Political science-IV, Public Administration

Module-I
(Public Administration; Meaning Nature and Scope, Private and Public Administration, Politics
Administration Dichotomy, Theories of Administration; Scientific Management, Human Relations,
Bureaucratic Theories)

Public Administration is an aspect of a more generic concept of administration. Public

Administration houses the implementation of government policy and an academic discipline that studies this
implementation and that prepares civil servants for this work. Some of the various definitions which have
been offered for them are: the management of public programmes; and the study of government decision
making, the analysis of the policies themselves, the various inputs that have produced them, and the inputs
necessary to produce alternative policies. Public Administration is centrally concerned with the organization
of government policies and programmes as well as the behaviour of officials formally responsible for their
conduct.
Before understanding the meaning of public administration, it is necessary to understand the meaning
of the word „administration‟. The English word „administer‟ is derived from a combination of two Latin
words „ad’ and „ministrate’ meaning „to serve or manage‟. Literally, the term „administration‟ means
management the affairs of public or private. Administration refers to mobilisation of resources – human and
material- to achieve pre-set of objectives. Administration is thus an activity undertaken in pursuit of the
realisation of a goal. It is an effort requiring a group of persons, each individually carrying out certain
allotted tasks, which when so performed by all, leads to the achievement of an objective which has already
been established and made explicit.
Public Administration is a part, even though a large and important part, of administration.
Administration means performance of the executive functions of the state. Public Administration lends itself
to two usages. It refers to the practice. Also, it means a field of intellectual enquiry or discipline. Public
Administration refers to the study of the activities of the State, but these activities may relate to the
executive or the legislature or the judiciary. Many thinkers restrict it to the executive. But some scholars
would have broaden the definition of the term and extended it to all the three branches. Public
Administration refers to the organisation and management of activities financed from the tax-payer‟s money.
In the USA, civil servants and academics such as Woodrow Wilson promoted American civil service
reform in 1880, moving public administration in to academia. Woodrow Wilson is considered the father of
public administration. As a discipline, public administration is a post-1947 growth in India. Despite being
very young discipline in a family of social science, it has shot into prominence; and today it is a very
popular subject. Public Administration is the front of the government, being its visible face. The visibility of
public administration is conspicuous and continues. While the government observes fixed hours of working
but public administration is ever at work. With the ushering in an era of welfare states, the administration is
construed as a “moral act” and “administrator as a moral agent”. Public Administration has become the
machinery for formulating plans and programmes and carrying them out. All this reveals that Public
Administration is imperative for all societies -developed or developing, dictatorial or democratic.
The Meaning of Public Administration
The conventional view of the public administration is that it discusses only the processes, leaving
aside the substantive concerns. Thus it concerns itself with planning, organisation, staffing, directing,
coordinating, reporting, budgeting, evaluating, etc. The advent of public policy studies has obliged the
public administration to study contents of public policies. This is a substantive field. Therefore, public
administration deals not only with the processes but also the substantive field.
Public Administration is a part of the wider field of administration. Administration is a process
permeating all collective effort, be in public or private, civil or military, large scale or otherwise, and is thus
of universal nature. Administration, being characteristic of all enterprises in pursuit of conscious purposes,
and is not a peculiarity of modern age alone. Public Administration of today, however, has three
distinguishing features: Its purpose have been completely reoriented, its functions have enormously
increased in number, variety and complexity, and its methodology has enormously increased in number,
variety and complexity, and methodology has grown from trial-and- error stage into an orderly discipline
with an organized, ever-increasing body of knowledge and experience.
Public Administration exists in a political system for the accomplishment of the goals and objectives
formulated by the political decision makers. It is also known as governmental administration because the
adjective „public‟ in the word „public administration‟ means „government‟. Hence, the focus of public
administration is on public bureaucracy, that is, bureaucratic organisation (or administrative organisation) of
the government.
Public Administration has gained greater importance since the emergence of Administrative State. It
is an instrument not only for protecting and restraining but also fostering and promoting. Its contents, today,
are more positive in nature for it is now engaged in looking after myriad needs of human life- health,
education, recreation, sanitation, social security, etc. It is, therefore, a creative factor, its motto being the
„welfare of man‟. These functions are in addition to its basic functions of maintaining law and order in
society. In nature, contents and scope – all go to make it the „heart of the problem of modern government‟.
A country‟s progress is, thus, largely determined by the quality of its public administration. In the analysis,
Administration is a moral act and administrator is a moral agent. This thesis is basic to the transformation
which is needed in public administration to make it an effective instrument for the ushering in of the
democratic welfare state.
Public Administration is the machinery used by the service state to place itself in a position to make
plans and programmes that can carried out, and to carry out the plans and programmes it has made.
Administration is of importance for another reason too. It is essentially national character makes it a
powerful instrument of national integration. Public Administration is the first need of a society, more so of a
developing country like India, which has chalked out for herself numerous plans of economic and social
betterment.
“Administration”, as E N. Gladden says, “is a long and slightly pompous word, but it has humble
meaning”. The word administer, derived from the Latin word ad + ministrate, means to care for or to look
after people, to manage affairs. Administration is a process permeating all collective effort, be it public or
private, civil or military, large scale or otherwise, and it thus universal nature. Public Administration of
today, however, has distinguishing features: its purpose has been completely reoriented, their functions have
enormously increased in number, variety and complexity, and its discipline ever increased body of
knowledge and experience.
In the words of Woodrow Wilson, “Public administration is detailed and systematic application of
law”. Every particular application of law is an act of administration.
Pfiffner defines Public administration consists of all those operations having for their purpose the
fulfilment or enforcement of public policy.
According to Gladden, “Public administration concerned with the administration of the
government.”
Professor L D. White observes, “Public administration consist of all those operations having for their
purpose the fulfilment or enforcement of public policy”.
According to Luther Gullick, “Public Administration is that part of the science of administration
which has to do with government and thus concern itself primarily with the executive branch where the
work of the Government is done”
Waldo defines Public Administration as “the art and science of management as applied to the affairs
of state.”
Public Administration lends itself to two usages: it is an activity; and it also refers to the discipline
(or subject) of intellectual inquiry and study. Maintaining law and order is an activity and is part of public
administration. But public administration is also a discipline like Economics, Sociology, History etc., and is
a subject of study : it studies these activities and functions, formulates concepts and builds models and
theories. The above definitions point out that the term Public Administration has been used in two senses. In
the wider sense it includes all the activities of the government whether in the sphere of the legislative,
executive or judicial branch of the government. This wider view has been taken by L D. White, Woodrow
Wilson, Pfiffner and Marshall Dimock. In the narrow sense public administration is concerned activities of
the executive branch only. This view has been taken by Gullick, Simon, Willoughby, Fayol and Ordway
Tead. By common usage and practice the term „public administration‟ is restricted to the organisation and
operations of the executive branch only. Public Administration may thus be defined as government in action.
NATURE OF PUBLIC ADMINSTRATION
There are two divergent views regarding the nature of Public Administration. These views are:
(a). Integral View
 According to this view, public administration is sum total of all the activities undertaken in pursuit of
and in fulfilment of public policy. These activities include not only managerial and technical but also
manual and clerical. Thus the activities of all
persons from top to bottom constitute although they are of varying significance to running of administrative
machinery. L D. White shares this view. According to him, Public Administration “consists of all those
operations having for their purpose the fulfilment or enforcement of public policy. This definition covers a
multitude of particular operations in many fields – the delivery of a letter, the of public land, the negotiation
of treaty, the award of compensation to an injured workman, the removal of a litter from a park, and
licensing the use of atomic energy.
Similarly, Dimock holds that administration is concerned with the „what‟ and „how‟ of the
government. The „what‟ is the subject matter, the technical knowledge of a field which enables the
administration to perform his tasks. The „how‟ is the technique of management, the principles according to
which cooperative programmes are carried to success.
(b). Managerial View
According to this view, the work of only those persons who are engaged in the performance of
managerial functions in an organisation constitute administration. It is these persons who shoulder the
responsibility of keeping the enterprise on keel and to run it most efficiently. Their job is to plan,
programme and organize all the activities in an organisation so as to achieve the desired ends. Simon
Smithburg, Thompson and Luther Gullick subscribe to this view of administration. Luther Gullick says,
„Administration has to do with getting things done; with accomplishment of defined objectives‟. The term
administration is also used in narrower sense to refer to those patterns of behaviours that are common to
many kinds of co-operating groups or the specific technological methods used to reach these goals.
The above two views differ from each other in many ways. The integral view includes the activities
of all persons engaged in administration whereas the managerial view restricts itself only to the activities of
a few persons at the top. The integral view postulates all types of activities from manual to managerial, from
non- technical to technical whereas managerial view takes into account only the managerial activities in an
organisation. Luther Gullick defines these techniques by the letters of the word: POSDCORB which means
Planning, Organisation, Staffing, Direction, Co-ordinating, Reporting and Budgeting. As study public
administration examines the every aspects of government‟s effort to discharge the laws and give effect to
public policy; as a process it is all the steps taken between the time an enforcement agency assumes
jurisdiction and the last break is placed; and as a vocation, it is organising and directing the activities of
others in a public agency.
SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
There is no unanimous opinion regarding the scope of public administration. There are two different
views explaining the subject matter of public administration. They are POSDCORB view and the subject
matter view. Broadly speaking, Public Administration embraces the entire area and all the activity of the
government. But by established usage the term has come to signify primarily the organisation, personnel,
practices and procedures essential to the effective performance of the civilian functions entrusted to the
executive branch of government. Public Administration is in fact the executive in action. It does not include
the study of judicial or legislative administrations, although they too share in the implementation of public
policy. We study in it the actual administration or the actual administrative machinery of the state.
POSDCORB View
Luther Gulick sums up the scope of the subject by the letters of the word ‘POSDCORB’ by which
means: Planning, Organisation, Staffing, Direction, Co-ordinating, Reporting and Budgeting.
Planning means the working out in broad outline the things to be done, the method to be adopted to
accomplish the purpose.
Organisation means the establishment of the formal structure of authority through which the work is
sub- divided, arranged, defined and coordinated.
Staffing means the recruitment and training of the personnel and their condition of work.
Directing means making decisions and issuing orders and instructions.
Co-ordinating means inter- relating the work of various divisions, sections and other parts of
organisation.
Reporting means informing the agency to whom the executive is responsible aboutwhat is going on.
Budgeting means fixed planning, control and accounting.
 According to Gullick, the POSDCORB activities are common to all organisations. They are the
common problems of management, which are found in the different agencies regardless of the peculiar
nature of the work they do. There are several thinkers who are of the opinion that the POSDCORB view of
the scope of public administration overlooks the fact that different agencies are faced with different
administrative problems, which are peculiar to the nature of the services, they render and the functions they
perform. This view takes into consideration only the common techniques of administration and ignores the
study of the „subject matter‟ with which an agency is concerned.
The Subject Matter View
The subject matter view is more or less similar to the integral view of the nature of the public
administration. According to this view public administration studies the sum total of the entire activities of
the government; the executive, legislature and judiciary. Thus the scope of public administration is very
wide.
However, the POSDCORB view and subject matter view are not mutually exclusive, but
complement each other. They together constitute the proper scope of the study of public administration.
Thus Lewis Meriam rightly said, “Public administration is an instrument with two blades like a pair of
scissors. One blade may be knowledge of the fields covered by POSDCORB; the other blade is knowledge
of the subject matter in which these techniques are applied. Both blades must be good to make an effective
tool.” Public Administration as a discipline consists of five branches:
(I). Organisational theory and Behaviour;
(II). Public Personal Administration;
(III). Public Financial Administration;
(IV). Comparative and Development Administration and
(V). Public Policy Analysis
The scope of public administration varies with people‟s expectations of what they should get from
government. Throughout the world the demands made by the people upon governments have continually
increased and in time to come they would further increase.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PRIVATE
ADMINISTRATION
Public administration and private administration are two species of the same genus, namely
administration. But administration exercises great power, more in public administration. Public
administration is often compared with private administration with a view to finding out similarities and
dissimilarities between the two. Both the „classical organisation theory‟ and „human relation theory‟ first
originated in private administration. The management of affairs by private individuals or body of individuals
is private administration while management of affairs by central, state or local government is public
administration. There are some points of similarity between public and private administration. However,
there are some basic differences between the public and private administration. The following are the
important differences between the two types of administration.

Area Public administration Private administration

Deals with public policies, state
Deals with the management and
affairs, government functions, and
Meaning operations of private organisations
providing various services to the
usually business entities
public.
Operates in the governmental set- Operates in the non-governmental
Scope
up set-up
Closely related with the political
process and often conducts itself Concentrates on the commercial
Nature
as a part of the larger political and business activities.
process
It may cover the multi-country
Covers all the territory within the operations or activities of an
Coverage jurisdiction of the government or a organisation spread over a number
nation of national jurisdictions, or only a
very small office.
 Usually carried out on continuous Basically carried out on periodic
Timing
basis basis
Approach Bureaucratic approach Egalitarian approach
Limited set of activities as private
Public services and government organisations function on the basis
Type of Activities
activities of division of labour or core
competency
Welfare oriented and works with a
Orientation Profit oriented
service motive
Provide the best service to the Shareholder‟s wealth
Objective
public maximisation
By the government laws or By the management of the
Scope Determination
regulations organisation
Subjected to less number of laws
Subjected to many laws and and has permissible levels of
Legal Status regulations along with a focus on discretion and differential
transparency and equal treatment treatment to the customers or
clients
Authority and power over the Limited authority related to the
Authority
public and territories specific activities
Pluralistic transparent and subject Monopolistic discretionary and
Decision Making
to the public scrutiny often secretive.
Accountable to the owners of the
Accountability Accountable to the public
organisation
Officials appointed through a Appointment on the basis of
Appointment
competitive process personal choice or liking
Specific qualification is
Qualification No need of specific qualifications
compulsory
Status Public servants Private employees
Remuneration Gets a salary Profit share along with salary
Taxes, duties, fees, penalties and
Revenue or Income Through operating profits
other dues paid by citizens

Politics-Administration Dichotomy
The Politics-administration dichotomy is a theory that constructs the boundaries of public
administration and asserts the normative relationship between elected officials and administrators in a
democratic society. The phrase politics-administration dichotomy itself does not appear to have a known
inventor, even after exhaustive research, the combination of words that make up the phrase was first found
in public administration literature from the 1940s with no clear originator.
Woodrow Wilson is credited with the politics-administration dichotomy via his theories on public
administration in his 1887 essay, "The Study of Administration". Wilson came up with a theory that politics
and administration are inherently different and should be approached as such. Wilson wrote in his essay in
regards to public administration: “The field of administration is a field of business. It is removed from the
hurry and strife of politics.... Administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics. Administrative
questions are not political questions. Although politics sets the tasks for administration, it should not be
suffered to manipulate its offices.” With these words, Wilson started a debate that has been going on for
decades and continues to this day. The politics-administration dichotomy is an important concept in the field
of public administration and shows no signs of going away because it deals with the policy-makers role as
an administrator and the balancing act that is the relationship between politics and administration. This essay
is considered to be the first source to be analyzed and studied in the public administration field. Wilson was
primarily influenced by Richard Ely and Herbert Adams who taught at Johns Hopkins University.
Woodrow Wilson‟s politics-administration dichotomy can potentially be substantial in sustaining a
strong productive government. The complexity, difficulty level and ample multiplication of governmental
functions can be seen as a main component in the cause to implement the politics-administration dichotomy.
Due to Wilson's lack of faith in republican self-government and the overwhelming amount of “selfish,
ignorant, timid, stubborn, or foolish” persons whom the “bulk of can vote,” this model provides a solution
that would counteract the majority of the incumbent voters. By employing the elite philosophical leaders to
improve, shape, condition and sway public opinion, politics-administration dichotomy, if carried out in an
unselfish manner leaves little to no room for error.
Woodrow Wilson‟s model created one of the first concepts of checks and balances, which is one of
the most predominant systems of democratic accountability used to shape the United States government.
Nevertheless “separating the will of the people from politics” could be extremely beneficial and
institutionally separating administration from politics could prove valuable in sustaining government
accountability. Politics-administration dichotomy also leads to political neutrality. The blurring of "politics"
and "policy" has cause to the advocations to dismiss "partisan politics" rather than "policy politics." The
importance of neutrality in politics and policy are established within the politics-administration dichotomy.
Standard definition is too narrow . If politics includes all of what we know as policy making, then the
dichotomy would bar administrators, presumably including city managers, from participation. The
dichotomy of policy and administration was a conceptual distinction underlying a theory of democratic
accountability. It was not intended to guide behavior, it was intended as a behavioral prescription directed
against contemporary practices of machine politics. The strict definition is the model. It is not conceptually
possible to have a one way dichotomy that keeps elected official out of administration but allows
administrators to be active in policy. The dichotomy model standing alone is an aberration.
Arguably the father of American political administration, Wilson, in his essay 'The Study of
Administration', suggested that in order to have objectivity and progress, the administration must be separate
from politics ... The political/administration dichotomy aimed to separate the power between political
leaders and the merit-based appointment of professional permanent civil servants in the administrative state
... At the turn of the 20th century, the field focused on making the bureaucracy more effective ... The field‟s
basic premise was to take a business-like approach to government and its activities.
By Wilson making the statement, "Government should be run like a business," he thereby opened up
many loop holes for the capitalist society to exploit the government for things they didn‟t actually have. This
statement ends in a very dangerous uncharted territory for people now. Based on the fact government could
be run like a business. The concept "everyone has a boss" with creating the business like mindset running
our country it makes everyone have to answer to someone (higher on the totem pole) than the other, it
creates a sense of working for your job when you are supposed to be working for the people whom you
represent. So now, instead of implementing policy to help the people, administrators and politicians are
more concerned about who is funding/appointing than they are worried about the common man. That isn‟t
just the biggest problem for Politic administration Dichotomy it is a huge problem for the sustainability of
our government and the world.
The Scientific Management Theory

Taylor was born in Germantown of Pennsylvania, on 20th March 1856, into an affluent Philadelphia
family. His father was a lawyer from an old Pennsylvania Quaker family and his mother, Emily Winslow,
from an old New England Puritan family. Taylor had strong European connections. He was educated in
France and Germany and travelled throughout Europe before eventually returning to the Phillips Exeter
Academy in New Hampshire. However, despite his well-to-do background, Taylor began his working life at
the bottom of the engineering hierarchy. He initially worked as an apprentice at the William Sellers
Company in Philadelphia, and in 1878 went to work at the Midvale Steel Company. At Midvale, Taylor
began as a clerk, though he soon moved down the company‟s ranks to become a labourer. At this time of his
life he undertook a range of roles. In six years at Midvale he was keeper of tool cribs, assistant foreman,
foreman, master mechanic, director of research, and finally chief engineer of the entire plant.

In the first decade of the twentieth F.W. Taylor had propounded the scientific management theory.
But the concept and methods of scientific management was also developed in the works of Charles Babbage,
H.R Towne, F. Halsay and HeneryMatcalf before him .However, Louis Brandies in 1910 had used the term
„scientific management‟ for the first time. Moreover, the theory, techniques and methods of scientific
management was firstly given in a detailed and systematic explanation. So he is regarded as the father of
scientific management theory. Another insight into his energetic approach to life was the way he tackled
sport. He was anwonderfully gifted athlete, Taylor brought both dogged determination and inventiveness to
all his endeavours. In 1881 he won the doubles at the US tennis championships – but, not content with that,
he then designed his 58 own tennis racket, which resembled a spoon, and his patent pageant also included a
lawn tennis net.

Taylor , in his works; A Piece Rate System in 1985, Shop Management in 1903, Art of Cutting
metals in1906, and Principles of Scientific Management in 1911 ; has contributed various aspects of
scientific management theory. The major supporters of this theory were H.L. Gantt, C.G.Barth, H.Emerson,
Gilberth and Gilberthetc.the theory had its intellectual home in American business schools. Its motivating
concern was to improve organizational efficiency and economy for the sake of increased production. The
theory of scientific management movement had a significant impact on administrative thought and
practicein both industrial as well as governmental organizations. During 1920 and 1940 the Stakhanovite
Movement has spread from USA to other parts of the world.Taylor “promised to use „science‟ to increase
profits, get rid of unions, increase the thrift and virtue of the working classes, and rise productivity to the
point where society could enter a new era of harmony based in the high consumption of mass-produced
goods by the previously deprived classes”. In this pursuit he put his faith in those analytical tools that would
provide precise measurements and levers for the control of production. Taylor had experimented science
from the minute examination of individual workers‟ tasks. He made careful experiments to determine the
best way of performing each operation and the amount of time it required, analyzing the materials, tools, and
work sequence and establishing a clear division of labour between management and workers. Such an
approach anticipated the rise of reductionism the belief that if a problem can be reduced to its smallest
component, and that component understood, then it is possible to comprehend the whole. A famous example
of this thinking involved a theoretical pig iron handler called Schmidt.

Taylor has interpreted the management as a true science which is based on fixed laws, rules, and
principles. These principles are unique for each and every organizations. For working in the most efficient
manner, Taylor calculated that Schmidt could load tons a day rather than the usual 12½ tons. Such precise
calculations of productivity, he believed, meant that workers would know exactly what was expected of
them and that managers would know exactly how much should be produced. It also meant that more
accurate piecework rates could be set with more reliable bonuses and penalties. Such experiments laid the
groundwork for the principles of scientific management which were first published in 1911. These included
time studies, standardization of tools and implements, standardization of work methods and the use of
“slide-rules and similar timesaving devices”. However, Taylor has emphasized on the three assumptions
such as the organizational functioning can be improved with the application of scientific methods; a good
worker is one who doesn‟t initiate action, but accepts the orders of the management; every worker is an
economic man because every individual is motivated by material factors or monetary factors.

Aims of Scientific Management

The aims of scientific management are as follows

 Scientific management aims to increase production of the organization by using standardized

equipment, tools and methods.
 Scientific management aims to improve the quality of the output by doing research.
 Scientific management aims to reduce the cost of production by using rational plans and cost
control mechanisms.
 Scientific management aims to eliminate the waste by changing the methods of manufacturing.
  Scientific management aims to placement the right persons in right place by using scientific
techniques.
 Scientific management aims to provide incentive in wage payment with the efficiency of the
workers.

The Principles of Scientific Management

Taylor has suggested four principles of scientific management. They are given as follows;

• The development of a true science which is not the old rule of thumb principle

• The scientific selection of the workman by giving them proper training.

• The scientific education and development of the workman by ensuring that work is done in accordance
with the scientific principle.

• Intimate and friendly cooperation between the management and the men by dividing the work and
responsibility. He further summarized scientific management as ;

• Science, not rule of thumb

• Harmony, not discord

• Cooperation, not individualism

• Maximum output, in place of restricted output

• The development of each man to his greatest efficiency and prosperity.” However, the basic principles
behind the scientific management is to change the mental attitude of the workers and management
towards each other. So Taylor said it as „Mental Revolution‟ or „New Outlook‟.

Techniques of Scientific management

The techniques or mechanism or method of scientific management are as follows

1- Functional foremanship- According to Taylor the worker of an organization is guided and supervised
by eight functional foreman. They are divided under two heads. Among the eight four are
responsible for planning and setting in the planning room and other four are responsible for
execution and serve on the shop floor. The four who sits in the planning room are order of work and
route clerk, instruction card clerk, time and cost clerk and shop disciplinarian. The other four who
are in the shop floor are Gang boss, Speed boss, Inspector, Repair boss. He rejected the system of
single foremanship or unity of command.
2- Study of the Motion- The motion study involves the observation of all motions in a specific job and
then determines the best set of motions. It is designed to determine a preferable work method and
one best way to do a work.
3- Study of the time- This technique uses stop watch to determine the standard time for accomplishment
of its job objectives.
4- Different piece rate plan- Under this plan Taylor suggested that the worker who produce above
standard should receive higher wages than those producing below standard.
5- Other techniques or methods – This includes standardization of tools, by prompting the new
classification models, setting separate plans, using slide rules for time saving implement, using
modern cost system, coming with new routine system, etc.

Advantages of Scientific Management

The benefits of scientific management are as follows

1- It replaces the old and traditional rule of thumb by using scientific techniques.

2- It has a proper selection and training method for the workers.

3- It establishes a harmonious relationship between workers and management. 4- It achieves the equal
division of responsibilities and duties.

6- It standardizes the tools, equipment and methods.

7- It gives the detail instruction and constant guidance to the workers.
8- The incentive wage system helps for higher production.
9- It eliminates the waste.
10- It satisfies the needs of the customer by providing them high quality product with minimum price.

Criticism of Scientific management Theory

The theory has been criticized as under:

a. It only emphasizes on the shop floor management and neglectsthe organizational process beyond that
level. It also ignores about the integration of higher levels of the organization.

b. It has emphasized on the mechanical part of the organization. Thus it undermines the human side of
the organization.

c. It underestimates and over simplified human motivation. It only emphasizes the economic or material
rewards.

d. March and Simon described it as psychological or organization theory.

e. It makes trade unions unnecessary by resolving all sorts of disputes by effective cooperation.it is
opposition to the managers as they lose their judgment and direction due to adoption of scientific method
and increasing their work and responsibilities.

f. As the wage system is based on the efficiency of the workers, it does not hike on a regular proportion.
So it exploits the workers.

g. It over simplified the workers motivation.

Conclusion

However, besides all sorts of criticisms the theory has a great impact and influence the public
administration in various ways such as developing the efficiency of the workers and widely accepted
values and methods by each and every sections of the society. During 1920 to 1930, the various concepts
of scientific management were widely accepted in the community of professional administrators and
scholars of public administration. Moreover Taylors, Scientific Management theory had a major
influence on the growing reform and economic movements in public administration.

The Bureaucratic Theory

Meaning

In 1922, the German sociologist Max Weber described many ideal-typical forms of public
administration, government, and business in his essay, The Nature, Conditions, and Development of
Bureaucratic Herrschaft published in his magnum opus, Economy and Society.Max Weber said
“Bureaucratic administration means fundamentally domination through knowledge”. His critical study of
the bureaucratization of society became one of the most enduring parts of his work. The term
„bureaucracy‟ was first coined by V. D. Gourney, a French economist in 1745. The word has come out
from the word „bureau‟ which was used in the earlier part of 18th century in Western Europe. Gurney
said that „we have an illness in France which bids fair to play havoc with us; the illness is called
bureaumania.‟ In France the word „bureau‟ means desk which not just refers to a writing desk,but to an
office i.e. an work place where officials worked. Short period before French revolution in 1789,
bureaucracy came into use and rapidly spread to other countries. In Germany bureaucracy was called
„burokratic‟. It was defined as the authority or power which various government departments and their
branches appropriate to themselves over fellow citizens.Thomas Carlyle described the spread of the term
as „the continental nuisance‟.

According to Weber „ the most efficient and rational way of organizing, bureaucracy was the key
part of the rational-legal authority, in which human activity can be organized, and thus that is
indispensable to the modern world. His ideal-typical bureaucracy is characterized by hierarchical
organization, delineated lines of authority in a fixed area of activity, action taken on the basis of and
recorded in written rules, bureaucratic officials need expert training, rules are implemented by neutral
officials, and career advancement depends on technical qualifications judged by organization, not
individuals. He specifiesthat both the public and private bureaucracy is based on specific capabilities of
various offices. These skills are specified in various rules, laws, and administrative regulations. This
means there is a rigid division of labor, a chain of command is established in which the capacity to
coerce is specified and restricted by regulations. Thereis a regular and continuous execution of the
assigned tasks by people qualified by education and training to perform them. However, the term
„bureaucracy‟ has been used in the following different terms. Such as;

a. As a form of Government- bureaucracy as a form of government can be better understood in

Plato‟s Republic and Aristotle‟s Politics. Plato stated that the government is based on the skills of the
individual and he divided the society under three heads namely Reason, Spirit and Appitite. He further
emphasized monarchy as the best form of government ruled by the philosopher king.Further Aristotle in
Politics described three types of constitution such as Kingship, Aristocracy and Polity and each had its
corrupted form takes the shape of Tyranny, Oligarchy and Democracy. From aristocracy to democracy,
bureaucracy play a major rule in the form of the government.

b. As a form of Organization-According to E.N. Gladden „the term bureaucracy means a regulated

administrative system organized as a series of interrelated offices.‟ Max Weber also emphasized on
division of work, proper working procedures, hierarchy etc. this shows that bureaucracy is also used as a
form of organization.

c. As a form of Ideal Construct-It is an ideal type as max weber said that there are division of labour,
working procedure, abstract rules, the structure of hierarchy, emphasizing on legal authority.

Evolution and Rise of Bureaucracy

The conventional writings on bureaucracy came from Karl Marx, Max Weber, Robert Michels, and
Gaetano Mosca. But the German Sociologist, Max Weber began a systematic study of bureaucracy.
According to Marx, bureaucracy like the state itself, is an instrument by which the dominant class
exercises its domination over their social classes. Robert Michels describes the iron law of oligarchy in
his famous book „Political Parties‟. In that he described about the affinity of bureaucratic structure in all
large type of organizations. Thus, in brief in the larger organizations, power is concentrated in fewer
hands I.e. the oligarchs. In his book „The Ruling Class‟ G. Mosca divided the political parties into two
types. They are Fedual and Bureaucratic. However, it is Max Weber who gave a systematic formulation
of the bureaucratic theory. He called the formulation of bureaucracy as an „Ideal Type‟ which was purely
his mental picture. Thus it is considered as a utopia.

Types of Bureaucracy

According to Morstein Marx there are four types of bureaucracy such as the guardian bureaucracy,
the caste bureaucracy, the patronage bureaucracy and the merit bureaucracy. Plato‟s concepts of
philosopher king is an example of guardian bureaucracy. The bureaucratic system in China before 960
AD and Prussia between 1640 and 1740 AD are the examples of Guardian bureaucracy. Caste
bureaucracy was generally found in oligarchical political systems. For example the Brahmins and
Kshatriyas were becoming higher officials in ancient India, the aristocratic classes were preferred to the
Civil service positions in England and Roman Empire were under the model of caste bureaucracy.
Patronage bureaucracy is also called the spoils system. For example the system in USA and UK in the
middle of the 19th century were under the model of patronage bureaucracy. The fourth type of
bureaucracy, known as merit bureaucracy puts strong emphasis on political control over the
administrative system. It aims to recruit the best man for the public service. This type of bureaucracy is
also different from other types on the basis of merit.

Max Weber’s view on bureaucracy

Max Weber is the master theoretician of the concept of Bureaucracy, whose model has been claimed
as a rational type and universal. With the emergence of the modern states the bureaucratic system has
obtained a great importance. Max Weber said the system of free enterprise and money economy, the
essence of capitalism, fostered bureaucracy. With the dynamic economic development capitalist
organizations, there is a need of strong and orderly government. Weber observed that capitalism is the
most rational basis for bureaucratic administration and enable it to develop in most rational form
especially because from a fiscal point of view it supplies the necessary money resources.

In his theory Max Weber has built on principles outlined by Frederick Taylor in his scientific
management theory. Like Taylor, Weber advocated a system based on standardized procedures and a
clear chain of command. Weber stressed efficiency, as did Taylor, but also warned of the danger of
emphasizing technology at the expense of emotion.One primary difference between Max Weber and
management, and other theories of management, is that while Weber outlined the principles of an ideal
65 bureaucracy, he also pointed out the dangers a true bureaucracy which is based on clearly defined job
roles, a hierarchy of authority, standardized procedures, meticulous recordkeeping, hiring employees
only if they meet the specific qualifications for a job.

Principles of Bureaucratic Theory

Max weber emphasized on the bureaucratic theory as an Ideal Type or rational type whose principles
are given below.

A. Job specialization or division of labour- Jobs are divided into simple, routine and fixed category
based on competence and functional specialization. B. Authority Hierarchy or well defined Authority -
Officers are organized in a n hierarchy in which higher officer controls lower position holders i.e.
superior controls subordinates and their performance of subordinates and lower staff could be controlled.

C. Formal selection or Abstract Rules - All organizational members are to be selected on the basis of
technical qualifications and competence demonstrated by training, education or formal examination.
 D. Formal rules and regulations: - To ensure uniformity and to regulate actions of employees,
managers must depend heavily upon formal organizational rules and regulations. Thus, rules of law lead
to impersonality in interpersonal relations.

E. Impersonality or no irrational Sentiments - Rules and controls are applied uniformly, avoiding
involvement with personalities and preferences of employees. Nepotism and favoritism are not preferred.

F. Career orientation - Career building opportunity is offered highly. Lifelong employment and
adequate protection of individuals against arbitrary dismissal is guaranteed. Here managers are
professional officials rather than owners units they manage. They work for a fixed salaries and pursue
their career within the organization.

G. Formulated and recorded official recordsIn the weberian bureaucracy the administrative acts,
decisions and rules are formulated and recorded in writing. In order to make the administration
accountable to people and provide a ready reference is the most vital part.

H. There should be a demand and interest for personal affairs.

Limitations of bureaucratic theory

Bureaucratic theory has also characterized as a soulless, inflexible machine which seems to be
unsuited to the dynamic needs of social transformation. It is also criticized as redtap, rigidity, and never
ending rules and regulations etc. However, the limitations of the theory is also given as under:

1)Informal relationship is not considered - It does not consider the informal relationships between
individuals working in the organizations.

2) Outdated system: - Its system of control and authority are outdated which can‟t work in such a
changed environment.

3) Inadequate means: - Bureaucratic theory does not possess adequate means resolving differences
and conflicts arising between functional groups.

4) A closed system Model- it is also described as a closed system model as did not take into account
in details the interaction between organization and its environment.

5) A Machine Theory- It is also regarded a machine theory as it is concerning with the formal
structure of the organization undermining the human dimension.

Human Relation Theory

This theory came as a reaction to the classical approach, which stressed on formal structure of the
organization in 1930s.The classical school neglected the human side and under emphasized on the socio-
psychological aspect of the organization. In the views of the classical economist, there are five
fundamental elements of production. They are land, labour, capital, enterprise and organization.
However, the most important and most valuable point and sixth element of the organization is the
„Human Relation Approach‟. According to Oliver Sheldon “Industry is not a machine; it is a complex
form of Human associations. The true understanding of industry is to understand the thoughts of those
engaged in it”.The human relations theory is a researched belief that people desire to be part of a
supportive team that facilitates development and growth.Therefore, if employees receive special
attention and are encouraged to participate, they perceive their work has significance, and they are
motivated to be more productive, resulting in high quality work. In the theory the individual attention
and recognition aligns with the human relations theory and many theorists supported the motivational
theory and the studies supported the importance of human relations in business.

The American sociologist Professor GeorgeElton Mayo in his Hawthornestudies concentrated on the
workers behavior and productivity and proved that the most influencing factor of productivity are
relationships. Elton Mayo was in charge of certain experiments on human behavior carried out at the
Hawthorne Works of the General Electric Company in Chicago between 1924 and 1927.His research
findings have contributed to organization development in terms of human relations and motivation
theory. What he found however was that work satisfaction depended to a large extent on the informal
social pattern of the work group. Where norms of cooperation and higher output were established
because of a feeling of importance, physical conditions or financial incentives had little motivational
value. People will form work groups and this can be used by management to benefit the organization.
The others researchers such as W.J. Diction, T. N. Whitehead etc also realized productivity increased
due to relationships and being part of a supportive group where each employee's work had a significant
effect on the team output.

As a side result, the researchers noticed that the increased attention the workers received by the
researchers increased motivation and productivity, which resulted in what is the Hawthorne Effect. After
the Hawthorne experiments, Abraham Maslow and Douglas McGregor revealed how the motivational
theory ties in with theories of human relations.Maslow suggested five basic needs such as, physiological,
safety, love, esteem and self-actualization, were motivating factors when viewing an employee's work
values, and because the employee is motivated to ensure the most important of these individual needs are
met. McGregor supported motivation beliefs by realizing that employees contribute more to the
organization if they feel responsible and valued. The result of the studies regarding human relations in
the workplace show that people want to have a sense of belonging and significance while being treated
with value and respect. Treat an employee with respect and value, and their individual productivity and
quality increases to support the organizational team. The human relations falls under the umbrella of
human resources; therefore, the human resources theory is different from the human relations
management theory.

Phases of Hawthorne Studies (1924-1932) The Hawthorne studies were conducted in the following
four phases.

1. ILLUMINATION EXPERIMENT (1924-1927) In this experiment mayo changed the

physiological aspects related to work, but the productivity showed no direct relationship. This
experiment proofed that productivity is not only the function of physiological aspects but is also
influenced by the social and psychological factors too. This experiment was conducted to determine the
effect of different levels of illumination on workers‟ productivity.

II. RELAY ASSEMBLY TEST ROOM EXPERIMENT (1927) In this experiment mayo tried to
analyze the relationship between working condition and morale. In this experiment mayo made changes
with respect to the incentive, rest periods, work conditions etc., but such changes caused no
improvement in productivity. This experiment has aimed to observe the effects of various changes in
working conditions on the workers

III. MASS INTERVIEWING PROGRAMME (1928-1931) In this experiment mayo asked the
employee about their grievances. This activity improved the productivity of the employees. This
experiment tries to explore the employees feeling I.e. the attitude of the employees.
 IV. BANK WIRING EXPERIMENT (1931-1932) This experiment highlighted the social cohesion
among the employees. It understands better how the norms that controlled each members output, were
established by the workers social group.

The above experiments are published in 1939 by Roethlisberger and Dickson. The Social and
psychological factors includes at work place these factors determine workers morale and output, not
physical factors, Organization is social system, Non-economic rewards affects the workers behavior and
morale , Workers are not isolated but are social animals, Workers react to management as members of
informal groups rather than individual , Workers tend to form small social groups (informal groups)
which sets production norms and behavioral patterns, Leadership, style of supervision and participation
play a greater influence on workers behavior, satisfaction and productivity Elements of human relation
theory

Findings of the Hawthorne investigations;

1. Work is a group activity.

2. The social world of the adult is primarily patterned about work activity.

3. The need for recognition, security and sense of belonging is more important in determining
workers‟ morale and productivity than the physical conditions under which he works.

4. A complaint is not necessarily an objective recital of facts; it is commonly a symptom manifesting

disturbance of an individual‟s status position.

5. The worker is a person whose attitudes and effectiveness are conditioned by social demands from
both inside and outside the work plant.

6. Informal groups within the work plant exercise strong social controls over the work habits and
attitudes of the individual worker.

7. The change from an established society in the home to an adaptive society in the work plant
resulting from the use of new techniques tends continually to disrupt the social organization of a work
plant and industry generally.

8. Group collaboration does not occur by accident; it must be planned and developed. If group
collaboration is achieved the human relations within a work plant may reach a cohesion which resists the
disrupting effects of adaptive society.

With these findings Elton Mayo is considered as the father of human relation theory. He conducted
Hawthorne studies to interpret the psychological and human aspect of organization.

Elements of Human Relation Theory

There are three elements of human relation theory. They are (i) The Individual, (ii) Informal
organization (iii) Participative management.

(i)Individual: - It recognizes importance of individual emotions and perceptions. According to this

theory each person bring his own set of attitudes and skills to the job. The workers production depends
upon the human relation at the work and not the physical or the economic conditions.

(ii) Informal organization: - It recognizes the existence and influence of informal organization. It is a
sect of work relationships that grow out of the mutual interaction of persons working together over a
long period of time. Participative management-human relation theory advocated this style. He advocated
participation of workers in decision making with regard to their working conditions.

(iii) Participative Management: - The theory aims at participation of workers in decision making with
regard to their work conditions advocating the participative style of management. This brings a lot of
advantages to the workers as they get enough time to discuss with their superiors. It also develops a
sense of participation in the group and increases higher productivity etc.

Criticisms of Human Relation Theory

The concept of human relations are criticized under the following heads. (i)The theory tried to
substitute human relations oriented supervisors from union representation. Loren Baritz and others
criticized as mayost on anti-unionist and pro-management.

(ii) The Hawthorne studies were lack of scientific and research rigour. The research technique and
design were not scientific. It lacks scientific validity. (iii) Carry said the experiment as worthless.

(iv)It underplays the role of material rewards and gives much importance of symbolic rewards.

(v) It is against the desire for power. But it is only because of desire for power people want to make
managers.

(vi) Behavior of the workers during the experiments was not natural .It was actually the Hawthorne
effect which give their best when observed.

(vii) It gave little attention the formal relation while putting greater emphasis on the informal
relations.

This theory is not aware of the economic dimension and neglected the nature of work.

(ix) It could not explore the multi-dimensional phenomenon of human motivation.

(x) Marxists says that it is a new technique to exploit workers as it de-emphasized economic factors.

(xi) It is over-concerned with happiness.

(xii) It does not recognize the conflict as a creative force.

(xiii) It ignored the environmental factors of workers attitudes.

Contributions of Human Relation Program

Despite the shortcomings the findings of Hawthorne experiment have profoundly changed the face of
organization theory. The complex and realistic model of human nature has been reflected in the
Hawthorne experiment. This theory has gained more importance as human beings are regarded as the
key contributors to organizational efficiency, productivity and the goal attainment. Human factor has
become a systematic research in the Mayo‟s research analysis for the first time. It promoted a particular
vision of human nature in organizational settings. However, the Hawthorne study is still regarded as a
historic landmark in administrative thoughts.

Summary

Organization is a social unit of people that is structured and managed to meet a need or to pursue
collective goals. All organizations have a management structure that determines relationships between
the different activities and the members, and subdivides and assigns roles, responsibilities, and authority
to carry out different tasks. Organizations are open systems they affect and are affected by their
environment.

Organization is the basic function of management. Without efficient organization, no management

can perform its functions smoothly. The principles of organization deals with Division of work and
specialization, bases of departmental organization, coordination through hierarchy, deliberate
coordination, coordination through committees, decentralization, unity of command, staff and line,
delegation and span of control.

There are various theories of organization. They are Classical Theory, Scientific Management
Theory, Human Relation Theory, And Bureaucratic Theory.

Scientific management Theory is a reaction against the classical theory which was based on
traditional values and orientations. In practice generally tends to weaken the competitive power of the
individual worker and thwarts the formation of shop groups and weakens group solidarity. Moreover,
generally scientific management is lacking in the arrangements and machinery necessary for the actual
voicing of the workers ideas and complaints and for the democratic consideration and adjustment of
grievances. United States Commission on Industrial Relations.

Max Weber termed bureaucracy as the ideals in which organizations should aim for and aspire.
Weber was influenced by socialist philosophy. He developed the idea of bureaucracy when he noticed
several corrupt and unethical behaviors of leaders. He felt that organizational leaderships should center
on task proficiency and impersonal relationships. Even though many people associate bureaucracy with
red tape and ineffective organizations, this is not the outcome of bureaucracy. According to Weber,
bureaucracy should be synonymous with order, consistency, reason, and reliability. In order to aspire to
these traits, organizations need to have specific rules and emphasize impersonality. He noted that
bureaucratic organization much have the characteristics such as Specialization and Division of Labor,
Rules and Procedures, Hierarchy of Authority, Formal Communication, Detailed Job Descriptions,
Employment Based on Expertise, Impersonal Environment.

Henri Fayol believed that there are principles of management, which include unity of direction, unity
of command, authority, order, subordination of individual interest to the general interests, scalar chain.
He also felt that classical perspectives have two functions: control and command.