SOUTH EAST ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, INC.

National Highway, Crossing Rubber, Tupi, South Cotabato

GENERAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

___________________________________________________

LEARNING MODULE
FOR
GE 111: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
_____________________________________________________

WEEK 1
September 2020

GE 111: Understanding the Self

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 COURSE OUTLINE

COURSE CODE : GE 111

TITLE : Understanding the Self
TARGET POPULATION : All students
INSTRUCTOR : MS. JOMILYN MAE V. JALAPAN
MS. JOAN D. COLONIA

Overview:

Introduction and concern issues of self and identity for a better and proper way of
understanding one’s self. Integration of personal daily experiences of the students with their
learning experiences inside the classroom to encourage them to improve themselves for a
better quality of life.

Enables to understand the construct of the self from various disciplinal perspectives:
philosophy, sociology, anthropology, and psychology including the more traditional division
between East and the West. It deals also with some of the various aspects that make up
the self like the biological self, the material self, the spiritual self, the political self, and the
digital self. Provides a discussion on some issues or concern for young students these
days, which are learning, goal setting, and stress. The new skills for practical application of
the concepts learned that aim to help them become better and significant individuals of our
society.

General Objective:

To help the students understand the nature of identity including factors that
influence and shape identity.

The following are the topics to be discussed

Week 1 THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PHILOSOPHICAL

PERSPECTIVES
Week 2 THE SELF, SOCIETY AND CULTURE
Week 3 THE SELF AS COGNITIVE CONSTRUCT
Week 4 THE SELF IN EASTERN AND WESTERN THOUGHTS
Week 5 THE PHYSICAL AND SEXUAL CONSTRUCT

Instruction to the Learners

Each chapter in this module contains a major lesson involving the Disciplinal
Perspectives, Aspects of Self, Physical and Sexual self, and Learning to be a Better
Learner.The lesson are characterized by continuity, and are arranged in such a manner that
the present unit is related to the next unit. For this reason, you are advised to read this
module. After each unit, there are exercises to be given. Submission of task will be given
during your scheduled class hour.

GETTING STARTED:

Do You Truly Know Yourself? Do you want to know about self?

Then this Understanding the Self Module is for you!

Answer the following questions about yourself as fully and precisely as you can.

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 1. How would you characterize yourself?

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2. What makes you stand out from the rest? What makes yourself special?

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3. How has yourself transformed itself?

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4. How is yourself connected to your body?

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5. How is yourself related to other selves?

_________________________________________________________________

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6. What will happen to yourself after you die?

__________________________________________________________________

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 WEEK 1
Introduction

Before we even had to be in any formal institution of learning, among the many things
that we were first taught as kids is to articulate and write our names. Growing up, we were
told to refer back to this name when talking about ourselves. A name is not the person itself
no matter how intimately bound it is with the bearer. It is only signifier. A person who named
after a saint most probably thought to be something else than the name. The self is
something that a person perennially molds, shapes, and develops. The self is not a static
thing that one is simply born with like a mole on one’s face or is just assigned by one’s
parents just like a name. Everyone is tasked to discover one’s self. Have you truly
discovered yours?

Abstraction
The history of philosophy is replete with men and women who inquired into the
fundamental nature of the self. Along with the question of the primary substratum that
defines the multiplicity of things in the world, the inquiry on the self has preoccupied the
earliest thinkers in the history of philosophy: the Greeks. The Greeks were the ones who
seriously questioned myths and moved away from them in attempting to understand reality
and respond to perennial questions of curiosity, including the question of the self. The
different perspectives and views on the self can be best seen and understood by revisiting
its prime movers and identity the most important conjectures made by philosophers from
the ancient times to the contemporary period.

Socrates and Plato

Prior the Socrates, the Greek thinkers, sometimes collectively called the Pre-Socratics
to denote that some of them preceded Socrates while others existed around Socrate’s time
as well, preoccupied themselves with the question of the primary substratum, arché that
explains the multiplicity of things in the world.
For Socrates, everyman is composed of body and soul. This means that every human
person is dualistic, that is, he is composed of two important aspects of his personhood. For
Socrates, this means all individuals have an imperfect, impermanent aspect to him, and the
body, whiles maintaining that there is also a soul that is perfect and permanent,
Plato, Socrates’s students, basically took off from his master and supported the idea
that man is a dual nature of body and soul, In addition to what Socrates earlier espoused,
Plato added that there are three components of the soul;
1. Rational Soul- forged by reason and intellect has to govern the affairs of the human

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person.
2. Spirited Soul- this part is in charge of emotions should be kept at bay
3. Appetitive Soul- It is in charge of the base desires like eating, drinking, sleeping and
having sex are controlled as well.
Augustine and Thomas Aquinas
Augustine’s view of the human person reflects the entire spirit of the medieval world
when it comes to man. Following the ancient view of Plato and infusing it with the newfound
doctrine of Christianity, Augustine agreed that man is of a bifurcated nature. An aspect of
man dwells in the world and is imperfect and continuously yearns to be with the Divine and
the other is capable of reaching immortality. The body is bound to die on earth and soul is
to anticipate living eternally in a realm of spiritual bliss in communion with God.
Thomas Aquinas, the most eminent thirteenth century scholar and stalwart of medieval
philosophy, appended something to this Christian view. Adapting some ideas from Aristotle,
Aquinas said that indeed, man is composed of two parts:
1. Matter- “hyle” in Greek, which refers to the common stuff that makes up everything in
the universe. Man’s body is part of this matter.
2. Form- “morphe” in Greek, refers to the essence of a substance or thing. It is what
makes it what it is.

Descartes
Rene Descartes, Father of Modern Philosophy, conceived of the human person as
having a body and a mind. In his famous treatise, The Meditations of First Philosophy, he
claims that there is so much that we should doubt.
Descartes thought that the only thing that one cannot doubt is the existence of the self.
The self then for Descartes is also a combination of two distinct entities, the cogito, the
thing that thinks, which is the mind, and the extenza or extension of the mind, which is the
body. In Descartes’s view, the body is nothing else but a machine that is attached to the
mind.

Hume
David Hume, a Scottish philosopher, has a very unique way of looking at man. As an
empiricist who believes that one can know what comes from the senses and experiences.
Hume argues that the self is nothing like what his predecessors thought of it.
To David Hume, the self is nothing else but a bundle of impressions. What are
impressions? For David Hume, if one tries to examine his experiences, he finds that they
can all be categorized into two: Impressions and Ideas.
Impressions are the basic objects of our experience or sensation. When one touches
an ice cube, the cold sensation is an impression. Impressions therefore are vivid because
they are products of our direct experience with the world. Ideas, on the other hand, are

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copies of impressions. Because of this, they are not as lively and vivid as our impressions.
When one imagines the feeling of being in love for the first time, that still is an idea.
Kant
Thinking of the “self” as a mere combination of impressions was problematic for
Immanuel Kant. Kant recognizes the veracity of Hume’s account that everything starts with
perception and sensation of impressions. However, Kant thinks that the things that men
perceive around them are not just randomly infused into the human person without an
organizing principle that regulates the relationship of all these impressions. To Kant, there
is necessarily a mind that organizes the impressions that men get from the external world.
Tome and Space, for example, are ideas that one cannot find in the world but is built in our
minds. Kant call these the apparatuses of the mind.

Ryle
Gilbert Ryle solves the mind-body dichotomy that has been running for a long time in
the history of thought by blatantly denying the concept of an internal, non-physical self. For
Ryle, what truly matters is the behavior that a person manifests in his day-to-day life. Ryle
suggest that the “self” is not an entity one can locate and analyze but simply the convenient
name that people use to refer to all the behaviors that people make.

Merleau-Ponty
Merleau-Ponty is a phenomenologist who asserts that the mind-body bifurcation that
has been going on for a long time is a futile endeavor and an invalid problem. Unlike Ryle
who simply denies the “self”, Merleau-Ponty instead says that the mind and body are so
intertwined that they cannot be separated from one another .One cannot find any
experience that is not an embodied experience. All experience is embodied.

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 ACTIVITY #1
(To be submitted on next week)

Discussion Points and Exercise Questions

Direction: In your own words, state what “self” is for each of the following Philosophers.
After doing so, explain how your concept of “self” is compatible with how they conceived of
the self. Answers must be composed of five sentences. Use the criteria below as your
guide. Write your answers on a one whole sheet of paper.

1. Socrates
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2. Plato
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3. Augustine
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4. Descartes
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________________________________________________________________________

5. Hume
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6. Kant
________________________________________________________________________

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________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

7. Ryle
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

8. Merleau- Ponty
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

Criteria: Points
Content 20
Organization 10
Grammar 10
Language 10
Total 50

ACTIVITY #2
(To be submitted on next week)

Discussion Points and Exercise Questions

Words That Describe Me

Direction: Circle the words that describes you. Add additional words.

Adaptive Self- Aware Tolerant Dependable

Clever

Fearless Compassionate Hard Worker Capable with Hands

Quiet

Calm Humble Energetic Eccentric

Realistic

Creative Confidant Thoughtful Complex

Cautious Balanced Cooperative Shy

Attentive Picky Respectful Intelligent

Other words that describes you: __________________________________

End of first week

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 ---------------------------------------------Nothing Follows--------------------------------------

SOUTH EAST ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, INC.

National Highway, Crossing Rubber, Tupi, South Cotabato
GENERAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
___________________________________________________

LEARNING MODULE
`
GE 111: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

_____________________________________________________

WEEK 2
September 2020

GE 111: Understanding the Self

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 WEEK 2

THE SELF, SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Introduction

Across time the history, the self has been debated, discussed, and fruitfully or
otherwise conceptualized by different thinkers in philosophy. Time pass by, people put a
halt on speculative debates on the relationship between the “Body and the Soul of
Socrates” and renamed “Body and Mind of Rene Descartes.”
Thinkers got tired of focusing on long-standing debate since sixth century BC between
these two components of the human person. The debate shifted to another discussion
given the news, one of loci, if not the most important axis of analysis is the relationship
between the self and the external world.

What is the relationship between external Reality and Self?

Human person will not develop as human persons without intervention. Our selves are
not special because of the soul in fused into us. We may be gifted with in intellect and the
capacity to rationalize things but in the end of the day, our growth and development and
consequentially, we are truly products of our interaction with external reality.

What is the Self?

The self, in contemporary literature and even common sense, is commonly defined by
the following characteristics: “separate, self-contained, independent, consistent, unitary and
private” (Stevens 1996).
1. Separate- it meant that the self is distinct from other selves. The self is always unique
and has its own identity. One cannot be other person.
2. Self-contained and independent - It distinctness allows it to be self- contained with its
own thoughts, characteristics, tendencies, potentialities.
3. Consistent- having personality that is enduring. Consistency means that a particular
self-trait, characteristics, tendencies, and potentialities are more or less the same.
4. Unitary – it is the center of all experiences and thoughts that run a certain person.
5. Private- isolated from the external world, it lives within its own world. A person sorts out
information, feelings and emotion and thought processes with the self.

The self and external reality is the reason for the self to have a clear understanding of
what might be, what it can be, and what it will be. This perspectives is known as the social
constructionist perspective. “social constructionist argue for a merged view of the person”
and context” where the boundaries of one cannot easily be separated from the boundaries
of the other” (Stever 1996).

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 Social constructivists argue that the self should not be seen as a static entity that stays
constant through and through. Rather, the self has to be seen as something that is in
unceasing flux, in a constant struggle with external reality and is malleable in its dealings
with society.
“Consider a boy named Jon. Jon is a math professor at a Catholic university for more
than a decade now. Jon has a beautiful wife whom he met in college, Joan. Joan was Jon’s
first and last girlfriend, Apart from being a husband, Jon is also blessed with two doting
kids, a son and a daughter. He also sometimes serves in the church too as a lector and a
commentator.

The self and the Culture

Remaining the same person and turning chameleon by adapting to one’s context
seems paradoxical. However, the French anthropologist Marcel Mauss has an explanation
for this phenomenon. According to MAuss, every self has two faces: personne and moi. 1.
Moi refers to a person’s sense of who he is, his body, and his basic identity, his biological
givenness. Moi is a person’s basic identity. 2. Personne, on the other hand, is composed of
the social concepts of what it means to be who he is. Personne has much to do with what it
means to live in a particular institution, a particular family, a particular religion, a particular
nationality, and how to behave given expectations and influences from others.
Example:
- Cross- culturally
- Language

The Self and the Development of the Social World

So how do people actively produce their social worlds? How do children growing up
become social beings? How can a boy turn out just be like an ape? How do twins coming
out from the same mother turn out terribly different when given up for adoption? More than
his givenness (personality, tendencies, and propensities, among others), one is believed to
be in active participation in the shaping of the self.
Recent studies, however, indicate that men and women in their growth and
development engage actively in the shaping of the self. The unending terrain of
metamorphosis of the self is mediated by language. “Language as both a publicly shared
and privately utilized symbol system is the site where the individual and the social make
and remake each other” (Schwartz, White, and Lutz 1993).

Mead and Vygotsky

For Mead and Vygotsky, the way that human persons develop is with the use of
language acquisition and interaction with others. The way that we process information is

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normally a form of an internal dialogue in our head. Those who deliberate about moral
dilemmas undergo this internal dialog. “Should I do this or that?” “But if I do this, it will be
like this.” “Don’t I want the other option?” And so cognitive and emotional development of a
child is always a mimicry of how it is done in the social world, in the external reality where
he is in.
Both Vygotsky and Mead treat the human mind as something that is made, constituted
through language as experienced in the external world and as practices, and social beliefs
and more through exposure to these dialogs that will eventually become part of his
individual world.
For Mead, this takes place as a child assumes the “other through language and role-
play. A child conceptualizes his notion of “self” through this.
Vygotsky, for his part, a child internalizes real- life dialogs that he has had with others, with
his family, his primary caregiver, or his playmates. They apply this to their mental and
practical problems along with the social and cultural infusions brought about by the said
dialogs.

Self in Families
Apart from the anthropological and psychological basis for the relationship between the
self and the social world, the sociological likewise struggled to understand the real
connection between the two concepts. While every child is born with certain givenness,
disposition coming from his parents genes and general condition of life, the impact of one’s
family is still deemed as a given in understanding the self. The kind of family that we are
born in, resources available to us (human, spiritual, economic), and the kind of
development that we will have will certainly affect us as we go through life.
As a matter of evolutionary fact, human persons are one of those beings whose
importance of family cannot be denied. Human beings are born virtually helpless and the
dependency period of a human baby to its parents for nurturing is relatively longer than
most other animals. Learning therefore is critical in our capacity to actualize our potential of
becoming humans. In trying to achieve the goal of becoming a fully realized human, a child
enters a system of relationships, most important of which is the family.

Gender and the Self

Another important aspect of the self is gender. Gender is one of those loci of the self
that is subject to alteration, change, and development. We have seen in the past years how
people fought hard for the right to express, validate, and assert their gender expression.
Many conservatives may frown upon this and insist on the biological. However, from the
point-of-view of the social sciences and the self, it is important to give one the leeway to
find, express, and live his identity.
Sonia Tolstoy, the wife of the famous Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy, wrote when she was

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twenty-one, “I am nothing but a miserable crushed worm, whom no one wants, whom no
one loves, a useless creature with morning sickness, and a big belly, two rotten teeth, and
a bad temper, a battered sense of dignity, and a love which nobody wants and which nearly
drives me insane.” A few years later she wrote, “It makes me laugh to read over this diary.
It’s so full of contradictions, and one would think that I was such an unhappy woman. Yet is
there a happier woman that I?” (Tolstoy 1975)
Nancy Chodorow, a feminist, argues that because mothers take the role of taking care
of children, there is tendency for girls to initiate the same and reproduce the same kind of
mentality of women as care providers in the family.
The gendered self is then shaped within a particular context of time and space. The
sense of self that is being taught makes sure that an individual fits in a particular
environment. This is dangerous and detrimental in the goal of truly finding one’s self, self-
determination, and growth of the self. Gender has to be personally discovered and asserted
and not dictated by culture and the society.

ACTIVITY #1
(To be submitted on next week)

Discussion Points and Exercise Questions

My Self through the Years

Direction: Paste a picture of you when you were in elementary, in high school, and now
that you are in college. Below the picture, list down your salient characteristics that you
remember.

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 My Elementary Self My High School Self

My College Self

ACTIVITY #2
(To be submitted on next week)

Discussion Points and Exercise Questions

Direction: Answer the following questions cogently but honestly. Write your answers in the
space provided. Answers must be composed of five sentences. Use the rubric below as
your guide.

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1. How would you describe yourself?

2. What are the influences of family in your development as an individual?

3. Think of a time when you felt you were your “true self”. What made you think you were
truly who you are during this time of your life?

4. Following the question above, can you provide a time when you felt you were not living
your “true self”? Why did you have to live a life like that? What did you do it?

5. What social pressures help shape yourself? Would you have wanted it otherwise?

Level Description Value

Outstanding Well written and very organized. Excellent grammar 10
mechanics. Demonstrate a thorough understanding of the
topic.
Good Writes fairly clear. Good grammar mechanics. Good 8

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 presentation and organization. Sufficient effort and detail.
Fair Minimal effort and good grammar mechanics. Few 6
presentation and few supporting details.
Poor Somewhat unclear and shows little effort. Poor grammar 4
mechanics, confusing and incomplete sentences. No
organization of thoughts.
Very Poor Lacking effort and very poor grammar mechanics. Very unclear 2
and does not address the topic.

End of second week

---------------------------------------------Nothing Follows--------------------------------------

SOUTH EAST ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, INC.

National Highway, Crossing Rubber, Tupi, South Cotabato

GENERAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

___________________________________________________

LEARNING MODULE
FOR
GE 111: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
_____________________________________________________

GE 111: Understanding the Self

SOUTH EAST ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, INC.
Page 16 of 34
 WEEK 3
September 2020

WEEK 3
THE SELF AS COGNITIVE CONSTRUCT

Introduction
As discussed in the previous lesson, every field of study, at least in the social sciences,
have their own research, definition, and conceptualization of self and identity. Some are
similar while some specific only in their field. Each field also has thousands of research on
self and identity as well as related or synonymous terms. The trend lessons also seems to
define the concept of the “self” from a larger context (i.e., culture and society) down to the
individual.

Abstraction
In confidence or in an attempt to avoid further analytical discussions, a lot of people
say, “I am who I am.” Yet, this statement still begs the question “if you are who you are,
then who are you that makes you who you are?”
As mentioned earlier, there are various definitions of the “self” and other similar or
interchangeable concepts in psychology. Simply put, “self” is the sense of personal identity
and of who we are as individuals (Jhangiani and Tarry, 2014.)

William James (1890) was one of the earliest psychologists to study the self and
conceptualized the self as having two aspects --- the “I” and the “me”. The “I” is the
thinking, acting, and feeling self (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg, 2011; Hogg and
Vaughan,2010). The “me” on the other hand, is the physical characteristics as well as

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psychological capabilities that makes who you are (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg 2011;
Hogg and Vaughan, 2010). Carl Roger’s (1959) theory of personality also used the same
terms, the “I” as the one who acts and decides while the “me” is what you think or feel
about yourself as an object (Gleitman, Gross, and Reisberg,2011).

Other concepts similar to self are identity and self-concept. Identity is composed of
personal characteristics, social roles, and responsibilities, as well as affiliations that define
who one is (Oyserman, Elmore, and Smith, 2012). Self-concept is what basically comes to
your mind when you are asked about who you are (Oyserman, Elmore, and Smith, 2012).

Theories generally see the self and identity as mental constructs, created and
recreated in memory (Oyseman, Elmore, and Smith, 2012). Current researches point to the
frontal lobe of the brain as the specific area in the brain associated with the processes
concerning the self (Oyserman, Elmore, and Smith, 2012).

Several psychologists, especially during the fields earlier development, followed this
trend of thought, looking deeper into the mind of the person to theorize about the self,
identity, self-concept, and in turn, one’s personality. The most influential of them is Sigmund
Frued. Basically, Frued saw the self, its mental processes, and one’s behavior as the
results of the interaction between the Id, the Ego, and the Superego.
Under the theory of symbolic interactionism, G.H. Mead (1934) argued that the self is
created and developed through human interaction (Hogg and Vaughan 2010). Basically,
there are three reasons why self and identity are social products (Oyserman, Elmore, and
Smith, 2012).

1. We do not create ourselves out of nothing.

2. Whether we like to admit it or not, we actually need others to affirm and reinforce who we
think we are.
3. What we think is important to us may also have been influenced by what is important in
our social or historical context.
Social interaction and group affiliation, therefore are vital factors in creating our self-
concept especially in the aspect of providing us with our social identity or our perception of
who we are based on our membership to certain groups (Jhangiani and Tarry, 2014).

There are times, however, when we are aware of our self-concepts; this is also called
self-awareness. Carver and Scheier (1981) identified two types of self that we can be
aware of: (1) the private self or your internal standards and private thoughts and feelings,
and (2) the public self or your public image commonly geared toward having a good
presentation of yourself to others (Hogg and Vaughan 2010).

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 Self-awareness also presents us with at least three other self-schema: the actual, ideal,
and ought self. The “actual self” is who you are at the moment, the “ideal self” is who you
like to be, and the “ought self” is who you think you should be (Higgins 1997 in Hogg and
Vaughan, 2010).

Self-awareness may be positive or negative depending on the circumstances and our

next course of action. Self-awareness can keep you from doing something dangerous; it
can help remind you that there is an exam tomorrow is one of your subjects when you are
about to spend time playing computer games with your cousins, among others.

Our group identity and self-awareness also has a great impact on our self-esteem, one
of the common concepts associated with the “self”. It is defined as our own positive or
negative perception or evaluation of ourselves (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014; Gleitman, Gross,
and Reisberg, 2011).

One of the ways in which our social relationship affects our self-esteem is through
social comparison. According to the Social Comparison Theory, we learn about ourselves,
the appropriateness of our behaviors, as well as our social status by comparing aspects of
ourselves with other people (Jhangiani and Tarry 2014; Hogg and Vaughan, 2010).

The downward social comparison is the more common type of comparing ourselves
with others. As the name implies, we create a positive self- concept by comparing
ourselves with those who are worse off than us (Jhangiani and Tarry, 2014). By having the
advantage, we can raise our self- esteem. Another comparison is the upward social
comparison which is comparing ourselves with those who are better off than us (Jhangiani
and Tarry, 2014). While it can be a form of motivation for some, a lot of those who do this
actually felt lower self-esteem as they highlight more of their weakness or inequities.

Social comparison also entails what is called self-evaluation maintenance theory, which
states that we can feel threatened when someone out performs us, especially when that
person is close to us (i.e., a friend or family) (Tesser 1988 in Jhangiani and Tarry, 2014). In
this case, we usually react in three ways.
1. First, we distance ourselves from that person or redefine our relationship with them
(Jhangiani and Tarry, 2014).
2. Second, we may also reconsider the importance of the aspect or skill in which you were
outperformed (Jhangiani and Tarry, 2014).
3. Lastly, we may also strengthen our resolve to improve that certain aspect of ourselves

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(Jhangiani and Tarry, 2014).

However, in the attempt to increase or maintain self- esteem, some people become
narcissistic. Narcissism is a “trait characterized by overly high self-esteem, self-admiration,
and self-centeredness” (Jhangiani and Tarry, 2014)
This duality in the behavior and attitudes only proves the above-mentioned correlation.
Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) in their research on self-esteem concluded that
programs, activities, and parenting styles to boost self- esteem should only be for
rewarding good behavior and other achievements and not for the purpose of merely trying
to make children feel better about themselves or to appease them when they get angry or
sad (Jhangiani and Tarry, 2014).

ACTIVITY #1
(To be submitted on next week)

Discussion Points and Exercise Questions

Direction: Do a research and list ten (10) things to boost your self-esteem or improve your
self-concept. Cite your sources. Analyze which of those tips are more likely to backfire and
make someone conceited or narcissistic and revise them to make the statements both
helpful to the as well society in general.

ACTIVITY #2
(To be submitted on next week)

Discussion Points and Exercise Questions

Direction: Imagine an organized list or a diagram similar to the one below, and make your
own self-schema.

Hobbies

Family
SELF Religion

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 Nationality

Criteria Points
Organization 15
Relevance 10
Content 5
Total 30

End of third week

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National Highway, Crossing Rubber, Tupi, South Cotabato

GENERAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

___________________________________________________

LEARNING MODULE
FOR
GE 111: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
_____________________________________________________

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 WEEK 4
September 2020

WEEK 4
THE SELF IN EASTERN AND WESTERN THOUGHTS
Introduction
Different cultures and varying environment tend to create different perceptions of the
“self” and one of the most common distinctions between cultures and people is the Eastern-
vs-Western dichotomy wherein Eastern represents Asia and Western represents Europe
and Northern America.

Abstraction
There are actually a lot of sources in which you can analyze the perspective of each
culture and country about the concept of “self”. You can see it in their literature like how one
culture depicts a hero or a villain in their stories. You can see it in their social organization
like how they see their boss or their subordinate. Artworks, dances, even clothing may
show you clues about the “self”.

In this lesson, we will look at religious beliefs and political philosophies that greatly
influenced the mindset of each nation or culture. Since almost all the theories about the
self, which were discussed in the previous lessons, also came from the western scientific
research, we will highlight the eastern thoughts in this lesson.

First is Confucianism. Confucianism can be seen as a code of ethical conduct, of how

one should properly act according to their relationship with other people; thus, it is also
focused on having a harmonious social life (Ho, 1995). Therefore, the identity and self-
concept of the individual are interwoven with the identity and status of his/her community or
culture, sharing its pride as well as its failures (Ho, 1995).

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 Self-cultivation is seen as the ultimate purpose of life but the characteristics of a chun-
tzu, a man of virtue or noble character, is still embedded in his social relationships (Ho,
1995). The cultivated self in Confucianism is what some scholars call a “subdued self”
wherein personal needs are repressed (subdued) for the good of many, making Confucian
society also hierarchal for the purpose of maintaining order and balance in society (Ho,
1995).

The second philosophy is Taoism. Taoism is living in the way of the Tao or the universe.
However, Taoism rejects having one definition of what the Tao is, and one can only state
clues of what it is as they adopt a free-flowing, relative, unitary, and strictness brought by
Confucianism and would prefer a simple lifestyle and its teachings thus aim to describe
how to attain that life (Ho, 1995).

The self is not just an extension of the family or the community; it is part of the
universe, one of the forms and manifestations of the Tao (Ho, 1995). The ideal self is
selflessness but this is not forgetting about the self, it is living balanced-life with society and
nature, being open and accepting to change, forgetting about prejudices and egocentric
ideas and thinking about equality as well as complementary among humans as well as
other beings (Ho, 1995). In this way, you will be able to act spontaneously because you will
not be restricted by some legalistic standards but because you are in harmony with
everything.

The third belief is Buddhism. There are various groups who have adopted Buddhism;
thus, you may find differences in their teachings with our discussion but more likely, their
core concepts remained the same. The self is seen as an illusion born out of ignorance, of
trying to hold and control things, or human centered needs; thus, the self is also the source
of all these sufferings (Ho, 1995). It is, therefore, our quest to forget about the self, forget
the cravings of the self, break the attachments you have with the world, and to renounce
the self which is the cause of all suffering and in doing so, attain the state of Nirvana (Ho,
1995).

The self or the individual is not the focus of the abovementioned Asian or Eastern
philosophies or beliefs. Even with extended discussions about how the self should work,
Confucianism and Taoism still situate the self within a bigger context. In striving to become
a better person, one does not create a self above other people or nature but a self that is
beneficial to his community as well as in order and harmony with everything else. As for
Buddhism, the self, with all its connections and selfish ideas, is taken not just out of the
center of the picture, but from the whole picture entirely.

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 One can also describe that the Western thought look at the world in dualities wherein
you are distinct from the other person, the creator is separate from the object he created, in
which the self is distinguished and acknowledged (Wolter, 2012). On the other hand,
Eastern perspective sees the other person as part of yourself as well as the things you may
create, a drama in which everyone is interconnected with their specific roles (Wolter, 2012).

The Western culture is what we would call an individualistic culture since their focus is
on the person. Asian culture, on the other hand, is called a collectivistic culture as the group
and social relations that is given more importance than the individual needs and wants.

By valuing the individual, Westerners may seem to have loose associations or even
loyalty to their groups. Competition is the name of the game and they are more likely
straightforward and forceful in their communication as well as decision-making. Eastern or
oriental persons look after the welfare of their groups and values cooperation. They would
also be more compromising and they tend to go around the bus in explaining things, hoping
that the other person would “feel” what they really want to say (Qingxue, 2003).

Westerners also emphasize more on the value of equality even if they see that the
individual can rise above everything else. Because everyone is on their own in the
competition, one can say that they also promote ideals that create “fair” competition and
protect the individual. Asians, with their collectivistic culture, put more emphasis on
hierarchy as the culture wants to keep things in harmony and order (Qingxue 2003).

It must be emphasized, however that these are general commonalities among Western
cultures as compared to Asian or Oriental cultures. In the case of the Philippines, we can
also consider the colonization experience for differences and similarities with our Asian
neighbors. We might also find variation among provinces and regions due to geographical
conditions.

With the social media, migration, and intermarriages, variety between the Western and
Asian perceptions may either be blurred or highlighted. Whereas conflict is inevitable in
diversity, peace is also possible through understanding of where each of us is coming from.

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 ACTIVITY #1
(To be submitted on next week)

Discussion Points and Exercise Questions

Direction: Create a representation, diagram, or concept map of the SELF according to

Filipino culture. Provide a brief explanation of your output. You can also cite books and
researches about Filipino culture, self, and identity to further elaborate on the topic.

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 ACTIVITY #2
(To be submitted on next week)

Discussion Points and Exercise Questions

Direction: Write top five (5) differences between Western and Eastern society, culture, and
individuals in the table below.

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 Two Sides of the Same Planet

Western Eastern

End of 4th week

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 SOUTH EAST ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, INC.
National Highway, Crossing Rubber, Tupi, South Cotabato

GENERAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

___________________________________________________

LEARNING MODULE
FOR
GE 111: UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
_____________________________________________________

WEEK 5
September 2020

WEEK 5
Introduction
It has been believed that the sex chromosomes of humans define the sex (female or
male) and their secondary sexual characteristics. From childhood, we are controlled by our
genetic makeup. It influences the way we treat ourselves and others. However, there are
individuals who do not accept their innate sexual characteristics and they tend to change

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their sexual organs through medications and surgery. Aside from our genes, our society or
the external environment helps shape our selves.

Abstraction
Marieb, E.N. (2001) explains that the gonads (reproductive glands that produce the
gametes; testis or ovary) begin to form until about the eight week of embryonic
development. During the early stages of human development, the embryonic reproductive
structures of males and females are alike and are said to be in the indifferent stage. When
the primary reproductive structures are formed, development of the accessory structures
and external genitalia begins. The formation of male or female structures depends on the
presence of testosterone.
Any intervention with the normal pattern of sex hormone production in the embryo
results in strange abnormalities. For instance, a genetic male develops the female
accessory structures and external genitalia if the embryonic testes fail to produce
testosterone. On the other hand, if a genetic female is exposed to testosterone (as in the
case of a mother with androgen-producing tumor of her adrenal gland), the embryo has
ovaries but may develop male accessory ducts and glands, as well as a male reproductive
organ and an empty scrotum. As a result, pseudohermaphrodites are formed who
individuals are having accessory reproductive structures that do not “match” their gonads
while true hermaphrodites are individuals who possess both ovarian and testicular tissues
but this condition is rare in nature.
A critical event for the development of reproductive organs takes place about one
month before birth wherein the male testes formed in the abdominal cavity at approximately
the same location as the female ovaries, descend to enter the scrotum. If this normal event
fails, it may lead to cryptorchidism. This condition usually occurs in young males and
causes sterility (which is also a risk factor for cancer of the testes) that is why surgery is
usually performed during childhood to solve this problem.
Puberty is the period of life, generally between the ages of 10 and 15 years old, when
the reproductive organs grow to their adult size and become functional under the influence
of rising levels of gonadal hormones (testosterone in males and estrogen in females). After
this time, reproductive capability continues until old age in males and menopause in
females.
The changes that occur during puberty is similar in sequence in all individuals but the
age which they occur differs among individuals. In males, as they reach the age of 13,
puberty is characterized by the increase in the size of the reproductive organs followed by
the appearance of hair in the pubic area, axillary, and face. The reproductive organs
continue to grow for two years until sexual maturation marked by the presence of mature
semen in the testes.
In females, the budding of their breasts usually occurring at the age of 11 signals their

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puberty stage. Menarche is the first menstrual period of females which happens two years
after the start of puberty. Hormones play an important role in the regulation of ovulation and
fertility of females.

Diseases Associated with the Reproductive System

Infections are the most common problems associated with the reproductive system in
adults. Vaginal infections are more common in young and elderly women and in those
whose resistance to disease is low. The usual infections include those caused by
Escherichia coli which spread through the digestive tract; the sexually transmitted
microorganisms such as syphilis, gonorrhea, and herpes virus; and yeast (a type of
fungus). Vaginal infections that are left untreated may spread throughout the female
reproductive tract and may cause pelvic inflammatory disease and sterility. Problems that
involve painful or abnormal menses may also be due to infection or hormone imbalance.
In males, the most common inflammatory conditions are prostatitis, urethritis, and
epididymitis, all of which may follow sexual contacts in which sexually transmitted diseases
(STD) microorganisms are transmitted. Orchiditis, or inflammation of the testes, is rather
uncommon but is serious because it can cause sterility. Orchiditis most commonly follows
mumps in an adult male.
Neoplasms are a major threat to reproductive organs. Tumors of the breast and cervix
are the most common reproductive cancers in adult females and prostate cancer (a
common sequel to prostatic hypertrophy) is a widespread problem in adult males.
Most women, hit the highest point of their reproductive abilities in their late 20s. A
natural decrease in ovarian function usually follows characterized by reduced estrogen
production that causes irregular ovulation and shorter menstrual periods. Consequently,
ovulation and menses stop entirely, ending childbearing ability. This event is called as
menopause, which occurs when females no longer experience menstruation.
There is no counterpart for menopause in males. Although aging men show a steady
decline in testosterone secretion, their reproductive capability seems unending. Healthy
men are still able to father offspring well into their 80s and beyond.

Erogenous Zones
Erogenous zones refer to parts of the body that are primarily receptive and increase
sexual arousal when touched in a sexual manner. Some of the commonly known
erogenous zones are the mouth, breasts, genitals, and anus. Erogenous zones may vary
from one person to another. Some people may enjoy being touched in a certain area more
than the other areas. Other common areas of the body that can be aroused easily may
include the neck, thighs, abdomen, and feet.

Human Sexual Behavior

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 Human sexual behavior is defined as any activity—solitary, between two persons, or in
a group – that induces sexual arousal (Gebhard, P.H. 2017). There are two major factors
that determine human sexual behavior: the inherited sexual response patterns that have
evolved as a means of ensuring reproduction and that become part of each individual’s
genetic inheritance, and the degree of restraint or other types of influence exerted on the
individual by society in the expression of his sexuality.

Types of Behavior
The various types of human sexual behavior are usually classifies according to the
gender and number of participants. There is solitary behavior involving only one individual,
and there is sociosexual behavior involving more than one person. Sociosexual behavior is
generally divided into heterosexual behavior (male with female) and homosexual behavior
(male with male or female with female). If three or more individuals are involved, it is,
possible to have heterosexual and homosexual activity is simultaneously (Gebhard, P.H.
2017).
1. Solitary Behavior
Self-gratification means self-stimulation that leads to sexual arousal and generally,
sexual climax. Usually, most self-gratification takes place in private as an end in itself, but
can also be done in a sociosexual relationship.
Self-gratification, generally beginning at or before puberty, is very common among
young males, but becomes less frequent or is abandoned when sociosexual activity is
available. Consequently, self-gratification is most frequent among the unmarried. There are
more males who perform acts of self-gratification than females. The frequency greatly
varies among individuals and it usually decreases as soon as they develop sociosexual
relationships.
2. Sociosexual Behavior
Heterosexual behavior is the greatest amount of sociosexual behavior that’s occurs
between only male and female. It usually begins in childhood and maybe motivated by
curiosity, such as showing or examining genitalia. There is varying degree of sexual
impulse and responsiveness among children. Physical contact involving necking or petting
is considered as an ingredient of the learning process and eventually of courtship and the
selection of a marriage partner.
Petting differs from hugging, kissing, and generalize caresses of the clothed body to
practice involving stimulation of the genitals. Petting maybe done as an expression of
affection and a source of pleasure, preliminary to coitus. Petting has been regarded by
others as near-universal human experience and is important not only in selecting the
partner but as a way of learning how to interact with another person sexually.
Coitus, the insertion of the male reproductive structure into the female reproductive
organ, is viewed by society quite differently depending upon the martial status of the

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individuals. Majority of human source societies allow premarital coitus, at least under
certain circumstances. In modern western society, premarital coitus is more likely to be
tolerated but not encourage if the individuals intend marriage. Moreover, in most societies
martial coitus is considered as an obligation. Extramarital coitus involving wives is generally
condemned and, if permitted, is allowed only under exceptional conditions or with specified
person. Societies are becoming more considerate toward males the females who engaged
in extramarital coitus. This double standard of morality is also evident in premarital life.
Postmarital coitus (i.e, coitus separate, divorced or widowed persons) is almost always
ignored. There is a difficulty in enforcing absence among sexually experienced and usually
older people for societies that try to confine coitus in married couples.

Physiology of Human Sexual Response

Sexual response follows a pattern of sequential stages or phases when sexual
activity is continued.
1. Excitement phase – it is caused by increased in pulse and blood pressure; a sudden
rise in blood supply to the surface of the body resulting in increased skin temperature,
flushing, and swelling of all distensible body parts (particularly noticeable in the male
reproductive structure and female breast), more rapid breathing, the secretion of genital
fluids, vaginal expansion, and general increased to a near maximal physiological level that
leads to the next stage.
2. Plateau phase – it is generally of brief duration. If stimulation is continued, orgasm
usually occurs.
3. Sexual climax – it is marked by feeling of abrupt, intense pleasure, a rapid increased
in pulse rate and blood pressure, and spasms of the pelvic muscles causing contractions of
the female reproductive organ and ejaculation by the male. It is also characterized by
involuntary vocalizations. Sexual climax may last for few seconds (normally not ever ten),
after which individual enters the resolution phase.
4. Resolution phase – it is last stage that refers to the return to a normal or subnormal
physiological state. Males return to normal even if stimulation continues, but continued
stimulation can produced additional orgasms in females. Females are physically capable of
repeated orgasms without the intervening “rest period” required males.

Nervous System Factors

The entire nervous system factors plays a significant role during sexual response. The
autonomic system is involved in controlling the involuntary responses. In the presence of a
stimulus capable enough of initiating a sexual response, the efferent cerebrospinal nerves
transmit the sensory messages to the brain. The brain will interpret the sensory message
and dictate what will be the immediate and appropriate response of the body.
The hypothalamus and the limbic system are the parts of the brain believed to be

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responsible for regulating the sexual response, but there is no specialized “sex center” that
has been located in the human brain. Animal experiments show for mounting (masculine)
behavior and one for mounted (feminine) behavior.
Apart from brain-controlled sexual responses, there is some reflex (i.e., not brain-
controlled) response. This reflex is mediated by the lower spinal cord and leads to erection
and ejaculation for male, vaginal discharges and lubrication for female when genital and
perineal areas are stimulated.

Sexual Problems
Sexual problems may be classified as physiological, psychological and social in origin.
Any given problem may involve all three categories.
Physiological problems are the least among the three categories. Only a small number
of people suffer from diseases that are due to abnormal development of the genitalia or that
part of the neurophysiology controlling sexual response. Some common physiologic
conditions that can disturb sexual response include vaginal infections, retroverted uteri,
prostatitis, adrenal tumors, diabetes, sentile changes of the vagina, and cardiovascular
problems.
Psychological problems comprise by far the largest category.
They are usually caused by socially induced inhibitions, maladaptive attitudes, ignorance
and sexual myths held by the society. An example of the latter is the belief that good,
mature sex must rapid erection, prolonged coitus, and simultaneously orgasm.
Premature emission of semen is a common problem, especially for young males.
Sometimes this is not the consequence of any psychological problem but the natural result
of excessive tension in a male who has been sexually deprived. Erectile impotence is
almost always of psychological origin in males under 40; in older males, physical causes
are more often involved.
Ejaculatory impotence, which results from the inability to ejaculate in coitus, is
uncommon and is usually of psychogenic origin. It appears to be associated with ideas of
contamination or with memories of traumatic experiences. Occasional ejaculatory inability
can be possibly expected in older men or in any who has exceeded his sexual capacity.
Vaginismus is a strong spasm of the pelvic musculature constricting the female
reproductive organ so that penetration is painful or impossible. It can be due to anti-sexual
conditioning or psychological trauma that serves as an unconscious defense against coitus.
It can be treated by psychotherapy and by gradually dilating the defense female
reproductive organ with increasingly large cylinders.

ACTIVITY #1
(To be submitted on next week)

Discussion Points and Exercise Questions

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Direction: Fill out the table below by listing the common secondary sexual male and female
characteristics.
Male Secondary Sexual Characteristics Female Secondary Sexual Characteristics

Analysis
1. When do we usually observe the changes listed above for males and females?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2. Were you able to experience the same changes? When?

3. If you were not able to experience the above listed changes, what might have used
caused such difference?

4. How does the society shape the sexual behavior of an individual?

5. Can we really change our natural or innate sexual organ and sexual response?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

End of 5th week

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