STAGES OF PHILIPPINE LITERATURE

Pre-Colonial Times
       Owing to the works of our own archaeologists, ethnologists and anthropologists, we
are able to know more and better judge information about our pre-colonial times set
against a bulk of material about early Filipinos as recorded by Spanish, Chinese, Arabic
and other chroniclers of the past.
       Pre-colonial inhabitants of our islands showcase a rich past through their folk
speeches, folk songs, folk narratives and indigenous rituals and mimetic dances that
affirm our ties with our Southeast Asian neighbors.
       The most seminal of these folk speeches is the riddle which is tigmo in
Cebuano, bugtong in Tagalog, paktakon in Ilongo and patototdon in Bicol. Central to the
riddle is the talinghaga or metaphor because it “reveals subtle resemblances between
two unlike objects” and one’s power of observation and wit are put to the test. While
some riddles are ingenious, others verge on the obscene or are sex-related:
Gaddang:
        Gongonan nu usin y amam If you pull your daddy’s penis
        Maggirawa pay sila y inam. Your mommy’s vagina, too,
                   (Campana) screams. (Bell)
       The proverbs or aphorisms express norms or codes of behavior, community beliefs
or they instill values by offering nuggets of wisdom in short, rhyming verse.
       The extended form, tanaga, a mono-riming heptasyllabic quatrain expressing
insights and lessons on life is “more emotionally charged than the terse proverb and
thus has affinities with the folk lyric.” Some examples are the basahanon or extended
didactic sayings from Bukidnon and the daraida and daragilon from Panay.
       The folk song, a form of folk lyric which expresses the hopes and aspirations, the
people’s lifestyles as well as their loves. These are often repetitive and sonorous,
didactic and naive as in the children’s songs or Ida-ida(Maguindanao), tulang
pambata (Tagalog) or cansiones para abbing (Ibanag).
       A few examples are the lullabyes or Ili-ili (Ilongo); love songs like
the panawagon and balitao (Ilongo);harana or serenade (Cebuano);
the bayok (Maranao); the seven-syllable per line poem, ambahan of the Mangyans that
are about human relationships, social entertainment and also serve as a tool for
teaching the young; work songs that depict the livelihood of the people often sung to go
with the movement of workers such as the kalusan (Ivatan), soliranin (Tagalog rowing
song) or the mambayu, a Kalinga rice-pounding song; the verbal jousts/games like
the duplo popular during wakes.
       Other folk songs are the drinking songs sung during carousals like the tagay
(Cebuano and Waray); dirges and lamentations extolling the deeds of the dead like
the kanogon (Cebuano) or the Annako (Bontoc).
       A type of narrative song or kissa among the Tausug of Mindanao, the parang sabil,
uses for its subject matter the exploits of historical and legendary heroes. It tells of a
Muslim hero who seeks death at the hands of non-Muslims.
       The folk narratives, i.e. epics and folk tales are varied, exotic and magical. They
explain how the world was created, how certain animals possess certain characteristics,
why some places have waterfalls, volcanoes, mountains, flora or fauna and, in the case
of legends, an explanation of the origins of things. Fables are about animals and these
teach moral lessons.
       Our country’s epics are considered ethno-epics because unlike, say, Germany’s
Niebelunginlied, our epics are not national for they are “histories” of varied groups that
consider themselves “nations.”
       The epics come in various
names: Guman (Subanon); Darangen (Maranao); Hudhud (Ifugao);
andUlahingan (Manobo). These epics revolve around supernatural events or heroic
deeds and they embody or validate the beliefs and customs and ideals of a community.
These are sung or chanted to the accompaniment of indigenous musical instruments
and dancing performed during harvests, weddings or funerals by chanters. The
chanters who were taught by their ancestors are considered “treasures” and/or
repositories of wisdom in their communities.
       Examples of these epics are the Lam-
ang (Ilocano); Hinilawod (Sulod); Kudaman (Palawan); Darangen(Maranao); Ulahingan 
(Livunganen-Arumanen Manobo); Mangovayt Buhong na Langit (The Maiden of the
Buhong Sky from Tuwaang–Manobo); Ag Tobig neg Keboklagan (Subanon);
and Tudbulol (T’boli).
The Spanish Colonial Tradition
       While it is true that Spain subjugated the Philippines for more mundane reasons,
this former European power contributed much in the shaping and recording of our
literature.   Religion and institutions that represented European civilization enriched the
languages in the lowlands, introduced theater which we would come to know
as komedya, the sinakulo, the sarswela, the playlets and the drama. Spain also brought
to the country, though at a much later time, liberal  ideas and an internationalism that
influenced our own Filipino intellectuals and writers for them to understand the
meanings of “liberty and freedom.”
       Literature in this period may be classified as religious prose and poetry and secular
prose and poetry.
       Religious lyrics written by ladino poets or those versed in both Spanish and
Tagalog were included in early catechism and were used to teach Filipinos the Spanish
language. Fernando Bagonbanta’s “Salamat nang walang hanga/gracias de sin
sempiternas” (Unending thanks) is a fine example that is found in the Memorial de la
vida cristiana en lengua tagala (Guidelines for the Christian life in the Tagalog
language) published in 1605.
       Another form of religious lyrics are the meditative verses like the dalit appended
to novenas and catechisms. It has no fixed meter nor rime scheme although a number
are written in octosyllabic quatrains and have a solemn tone and spiritual subject
matter.
       But among the religious poetry of the day, it is the pasyon in octosyllabic quintillas
that became entrenched in the Filipino’s commemoration of Christ’s agony and
resurrection at Calvary. Gaspar Aquino de Belen’s “Ang Mahal na Passion ni Jesu
Christong Panginoon natin na tola” (Holy Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ in Verse) put
out in 1704 is the country’s earliest known pasyon.
       Other known pasyons chanted during the Lenten season are in Ilocano,
Pangasinan, Ibanag, Cebuano, Bicol, Ilongo and Waray.
       Aside from religious poetry, there were various kinds of prose narratives written to
prescribe proper decorum. Like the pasyon, these prose narratives were also used for
proselitization. Some forms are: dialogo(dialogue), Manual de Urbanidad (conduct
book); ejemplo (exemplum) and tratado (tratado). The most well-known are Modesto de
Castro’s “Pagsusulatan ng Dalawang Binibini na si Urbana at si Feliza”
(Correspondence between the Two Maidens Urbana and Feliza) in 1864 and Joaquin
Tuason’s “Ang Bagong Robinson” (The New Robinson) in 1879, an adaptation of Daniel
Defoe’s novel.
       Secular works appeared alongside historical and economic changes, the
emergence of an opulent class and the middle class who could avail of a European
education. This Filipino elite could now read printed works that used to be the exclusive
domain of the missionaries.
       The most notable of the secular lyrics followed the conventions of a romantic
tradition: the languishing but loyal lover, the elusive, often heartless beloved, the rival.
The leading poets were Jose Corazon de Jesus (Huseng Sisiw) and Francisco
Balagtas. Some secular poets who wrote in this same tradition were Leona Florentino,
Jacinto Kawili, Isabelo de los Reyes and Rafael Gandioco.
       Another popular secular poetry is the metrical romance, the awit and korido in
Tagalog. The awit is set in dodecasyllabic quatrains while the korido is in octosyllabic
quatrains. These are colorful tales of chivalry from European sources made for singing
and chanting such as Gonzalo de Cordoba (Gonzalo of Cordoba) and Ibong
Adarna (Adarna Bird). There are numerous metrical romances in Tagalog, Bicol, Ilongo,
Pampango, Ilocano and in Pangasinan. The awit as a popular poetic genre reached
new heights in Balagtas’ “Florante at Laura” (ca. 1838-1861), the most famous of the
country’s metrical romances.
       Again, the winds of change began to blow in 19th century Philippines. Filipino
intellectuals educated in Europe called ilustrados began to write about the downside of
colonization. This, coupled with the simmering calls for reforms by the masses gathered
a formidable force of writers like Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, Mariano Ponce, Emilio
Jacinto and Andres Bonifacio.
       This led to the formation of the Propaganda Movement where prose works such as
the political essays and Rizal’s two political novels, Noli Me Tangere and the El
filibusterismo helped usher in the Philippine revolution resulting in the downfall of the
Spanish regime, and, at the same time planted the seeds of a national consciousness
among Filipinos.
       But if Rizal’s novels are political, the novel Ninay (1885) by Pedro Paterno is largely
cultural and is considered the first Filipino novel. Although Paterno’s Ninay gave
impetus to other novelists like Jesus Balmori and Antonio M. Abad to continue writing in
Spanish, this did not flourish.
       Other Filipino writers published the essay and short fiction in Spanish in La
Vanguardia, El Debate,Renacimiento Filipino, and Nueva Era. The more notable
essayists and fictionists were Claro M. Recto, Teodoro M. Kalaw, Epifanio de los
Reyes, Vicente Sotto, Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, Rafael Palma, Enrique Laygo (Caretas
or Masks, 1925) and Balmori who mastered the prosa romantica or romantic prose.
       But the introduction of English as medium of instruction in the Philippines hastened
the demise of Spanish so that by the 1930s, English writing had overtaken Spanish
writing. During the language’s death throes, however, writing in the romantic tradition,
from the awit and korido, would continue in the novels of Magdalena Jalandoni. But
patriotic writing continued under the new colonialists. These appeared in the vernacular
poems and modern adaptations of works during the Spanish period and which further
maintained the Spanish tradition.
The American Colonial Period
       A new set of colonizers brought about new changes in Philippine literature. New
literary forms such as free verse [in poetry], the modern short story and the critical
essay were introduced. American influence was deeply entrenched with the firm
establishment of English as the medium of instruction in all schools and with literary
modernism that highlighted the writer’s individuality and cultivated consciousness of
craft, sometimes at the expense of social consciousness.
       The poet, and later, National Artist for Literature, Jose Garcia Villa used free verse
and espoused the dictum, “Art for art’s sake” to the chagrin of other writers more
concerned with the utilitarian aspect of literature. Another maverick in poetry who used
free verse and talked about illicit love in her poetry was Angela Manalang Gloria, a
woman poet described as ahead of her time. Despite the threat of censorship by the
new dispensation, more writers turned up “seditious works” and popular writing in the
native languages bloomed through the weekly outlets like Liwayway and Bisaya.
       The Balagtas tradition persisted until the poet Alejandro G. Abadilla advocated
modernism in poetry. Abadilla later influenced young poets who wrote modern verses in
the 1960s such as Virgilio S. Almario, Pedro I. Ricarte and Rolando S. Tinio.
       While the early Filipino poets grappled with the verities of the new language,
Filipinos seemed to have taken easily to the modern short story as published in
the Philippines Free Press, the College Folio and Philippines Herald. Paz Marquez
Benitez’s “Dead Stars” published in 1925 was the first successful short story in English
written by a Filipino. Later on, Arturo B. Rotor and Manuel E. Arguilla showed
exceptional skills with the short story.
       Alongside this development, writers in the vernaculars continued to write in the
provinces. Others like Lope K. Santos, Valeriano Hernandez Peña and Patricio Mariano
were writing minimal narratives similar to the early Tagalog short fiction
called dali or pasingaw (sketch).
       The romantic tradition was fused with American pop culture or European influences
in the adaptations of Edgar Rice Burroughs’ Tarzan by F. P. Boquecosa who also
penned Ang Palad ni Pepe after Charles Dicken’sDavid Copperfield even as the realist
tradition was kept alive in the novels by Lope K. Santos and Faustino Aguilar, among
others.
       It should be noted that if there was a dearth of the Filipino novel in English, the
novel in the vernaculars continued to be written and serialized in weekly magazines
like Liwayway, Bisaya, Hiligaynon and Bannawag.
       The essay in English became a potent medium from the 1920’s to the present.
Some leading essayists were journalists like Carlos P. Romulo, Jorge Bocobo, Pura
Santillan Castrence, etc. who wrote formal to humorous to informal essays for the
delectation by Filipinos.
       Among those who wrote criticism developed during the American period were
Ignacio Manlapaz, Leopoldo Yabes and I.V. Mallari. But it was Salvador P. Lopez’s
criticism that grabbed attention when he won the Commonwealth Literay Award for the
essay in 1940 with his “Literature and Society.” This essay posited that art must have
substance and that Villa’s adherence to “Art for Art’s Sake” is decadent.
       The last throes of American colonialism saw the flourishing of Philippine literature in
English at the same time, with the introduction of the New Critical aesthetics, made
writers pay close attention to craft and “indirectly engendered a disparaging attitude”
towards vernacular writings — a tension that would recur in the contemporary period.
The Contemporary Period
       The flowering of Philippine literature in the various languages continue especially
with the appearance of new publications after the Martial Law years and the resurgence
of committed literature in the 1960s and the 1970s.
       Filipino writers continue to write poetry, short stories, novellas, novels and essays
whether these are socially committed, gender/ethnic related or are personal in intention
or not.
       Of course the Filipino writer has become more conscious of his art with the
proliferation of writers workshops here and abroad and the bulk of literature available to
him via the mass media including the internet. The various literary awards such as the
Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature, the Philippines Free Press,
Philippine Graphic, Home Life and Panorama literary awards encourage him to compete
with his peers and hope that his creative efforts will be rewarded in the long run.

ELEMENTS OF A STORY
Elements of Literature
What do we mean by the phrase ‘elements of literature’?
The phrase ‘elements of literature’ refers to the constituent parts of a work of literature
in whatever form it takes: poetry, prose, or drama.
Why are they important?
Understanding the various elements is particularly useful when studying longer works. It
enables students to examine specific aspects of the work in isolation, before piecing
these separate aspects back together to display an understanding of the work as a
whole.
Having a firm grasp on how the different elements work can also be very useful when
comparing and contrasting two or more texts. 
Not only does understanding the various elements of literature helps us to answer
literature analysis questions in exam situations, but it also helps us develop a deeper
appreciation of literature in general.
 
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN ELEMENT OF LITERATURE AND A
LITERARY DEVICE?
 Elements of literature are present in every literary text. They are the essential
ingredients required to create any piece of literature, including poems, plays, novels,
short stories, feature articles, nonfiction books, etc.
 Literary devices, on the other hand, are tools and techniques that are used to create
specific effects within a work. Think metaphor, simile, hyperbole, foreshadowing, etc.
We examine literary devices in detail in other articles on this site.
 While the elements of literature will appear in every literary text, not every literary
device will.
 Now, let’s take a look at each of these oh-so-crucial elements of literature.
 
WHAT ARE THE ELEMENTS OF LITERATURE?
Let us examine the following elements: plot, setting, character, point-of-view, theme,
tone. 
Each of these broad elements has many possible subcategories and there is, of course,
some crossover between some of the elements
 
1: PLOT
Plot refers to all of the related things that happen in sequence in a story. The shape of
the plot comes from the order of these events and consists of several distinct aspects
that we’ll look at in turn.
The plot is made up of a series of cause and effect events that lead the reader from the
beginning of the story, through the middle, to the story’s ending (though sometimes the
chronological order is played with for dramatic effect).
Exposition: This is the introduction of the story and usually it will be where the reader
acquires the necessary background information they’ll need to follow the various
threads of the plot through to the end. This is also where the setting of the story is
established, the main characters are introduced to the reader, and the central conflict
begins to emerge.
Conflict: The conflict of the story serves as the focus and driving force of most of the
story’s action. Essentially, conflict consists of a central (and sometimes secondary)
problem. Without a problem or conflict, there is no story. Conflict usually takes the form
of two opposing forces. These can be external forces or, sometimes, these opposing
forces can take the form of an internal struggle within the protagonist or main character.
Rising Action: The rising action of the narrative begins at the end of the exposition. It
usually forms most of the plot and begins with an inciting incident that kick-starts a
series of cause and effect events. The rising action builds on tension and culminates in
the climax.
Climax: After the introduction of the problem or central conflict of the story, the action
rises as the drama of the story unfolds in a series of causes and effects. These events
culminate in the story’s dramatic high point, known as the climax. This is when the
tension finally reaches its breaking point
Falling Action: This part of the narrative is made up of the events that happen after the
climax. Things begin to slow down and work their way towards the story’s end, tying up
loose ends on the way. We can think of the falling action as a de-escalation of the
story’s drama.
Resolution: This is the final part of the plot arc and represents the closing of the conflict
and the return of normality - or a new normality - in the wake of the story’s events.
Often, this takes the form of a significant change within the main character. A resolution
restores balance and order to the world or it brings about a new balance and order.
 
2: SETTING
Setting consists of two key elements: space and time. Space refers to the where of the
story; most often the geographical location where the action of the story takes place.
Time refers to the when of the story. This could be an historical period, the present, or in
the future.
The setting has some other aspects for the reader or writer to consider too. For
example, drilling down from the broader time and place, elements such as the weather,
cultural context, and physical surroundings, etc can be important.
The setting is a crucial part of a story’s exposition and is often used to establish the
mood of the story. A carefully crafted setting can be used to skillfully hint at the story’s
theme and to reveal some aspects of the
3. CHARACTER
A story’s characters are the doers of the actions. Characters most often take human
form but, on occasion, a story can employ animals, fantastical creatures, and even
inanimate objects as characters. 
Some characters are dynamic and change over the course of a story, while others are
static and do not grow or change as a result of the action of the story.
There are many different types of characters to be found in works of literature and each
serves a different function.
Now, let’s take a look at some of the most important of these.
Protagonist
The protagonist is the story’s main character. The story’s plot centers around this
character and they are usually sympathetic and likable for the reader, that is, they are
most often the ‘hero’ of the story.
Antagonist
The antagonist is the bad guy or girl of the piece. Most of the action of the plot is borne
of the conflict between the protagonist and the antagonist. 
Flat Character
Flat characters are one-dimensional characters that are purely functional in the story.
They are more a sketch than a detailed portrait and they help move the action along by
serving a simple purpose. We aren’t afforded much of an insight into the interior lives of
such characters.
Rounded Character
Unlike flat characters, rounded characters are more complex and drawn in more detail
by the writer. As well as being described in comprehensive physical detail, we will gain
an insight into the character’s interior life, their hopes, fears, dreams, and desires, etc.
 
4: POINT OF VIEW
Point of view in literature refers to the perspective through which you experience the
events of the story. 
There are various advantages and disadvantages to the different points of view
available for the writer to choose from, but they can all be usefully categorized
according to whether they’re first person, second person, or third-person points of view.
Now, let’s take a look at some of the most common points of view in each of these
categories.
First Person
The key to recognizing this point of view lies in the use of pronouns such as I, me, my,
we, us, our, etc. There are several different variations of the first-person narrative, but
they all have a single person narrating the events of the story either as it unfolds, or in
the past tense.
When considering a first-person narrative, the first question to ask is who is the person
telling the story. Let’s take a look at two main types of the first-person point of view.
First Person Protagonist: This is when the main character of the story relates the
action first hand as he or she experiences or experienced it. As the narrator is also the
main character, the reader is placed right at the center of the action and sees events
unfold through the main character’s own eyes.
First Person Periphery: In this case, we see the story unfold, not the main character’s
POV, but from the perspective of a secondary character who has limited participation in
the story itself.
Second Person: This perspective is uncommon. Though it is hard to pull off without
sounding corny, you will find it in some books such as those Choose Your Own
Adventure type books. You can recognize this perspective through the use of the 2nd
person pronoun ‘you’.
Third Person Limited: From this perspective, we see events unfold from the point of
view of one person in the story. As the name suggests, we are limited to seeing things
from the perspective of the third person narrator and do not gain insight into the internal
life of the other characters, other than through their actions as described by the third-
person narrator (he, she, they, etc).
Third Person Omniscient: The great eye in the sky! The 3rd person omniscient
narrator, as the name suggests, knows everything about everyone. From this point of
view, nothing is off-limits. This allows the reader to peek behind every curtain and into
every corner of what is going on as the narrator moves freely through time and space,
jumping in and out of the characters’ heads along the way.
Advantages and Disadvantages
As we’ve mentioned there are specific advantages and disadvantages to each of the
different points of view. While the third person omniscient point of view allows the
reader full access to each character, the third-person limited point of view is great for
building tension in a story as the writer can control what the reader knows and when
they know it.
The main advantage of the first-person perspective is that it puts the reader into the
head of the narrator. This brings a sense of intimacy and personal detail to the story.
 
5: THEME
If the plot refers to what happens in a story, then the theme is to do with what these
events mean. 
The theme is the big ideas that are explored in a work of literature. These are most
often universal ideas that transcend the limits of culture, ethnicity, or language. The
theme is the deeper meaning behind the events of the story.
Six common themes in literature are:

 Good vs. evil

 Love
 Redemption
 Courage and perseverance
 Coming of age
 Revenge
Literary Theme 1: Good vs. Evil

The classic battle between light and dark, altruism and antagonism, the theme of good
versus evil stretches beyond even Biblical times. A story about good triumphing over
evil may pit two characters directly against each other, as in J.K. Rowling’s Harry
Potter series, or a main character against society at large, as in Harper Lee’s To Kill a
Mockingbird.
In addition, the theme of good versus evil may be explored through the external actions
and dialogue of the characters, or via their internal struggle to do the right thing when
faced with temptation.

Literary Theme 2: Love

Love is one of the most universal themes in literature, as in life. In fact, the theme of
love underpins many of the stories. Love can be a force for good that inspires people
to sacrifice themselves for others, or a toxic force that drives people to madness or
violence. Different flavors of love as a literary theme include:

 Forbidden love. Yearning and disapproval collide in forbidden love stories,

which often find star-crossed lovers hurtling towards a tragic fate.
 Family love. Stories about the love between parents and children or siblings
often explore the costs or challenges of family loyalty.
 Unrequited love. The pain of loving someone who does not return your
affection is a frequent subject in literature.
 Friendship. The power of friendship to carry people through hard times and
change them—whether for better or worse—is an especially common theme in
young adult literature.
 .
Literary Theme 3: Redemption

Failures or tragedies set the stage for a sad story, but it doesn’t have to end this way:
in books that employ redemption as a central theme, characters see the errors of their
ways and strive to right the wrongs they’ve committed, making for an uplifting tale.
Stories of redemption often involve a reformed character sacrificing his or her freedom
or life.

Literary Theme 4: Courage and Perseverance

The triumph of the human spirit in the face of adversity is a hugely popular theme in
literature, film, and real life. Characters in stories about courage endure difficult
circumstances or impossible odds, persevering through sheer determination, grit, and
gall.

Literary Theme 5: Coming of Age

Also known as a bildungsroman, a classic coming-of-age story follows one or more

characters during their journey of growing up into adulthood. These characters may
experience everything from a loss of innocence, to an awakening or self-awareness
before finally reaching maturity. While coming of age stories are popular in young adult
literature, they’re also common in memoirs.

Examples of books that employ coming of age as a central theme include Little

Women by Louisa May Alcott, Great Expectations by Charles Dickens, and The
Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger.
Literary Theme 6: Revenge

A common plot in literature, the theme of revenge sets up a conflict between one
character and his or her enemies as he or she journeys to avenge wrongs done to
them. A revenge story may depict the trials a character must endure in order to achieve
their vengeance—or, explore the human cost and moral dilemmas around pursuing
vengeance in the first place

Importantly, the theme of a piece of writing is not to be confused with its subject. While
the subject of a text is what it is about, the theme is more to do with how the writer feels
about that subject as conveyed in the writing.
It is also important to note that while all works of literature have a theme, they never
state that theme explicitly. Although many works of literature deal with more than one
theme, it’s usually possible to detect a main theme amid the minor ones.
The most commonly asked question about themes from students is ‘How do we work
out what the theme is?’ 
The truth is, how easy or how difficult it will be to detect a work’s theme will vary greatly
between different texts. The ease of identification will depend largely on how
straightforward or how complex the work is.
To identify the theme, students should look out for symbols and motifs within the text.
Especially symbols and motifs that repeat. 
Students further need to understand that symbols are when one thing is used to stand
for another. While not all symbols are related to the theme of the text, when symbols are
used repeatedly or found in a cluster, they usually relate to a motif. This motif will in turn
relate to the theme of the work.
Of course, this leads to the question: What exactly is a motif?
A motif is a recurring idea or an element that has symbolic significance. Uncovering this
significance will reveal the theme to a careful reader.
We can further understand the themes as concepts and statements. Concepts are the
broad categories or issues of the work, while statements are the position the writer
takes on those issues as expressed in the text.
Here are some examples of thematic concepts commonly found in literature:
 Love
 Revenge
 Justice
 Betrayal
 Jealousy
 Forgiveness
When discussing the theme of a work in any detail, identifying the thematic concept will
not be enough. Students will need to explore what the thematic statements are in the
text. That is, they need to identify the opinions the writer expresses on the thematic
concepts in the text.
For example, we might identify that a story is about forgiveness, that is, that forgiveness
is the primary thematic concept. When we identify what the work says about
forgiveness, such as forgiveness is necessary for a person to move on with their life, we
are identifying a thematic statement.
 
6: TONE
Tone refers to how the theme is treated in a work. Two works may have the same
theme, but each may adopt a different tone in dealing with that theme. For example, the
tone of a text can be serious, comical, formal, informal, gloomy, joyful, sarcastic, or
sentimental, to name but eight.
The tone that the writer adopts influences how the reader reads that text. It informs how
the reader will feel about the characters and events described. 
Tone helps to create the mood of the piece and gives life to the story as a whole.
Tone Review
What seems to be the speaker’s attitude in the passage?
Is more than one attitude or point of view expressed?
Does the passage have a noticeable emotional mood or atmosphere?
What effect does tone have on the reader?
 
 
STYLE
Style is a fundamental aspect of fiction, as it is naturally part of every work
of prose written. Some types of writing are required to have a certain style, such as
academic or journalistic writing. However, every work of creative writing takes on its
own style.
While you may not think about it all the time, there’s a lot more to literature than
storylines and content. In literature, style is the way in which an author writes and/or
tells a story. It’s what sets one author apart from another and creates the “voice” that
audiences hear when they read. There are many important pieces that together make
up a writer’s style; like tone, word choice, grammar, language, descriptive technique,
and so on. Style is also what determines the mood of a piece of literature, so its
importance is huge across all genres. Different types of literature need different styles,
and different styles need different authors!
Truthfully, style can be hard to define because it varies so much from each piece of
literature to the next. Two authors can write about the exact same thing, and yet the
styles of the pieces could be nothing like each other because they would reflect the way
each author writes. An author’s style might even change with each piece he writes.
When it comes to style, what comes easy for one author might not work for another;
what fits one genre may not fit for others at all; what thrills one group of readers may
bore another. A reader might love a certain genre or subject, but dislike an author’s
style, and vice versa. In fact, it’s not unusual to hear people say about a novel or a
movie, “it was a good story, but I didn’t like the style.”

While there are specific types of styles of writing, this article will focus on style’s overall
role in literature.
 
 
 
Basic Elements of Style
Diction, Syntax, Point of View, Tone, Theme
Diction (word choice) 
A study of diction is the analysis of how a writer uses language for a distinct purpose
and effect, including word choice and figures of speech. “The difference between the
right word and almost the right word is like the difference between lightning and the
lightning bug.” (Mark Twain)
Examine the following when considering word choice: Informal Diction (personal writing)
e.g. bug, folks, job, kid, boss, get across Formal Diction
(academic or literary writing) e.g. germ, relatives, position, child, superior, communicate
 
Types of Diction
Colloquial words – conversational language
Slang – highly informal
Jargon – the special language of a profession or group (lawyer talk, technical talk)
 
Literary Devices
Alliteration, Pun, Hyperbole, Assonance, Apostrophe, Understatement Consonance,
Paradox Onomatopoeia, Metaphor, Antithesis, Oxymoron, Simile, Synecdoche,
Allusion, Personification, Metonymy, Irony
Syntax (sentence structure)
Syntax controls verbal pacing and focus.

TYPES OF LITERATURE
General Types of Literature
 
Literature  can generally be divided  into three types; prose and poetry drama
 
Prose consists of those written within the common flow of conversation in sentences
and paragraphs, while poetry refers to those expressions in verse, with measure and
rhyme, line and stanza and has a more melodious tone.
 
PROSE
There are many types of prose. These include the following:
 
Novels. A long narrative divided into chapters and events.
Example:WITHOUT  SEEING  THE  DAWN  
by
Stevan   Javellana
 
Short story. This is a narrative involving one or more characters, one plot and one single
impression.
 
Example:THE LAUGHTER OF MY FATHER
by
Carlos  Bulosan
 
Legends. These are fictitious narratives, usually about origins.
Example:  THE BIKOL LEGEND by Pio Duran
 
Fables. These are also fictitious and they deal with animals and inanimate things who
speak and act like people and their purpose is to enlighten the minds of children to
events that can mold their ways and attitudes.
Example: THE MONKEY AND THE TURTLE
 
Anecdotes. These are merely products of the writer’s imagination and the main aim is to
bring out lessons to the reader.
Example: THE MOTH AND THE LAMP
 
Essay. This expresses the viewpoint or opinion of the writer about a particular problem
or event. The best example of this  is the Editorial page of a newspaper.
 
Biography. This deals with the life of a person which may be about himself, his
autobiography or that of others.
News. This is a report of everyday events in society, government, science and industry,
and accidents, happening nationally or not.
Oration. This is a formal treatment of a subject and is intended to be spoken in public. It
appeals to the intellect, to the will or to the emotions of the audience.
 
 
POETRY
 
There are three types of poetry and these are the following:
 
Narrative Poetry.
This form describes important events in life either real or imaginary.
The different varieties are:
 Epic. This is an extended narrative about heroic exploits often under supernatural
control.
Example:THE HARVEST SONG OF ALIGUYON
translated in  English by Amador T. Daguio
 Metrical Tale. This is a narrative which is written in verse and can be classified
either as a ballad or a metrical romance.
Examples: BAYANI NG BUKID by Al Perez HERO OF THE FIELDS by Al Perez
 Ballads. Of the narrative poems, this is considered the shortest and simplest. It
has a simple structure and tells of a single incident. There are also variations of
these: love ballads, war ballads, and sea ballads, humorous, moral, and historical
or mythical ballads. In the early time, this referred to a song accompanying a
dance.
 
Lyric Poetry.
 this refers to that kind of poetry meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a lyre, but
now, this applies to any type of poetry that expresses emotions and feelings of the poet.
They are usually short, simple and easy to understand.
 Folksongs (Awiting Bayan). These are short poems intended to be sung. The
common theme is love, despair, grief, doubt, joy, hope and sorrow.
Example: CHIT-CHIRIT-CHIT
 
 Sonnets. This is a lyric poem of 14 lines dealing with an emotion, a feeling, or an
idea. These are two types: the Petrarchan and the Shakespearean.
 
Example:  SANTANG BUDS     by   Alfonso P. Santos
 
 Elegy. This is a lyric poem which expresses feelings of grief and melancholy, and
whose theme is death.
 
Example: THE  LOVER’S DEATH   by  Ricaredo Demetillo
 
 Ode. This is a poem of a noble feeling, expressed with dignity, with no definite
number of syllables or definite number of lines in a stanza.
 
 Psalms (Dalit). This is a song praising God or the Virgin Mary and containing a
philosophy of life.
 

 Awit (Song). These have measures of twelve syllables (dodecasyllabic) and

slowly sung to the accompaniment of a guitar or banduria.
 
Example:  FLORANTE  AT   LAURA   by   Franciso Balagtas
 
Corridos (Kuridos). These have measures of eight syllables (octosyllabic) and recited to
a martial beat.
Example:  IBONG ADARNA
 
Drama
 PLAYS This is presented on a stage, is divided into acts and each act has many
scenes.
Example:             THIRTEEN  PLAYS   
by  Wilfredo M. Guerrero
 
 Comedy. The word comedy comes from the Greek term “komos” meaning
festivity or revelry. This form usually is light and written with the purpose of
amusing, and usually has a happy ending.
 
  Melodrama. This is usually used in musical plays with the opera. Today, this is
related to tragedy just as the farce is to comedy. It arouses immediate and
intense emotion and is usually sad but there is a happy ending for the principal
character.
 
 Tragedy. This involves the hero struggling mightily against dynamic forces; he
meets death or ruin without success and satisfaction obtained by the protagonist
in a comedy.
 
 Farce. This is an exaggerated comedy. It seeks to arouse mirth by laughable
lines; situations are too ridiculous to be true; the characters seem to be
caricatures and the motives undignified and absurd.
 
 Social Poems. This form is either purely comic or tragic and it pictures the life of
today. It may aim to bring about changes in the social conditions.
 

ILOCANO LITERATURE

Ilocos Region  is an admininistrative region of the Philippines, designated as Region I, occupying the
northwestern section of Luzon. It is bordered by the Cordillera Administrative Region to the east,
the Cagayan Valley to the northeast and southeast, and the Central Luzon to the south. 
The region comprises four provinces: Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union and Pangasinan. Its
regional center is San Fernando, La Union. The 2000 Census reported that the major languages
spoken in the region are Ilocano at 66.36% of the total population at that time, Pangasinan with
27.05%, and Tagalog with 3.21%.
 

Pedro Buc(k)aneg • Acknowledged author of the epic Biag ni Lam-ang.

 A Filipino poet.
 Was a foundling, who shortly after floating in a basket between Bantay and Vigan was found
by an old woman.
 Brought to Bantay Augustinian priest who baptised him as Pedro Bucaneg.
 Blind since birth, but grew up as smart and talented.
 Took lessons in Latin and Spanish and also learned the local dialects and Ilocano Isneg.
 Known to translate prayers and sermons in local language.
 Although blind, he dictated the text of his poems, songs and translations as someone wrote it
down.

Works
 Translated Doctrina Cristiana to Ilocano which was printed in 1593 as one of the first book in
the Philippines and was intended for the use in the local population.
1621, the ilocano translation was printed in the Augustinian Convent in Manila.
Arte de Lengua Iloca, the first grammar book, co-authored with Fr. Francisco Lopez
Born March 1592 and died circa 1630, his works of literature are preserved to be written in
history.

 
Mother of Ph Women’s Literature
Leonora Florentino
 April 19, 1849 - October 4, 1884

 
 Poet in Spanish and Ilocano.
 At the age of 10, she can write poems in Ilocano and speak well in Spanish.
 Was really intelligent, yet she wasn’t allowed to study due to her gender.
 She was instead tutored by her mother and a series of private teachers.
 Fr. Evaristo Abaya flourished her Spanish skills and help her voice out her thoughts in
poems.
 She married a politician, Elias de los Reyes at the age of 14. Together had 5 children.
 Due to the feminist nature of her writings, she was shunned by her husband and son, she
lived alone in exile and separated from her family. She died at the age of 35
Works
Her well knowns literary pieces are Rucronoy (Dedication), Naangaway a Cablaw (Good
greetings), Nalpay a Namnama (Vanishing Hope), Benigna, Para ken Carmen, Panay
Pacada (Farewell) and more.
Most of her works got lost but the preserved ones are in the library of Madrid, Londres at
Paris.
Although Florentino died at a young age, her works are known not only in the Philippines but
through out Europe.
 She is believed to be the first Filipina recognized as a lady poet.
Nalpay na namnama Yantangay siak ket linipatnakon Liday ti yas-asog toy barungkonko.
Nuray agsagabaak nga agnanayon, Nalpay a namnama aklunekon
 
Blasted hopes/Vanishing Hopes
"But would it be my greatest joy To know that it is you I love, For to you do I vow and a
promise I make It’s you alone for whom I would lay my life".

Father of Filipino Socialism

Isabelo de los Reyes  Also known as Don Belong
July 4, 1864 - October 10, 1938

 Prominent politician, writer and labor activist

 Originally founder of Aglipayan Church, an independent Christian protestant church in the
catholic tradition.
  Due to his anti-catholic writings, he therefore got the nickname
 Pope Leo XIII formally excommunicated Reyes in 1903 as an apostate
 He followed his mother’s footsteps by initially turning to writing as a career
 won an award at the age of 23 for his first written book. Became a journalist, editor, and
publisher in Manila
 Imprisoned in 1897 for revolutionary activities. Deported to Spain, and was jailed until 1898.
 While being there, he got influenced by the writings of European socialists and Marxists. •
Returning to Philippines in 1901, he founded the first labor union in the country.
 Also active in seeking independence from the US
 After serving the Ph in the 1920s, he settled into private life and religious writing.
 Had a total of 27 children with 3 successive wives.
Works
• Mariquit the Tramp (bomba story) • Sing sing ni Diego (horror story) • Biblia Filipina (philippine
bible) • Oficio divino • Catequesis (catechism) • Plagerias(prayers) • Genesis Cientifico y moderno •
Ang sing sing ng dalagang marmol (1905 novel) • Calendario Aglipayano

Carlos Bulosan
 
 Born to Ilocano parents in the Ph in Binalonan, Pangasinan.
 November 2, 1913
 Most of his youth was spent in the countryside as a farmer.
 his hometown is the starting point of his famous semi-autobiographical novel,
America is in the Heart. Left for America on July 22, 1930 at the age of 17.
Upon arriving in Seattle, he met with racism and was forced to work in a low paying job. He
worked as a farmworker, harvesting grapes and asparagus, and doing other types of hard
work in the fields of California. He also worked as a dishwasher with his brother in the
famous Madonna Inn in San Luis Obispo.
 
Works
 America is in the Heart
 The Laughter of My Father • The Cry and the Dedication • My Father’s Tragedy • The
Romance of Magno Rubio • If You Want To Know What We Are
 
America Is In the Heart
“The old world is dying, but a new world is being born. It generates inspiration from the
chaos that beats upon us all. The false grandeur and security, the unfulfilled promises and
illusory power, the number of the dead and those about to die, will charge the forces of our
courage and determination. The old world will die so that the new world will be born with less
sacrifice and agony on the living.”

1. Sionil Jose
December 3, 1924
 
 Born in Rosales, Pangasinan the setting of his many stories.
 Ilocano descent whose family had migrated to Pangasinan to flee from poverty.
 His influences: his mother, Jose Rizal
 Critically acclaimed Filipino internationally yet underrated in his own country.
Awards • Pablo Neruda Centennial Award (2004) Philippine National Artist for Literature
(2001) • Chevalier dans l'Ordre des Arts et Lettres (2000) • Ramon Magsaysay Award for
Journalism, Literature and Creative Communication Arts (1980) • City of Manila Award for
Literature (1979 Carlos Palanca Memorial Award for Literature (1959, 1979, 1980, 1981)
 Attended UST after WW2 but dropped out and plunged into writing and journalism in
Manila. • Edited various literaty and journalistic publications, started a publishing
house and founded the Philippine branch of PEN, an international organization for
writers.
 
 His writings talk about social justice and change to better the lives of average Filipino
families. • Inspired him to make the five volume novels: Rosales Saga.
 is one of the most widely read Filipino writers in the English Language. His novels
and short stories depict the social underpinnings of class struggles and colonialism of
Filipino society.
 Jose’s works written in English have been translated into 22 language ls including
Korean, Indonesian, Russian and Dutch.
 Owns a bookshop that sells hard to find filipiniana reading materials. • ‘Why are we
shallow’ Hindsight, The Philippine Star September 12 2011

Angela Marie Manalang

 
 Born August 23, 10907 in Guagua, Pampanga. • Settled in Bicol Region in Albay.
 During her senior year, she moved to St. Scholastica’s College in Malate, Manila
where her writing started to get noticed.
 Was among the first generation female students of the UP
 Was the author of Revolt from Hymen, a poem protesting against marital rape which
caused her denial by an all-male jury from winning the Ph’s Commonwealth Literary
Awards in 1940.
 Poems, a poem collection published 1940 and was revised in 1950
CAGAYAN LITERATURES
Cagayan Valley,
Is designated as Region II, it is an administrative region in the Philippines, located in the
northeastern section of Luzon Island. It is composed of five Philippine
provinces: Batanes, Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, and Quirino.
 

Languages and Dialects

 The Major dialects that are being used in this region are Ilocano, Ybanag, Ytawes and
Filipino. In Batanes, the people speak Ivatan.
 
Famous authors and their works

FERNANDO M. MARAMAG (1893-1936)

Fernando Maramag was born to wealthy landowners on January 21, 1893 in Ilagan in the
Philippines. His father was Rafael Maramag and his mother was Victoria Mamuri. He finished high
school in 1908 and at the age of 15, he entered Philippine Normal School. However, due to the
insistence of his father, he transferred to the University of the Philippines where he started to write
for a school organ
At age 21, he was named principal of the Instituto de Manila, a prestigious school for gifted and well-
off students. Later, he became an English professor at UP. He also taught at San Juan de Letran.
During this time, he met and married Constancia Ablaza, by whom he had six children. In 1917, he
became the editor of Rising Philippines, a daily read by almost every literate Filipino because of its
nationalistic contests. The Philippines Herald and the National Weekly also benefited from his
editorship.
With his credentials, he started to work in the government as chief of the publications division of the
Department of Justice.
Later, he became technical assistant to then Senate President Manuel Luis Quezon. Maramag
published countless poems which were devoured and admired by the reading public, like “My Queen
Tagala,” “The Atheist,” “A Christ Without a Cross,” “Jose Rizal,” and “The Presentation.
He wrote about the history of the English language in the Philippines. This enabled him to mine the
secrets of English poetics, especially its techniques. Leopoldo Y. Yabes, a noted literary historian,
included seven of Maramag’s works in his book of Filipino essays in English, which has become a
standard textbook in English in Philippine schools and universities. He died on October 23, 1936.

The Rural Maid

By Fernando M. Maramag

1.
Thy glance, sweet maid, when first we met,
Had left a heart that aches for thee,
I feel the pain of fond regret—
Thy heart, perchance, is not for me.

2.
We parted: though we met no more,
My dreams are dreams of thee, fair maid;
I think of thee, my thoughts implore
The hours my lips on thine are laid.

3.
Forgive these words that love impart,
And pleading, bare the poet’s breast;
And if a rose with thorns thou art,
Yet on my breast that rose may rest.

4.
I know not what to name thy charms,
Thou art half human, half divine;
And if I could hold thee in my arms,
I know both heaven and earth were mine.

EDITH L. TIEMPO (1919-2011)

EDITH L. TIEMPO Edith was born was born on April 22, 1919 in San Nicolas, Bayombong, Nueva
Vizcaya. Her parents are Salvador T. Lopez, an auditor for the government, and Teresa Cutaran.
During her childhood, Tiempo's family frequently had to move from one province to another because
of her father's different assignments and postings.
She went to high school in Bayombong, and then went to take pre-law at the University of the
Philippines. In 1947, she would graduate magna cum laude from Silliman University with a Bachelor
of Science degree in Education, majoring in English. Her graduate studies led her to the State
University of Iowa, from which she gained an international fellowship which lasted from 1947 to
1950. She also took part in the State University of Iowa's creative writing workshop which was
headed by veritable American poet Paul Engle. She received a scholarship grant from the notable
United Board of Christian Higher Education in Asia and attained a doctorate degree in English from
the University of Denver, Colorado in 1958.
Career
From 1964-1965, Tiempo was part of the faculty at Wartburg College, Iowa. She also taught at
Western Michigan University from 1965 to 1966, and at the Chinese University of Hong Kong and
Hong Kong Baptist College from 1978 to 1979. In 1978, she received the Elizabeth Luce Moore
Distinguished Asian Professor Award. She also held the L.T. Ruiz Professorial Chair in English from
1981 to 1989.
 Gifted in the use of the English language, Edith Tiempo is proclaimed as one of the Philippines'
foremost writers in English alongside other seminal writers like Jose Garcia Villa. Her poetry is hailed
for its witty and complex wordplay. This characteristic is most evident in two of her most famous
poems, “Bonsai” and “The Little Marmoset.” Literary scholars often refer to either of these poems in
their studies of Tiempo's work
Workshops
in 1962, Edith Tiempo and her husband, Edilberto K. Tiempo, started the Silliman National Writers
Workshop in Dumaguete City. Patterned after the State University of Iowa's Creative Writing
Workshop, the Silliman National Writers Workshop has churned out many of the country's finest
writers. Filipino literary scholars recognize the Tiempos as the forerunners of literary criticism and
theory in the Philippines
Bonsai
Edith Tiempo

All that I love

I fold over once
And once again
And keep in a box
Or a slit in a hollow post
Or in my shoe.

All that I love?

Why, yes, but for the moment-
And for all time, both.
Something that folds and keeps easy,
Son’s note or Dad’s one gaudy tie,
A roto picture of a queen,
A blue Indian shawl, even
A money bill.
It’s utter sublimation,
A feat, this heart’s control
Moment to moment
To scale all love down
To a cupped hand’s size

Till seashells are broken pieces

From God’s own bright teeth,
And life and love are real
Things you can run and
Breathless hand over
To the merest child.
 

FLORENTINO HORNEDO (1939- 2015)

 Born on October 16, 1938 in Batanes.
 He was born to Leon Hornedo and Bienvenida Hontomin.
 Hailing from Savidug, Sabtang, Batanes, Hornedo obtained his BSE from the University
of Santo Tomas in 1961. He received his Masters in English and Philosophy from St.
Louis University in 1966 and 1972 respectively and his Ph.D. in Literature from UST in
1977.
 
 He also completed a post doctorate in History and Political Science from UST completed
in 1985-88 and has trainings in Journalism and Cultural Anthropology.
 As a writer, Dr. Hornedo has authored 13 books in Philosophy, Education, Culture and
History. In addition, he has been editor of Ad Veritatem , a Journal of Research at the
UST Graduate School, and Ivatan Studies Journal , a Graduate School Research
Journal at the Saint Dominic College of Batanes.
 A recipient of Palanca Awards for literature in 1989. His winning essay is entitled,
“Discourse of Power in Florante at Laura”.
 Don Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature, National Catholic Authors Award,
Pilak Award for Service to Culture, the Arts and Community, of the Cultural Center of the
Philippines, Annual Book Awards of Ateneo de Manila University, Batanes Provincial
Achievement Recognition for Cultural and Social Research, Recognition Award for Social
Research, from the UST College of Education Alumni Association, and Most Outstanding
Thomasian Alumni Awardee in the Arts & Humanities 2006.
 
Literary Works of Florentino Hornedo
 
The Visitors and the Native of the Jeepney and the Tricycle
 Reflection üexpressed the idea of “Filipinicity”, where it addressed the idea of the social
implications behind the phrase, “Today’s native was yesterday’s visitor.”
The Visitors and the Native of the Jeepney and the Tricycle ü“To Build a People’s Culture” ü“Art
out of Crisis”, focused on the social issue of the possibilities within the domains for traditional
and contemporary Filipino popular art forms that are in grave jeopardy of decreasing its
economic and social appeal. ü
  
He was a prolific writer, researcher and author of journal articles, monographs and
books such as “Laji: An Ivatan Folk Lyric Tradition” (1979), “Pagmamahal and
Pagmumura Essays” (1997), “Culture and Community in the Philippine Fiesta and
Other Celebrations” (2000), “Taming the Wind: Ethno-Cultural History on the Ivatan
of the Batanes Isles” (2000), “The Glitter of Gold in Batanes Cultural Heritage” (2000),
“The Favor of the Gods: Essays in Filipino Religious Thought and Behavior” (2001),
“Ideas and Ideals: Essays in Filipino Cognitive History” (2001), “Pagpapakatao and
Other Essays in Contemporary Philosophy and Literature of Ideas” (2001) and “Epics
and Ballads of Lam-ang’s Land and People (Bago-o Traditional Literature of the
Bakun and Amburayan River Valleys)” (2006).

 
Hornedo had pointed out, “Today’s native was yesterday’s visitor”. With the events of history
now behind us, it has left many marks of political and social influences which have shaped the
current situation in the Philippines.

ELEMENTS OF POETRY
BASIC ELEMENTS OF POETRY
 
WHAT IS POETRY?
 Poetry can be defined as 'literature in a metrical form' or 'a composition forming
rhythmic lines'.
 a poem is something that follows a particular flow of rhythm and meter.
 Compared to prose, where there is no such restriction, and the content of the piece
flows according to story, a poem may or may not have a story, but definitely has a
structured method of writing.
ELEMENTS OF POETRY
Rhythm: This is the music made by the statements of the poem, which includes the
syllables in the lines. The best method of understanding this is to read the poem aloud,
and understand the stressed and unstressed syllables.
Meter: This is the basic structural make-up of the poem. Do the syllables match with
each other? Every line in the poem must adhere to this structure. A poem is made up of
blocks of lines, which convey a single strand of thought. Within those blocks, a structure
of syllables which follow the rhythm has to be included. This is the meter or the metrical
form of poetry.
Stanza: Stanza in poetry is defined as a smaller unit or group of lines or a paragraph in
a poem. A particular stanza has a specific meter, rhyme scheme, etc. Based on the
number of lines, stanzas are named as couplet (2 lines), Tercet (3 lines), Quatrain (4
lines), Cinquain (5 lines), Sestet (6 lines), Septet (7 lines), Octave (8 lines).
Rhyme: A poem may or may not have a rhyme. When you write poetry that has rhyme,
it means that the last words or sounds of the lines match with each other in some form.
Rhyme is basically similar sounding words like 'cat' and 'hat', 'close' and 'shows', 'house'
and 'mouse', etc. Free verse poetry, though, does not follow this system.
Rhyme Scheme: As a continuation of rhyme, the rhyme scheme is also one of the basic
elements of poetry. In simple words, it is defined as the pattern of rhyme. Either the last
words of the first and second lines rhyme with each other, or the first and the third,
second and the fourth and so on. It is denoted by alphabets like aabb (1st line rhyming
with 2nd, 3rd with 4th); abab (1st with 3rd, 2nd with 4th); abba (1st with 4th, 2nd with
3rd), etc.
Theme: This is what the poem is all about. The theme of the poem is the central idea
that the poet wants to convey. It can be a story, or a thought, or a description of
something or someone; anything that the poem is about.
Symbolism: Often poems will convey ideas and thoughts using symbols. A symbol can
stand for many things at one time and leads the reader out of a systematic and
structured method of looking at things. Often a symbol used in the poem will be used to
create such an effect.
Imagery: Imagery is also one of the important elements of a poem. This device is used
by the poet for readers to create an image in their imagination. Imagery appeals to all
the five senses. For e.g., when the poet describes, 'the flower is bright red', an image of
a red flower is immediately created in the reader's mind.

Foot and Meter

Poetic Feet
There are two parts to the term iambic pentameter. The first part refers to the type
of poetic foot being used predominantly in the line. A poetic foot is a basic repeated
sequence of meter composed of two or more accented or unaccented syllables. In the
case of an iambic foot, the sequence is "unaccented, accented". There are other types
of poetic feet commonly found in English language poetry.
The primary feet are referred to using these terms (an example word from Fussell's
examples is given next to them):
 Iambic: destroy (unaccented/accented)
 Anapestic: intervene (unaccented/unaccented/accented)
 Trochaic: topsy (accented/unaccented)
 Dactylic: merrily (accented/unaccented/unaccented)
The substitutive feet (feet not used as primary, instead used to supplement and vary a
primary foot) are referred to using these terms:
  Spondaic: hum drum (accented/accented)
 Pyrrhic: the sea/ son of/ mists (the "son of" in the middle being
unaccented/unaccented)
The second part of defining iambic pentameter has to do with line length.
Line Length
The poetic foot then shows the placement of accented and unaccented syllables. But
the second part of the term, pentameter, shows the number of feet per line. In the case
of pentameter, there are basically five feet per line.
The types of line lengths are as follows:
 One foot: Monometer
 Two feet: Dimeter
 Three feet: Trimeter
 Four feet: Tetrameter
 Five feet: Pentameter
 Six feet: Hexameter
 Seven feet: Heptameter
 Eight feet: Octameter
Rarely is a line of a poem longer than eight feet seen in English language poetry (the
poet C.K. Williams is an exception).
Line length and poetic feet are most easily seen in more formal verse. The example
above from D.G. Rossetti is pretty obviously iambic pentameter. And Rossetti uses
an accentual-syllabic meter to flesh out his poem with quite a bit of success. What most
free verse poets find more useful than this strict form is accentual meter, where the
accents only are counted in the line (although when scanned, the syllables are still
marked off...it is just that their number is not of as much import.)
Take this free-verse example from James Merrill: