10
Discontinuity to 15 kilometers (6 to 9 mi). The crust
responds to stress by fracturing,
The interface between the mantle and the crumpling, or warping.
overlying crust is marked by a significant change
of density, which is indicated by an abrupt • Oceanic crust
decrease in the velocity of seismic waves as is composed of basalt, a heavy, darkcolored,
they travel up through this internal boundary. iron-rich rock that is also high in silicon (Si) and
• Scientists call this zone the Mohorovicic magnesium (Mg). Oceanic crust has a density of
discontinuity or Moho for short, after 3.0 grams per cubic centimeter and is only a
the Croatian geophysics who first few kilometers thick. Forming the vast, deep
detected it in 1909, Andreja ocean floors and the flows of lava on all the
Mohorovicic. continents, basaltic rocks are the most common
rocks on Earth.
Crust
• Continental crust
Earth's solid exterior is the crust, which is comprises the major landmasses on Earth that
composed of a great variety of rock types that are exposed to the atmosphere. At 2.7 grams
respond in diverse ways and at varying rates to per cubic centimeter, the average density of
surface processes. The crust is the only portion continental crust is less than that of oceanic
of the lithosphere of which Earth scientists have crust (3.0 g/cm'). Continental crust, however, is
direct knowledge, yet it represents only about considerably thicker than oceanic crust. It
1% of Earth's planetary mass. ranges from about 20 to 70 kilometers (12 to 44
mi) with an average thickness of 32 to 40
The density of rock matter in Earth's crust is kilometers (20 to 25 mi). At places where
significantly lower than that in the core and continental crust extends to high elevations in
mantle, and ranges from 2.7 to 3.0 grams per mountain ranges, it also descends to great
cubic centimeter (0.10 to 0.11 lb/in.³). The crust depths below the surface. Continental crust
is also extremely thin in comparison to the contains more light-colored rocks than oceanic
diameter of the planet. crust does and can be regarded as granitic in
composition.
Two kinds of Earth crust, oceanic and • The crust responds to stress by
continental, are distinguished by their location, fracturing, crumpling, or warping
thickness, and composition. Crustal thickness resulting to ground tremor or
varies from 3 to 6 kilometers (2 to 4 mi) in the earthquake.
ocean basins to as much as 70 kilometers (44 • Granitic rocks have high Si and Al
mi) under some continental mountain systems. contents.

BY: VSB
 REVIEWER EARTH SCIENCE

Lithosphere and Asthenosphere geometric forms visible to the unaided eye and
consisting of smooth faces and sharp edges.
The extreme uppermost part of the mantle, The shape of a crystal is an expression of the
with a thickness of about 100 kilometers (60 mineral's molecular structure. The mineral
mi), has a chemical composition like the rest of halite, which is used as table salt, has the
the mantle, but it responds to applied stress like specific chemical formula NaCl and, as a crystal,
the overlying Earth layer, the crust. The adopts a cubic form. Quartz, calcite, fluorite,
response is that of an elastic solid. Elastic solid talc, topaz, and diamond are just a few other
materials are rigid and brittle. They do not flow, examples of the more than 2000 known
but instead withstand a certain amount of minerals. “5721 (current)”
applied stress (force per unit area) with little
deformation until a threshold limit of stress is Quartz is a chemical compound consisting of
reached. At the threshold value, elastic solids one part silicon and two parts oxygen. It is
fail by fracturing. Behaviorally, then, this silicon dioxide (SiO₂). It is the most abundant
uppermost mantle and overlying crust form a mineral found at Earth's surface, and its unique
single structural unit called the lithosphere. properties make it one of the most useful
natural substances.
Beneath the lithosphere lies the Asthenosphere
(from Greek: asthenias, without strength), a Calcite is a rock forming mineral with a
180-kilometer (110-mi) thick layer of the upper chemical formula of CaCO3. It is extremely
mantle that responds to stress by deforming common and found throughout the world in
and flowing slowly rather than by fracturing. In sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks.
other words, the asthenosphere has the
characteristics of a plastic solid, Rock in the Fluorite (also called fluorspar) is the mineral
asthenosphere can flow vertically or form of calcium fluoride, CaF₂. It belongs to the
horizontally at rates of a few centimeters per halide minerals. It crystallizes in isometric cubic
year. habit, although octahedral and more complex
isometric forms are not uncommon.
MINERALS
Talc is a clay mineral, composed of hydrated
Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. A magnesium silicate with the chemical formula
mineral) is an inorganic, naturally occurring, Mg3Si4O10(OH)₂. Talc in powdered form, often
crystalline substance represented by a specific combined with corn starch, is used as baby
chemical formula. A crystalline substance powder.
displays a specific, repeated, three-dimensional
structure at the molecular level. In some cases, Topaz is a silicate mineral of aluminium and
the crystalline molecular nature is visible only fluorine with the chemical formula Al2SiO4(F,
with the use of a microscope, but minerals OH)2. Topaz crystallizes in the orthorhombic
sometimes form actual crystals, which are system, and its crystals are mostly prismatic
terminated by pyramidal and other faces.

BY: VSB
 REVIEWER EARTH SCIENCE

Most Common Elements in Earth's Crust

Diamond is a solid form of the element carbon
with its atoms arranged in a crystal structure Element Percentage of Earth's
called diamond cubic. At room temperature and Crust by Weight
pressure, another solid form of carbon known Oxygen (0) 46.60
as graphite is the chemically stable form of Silicon (Si) 27.72
Aluminum (Al) 8.13
carbon, but diamond almost never converts to
Iron (Fe) 5.00
it.
Calcium (Ca) 3.63
Sodium (Na) 2.83
Every mineral has distinctive and recognizable Potassium (K) 2.70
physical characteristics that aid in its Magnesium (Mg) 2.09
identification. Some of these characteristics Total 98.70
include hardness, color, luster, cleavage,
tendency to fracture, and specific gravity • Earthquake waves that pass through
(density compared to that of water), in addition the mantle indicate that it is composed
to the shape of the crystal. of solid rock matter and fluid rock
matters, in contrast to the molten outer
• Luster specifies the shininess of a core that lies beneath it.
mineral
• Cleavage describes how a mineral tends • Earth scientists believe that the energy
to break along preferred planes for tectonic forces, large-scale forces
determined by its molecular structure, that break and deform Earth's crust,
whereas sometimes resulting in earthquakes and
• fracture refers to the nature of irregular often responsible for mountain
breaks not along the preferred planes. building, comes from movement within
the plastic asthenosphere.
Chemical bonds hold together the atoms and
molecules that compose a mineral. The strength • Earth's crust is composed of various
and nature of those chemical bonds affect the types of rocks and minerals. A basic
resistance and hardness of minerals and of the understanding of rocks requires us to
rocks they form. first consider minerals, which are the
building blocks of rocks.

BY: VSB