UNIVERSITI KUALA LUMPUR

MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL BIOENGINEERING

TECHNOLOGY
DESIGN PROJECT 2 – CPB30404

Project Report 1
Assessment/Rubric/Marking Sheet

Project Title : Production of Phosphoric Acid - 335,000 MTA

Supervisor : Dr Nor Shahirah Mohd Nasir
Date : 02-04-2021
Group no. : 6
Name of group members:
Name ID Equipment Name
1 Reactor, Evaporator 2,
Sharifah Nur Adila Binti Syed Nasir 55213219006
Filter
2 Separator, Mixer,
Muhammad Alif Irfan Bin Abu Bakar 55213118054
Evaporator 1
3 Heat Exchanger, Pump,
Muhammad Aqil Dhamiri Bin Mohd Nazri 55213118052
Storage Tank

Very Poor Poor Satisfactory Good Excellent

Rating Scale
1 2 3 4 5

CRITERIA WEIGHTAGE TOTAL MARKS

1.0 INTRODUCTION (15%) - Review on the Design Project 1. Design
intention, operating conditions, input and output stream composition
3
and other information related with the equipment design consideration
are concisely introduced.
2.0 FUNDAMENTAL KNOWLEDGE (15%) - Individual S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
Able to explain technically on the principle of equipment design
3
(purpose, design intention, type of equipment, working
principles/mechanism, etc.)
3.0 DETAILS CALCULATION (20%) - Individual
All the calculation related with the design (e.g. determination of plate S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
number, reflux ratio, diameter, length etc.). The assumption taken for
4
the calculation must be stated clearly. Supporting data must include in
the appendix. Utilization of process system engineering software e.g.
Aspen, HYSYS, ChemCAD, Pro II and other online calculation tools.
4.0 MECHANICAL DRAWING (20%) - Individual
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
Clear drawing completed with dimension and legend (isometrics). All
4
the equipment components are drawn properly. The drawing scale is
proportional. Usage of software for drawing (CAD).
5.0 SPECIFICATION DATASHEET (20%) - Individual
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
Equipment ID, type of equipment, purpose. Material of construction,
dimension, internal design (trays, weir, downcomer, packing type and 4
support, demister pads, rotors, blade, baffle, etc.), valves, fittings,
manhole and etc.
6.0 REFERENCES, NEATNESS (10%) - Sources of references are
valid and cited in the report (Reference style). Readability of report and
2
quality of language. Written according to format, tidy and properly
attached.
STUDENT NUMBER S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
TOTAL MARKS (100 MARKS)
 UNIVERSITI KUALA LUMPUR
MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL BIOENGINEERING
TECHNOLOGY
DESIGN PROJECT 2 – CPB30404

VERIFICATION

General :
Comment

Accessed by :
Signature
Date :
 PROJECT TITLE

PRODUCTION OF PHOSPHORIC ACID - 335, 000 MTA

DESIGN PROJECT 2 (CPB30404)

PROJECT REPORT 1

NAME POSITION
1 Sharifah Nur Adila Binti Syed Nasir Managing Director
2 Muhammad Alif Irfan Bin Abu Bakar Process Engineer
3 Muhammad Aqil Dhamiri Bin Mohd Nazri Safety and Utilities Engineer

LECTURER

DR NOR SHAHIRAH MOHD NASIR

SUPERVISOR

DR NOR SHAHIRAH MOHD NASIR

UNIVERSITI KUALA LUMPUR

MALAYSIAN INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL & BIOENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

(UNIKL MICET)

JANUARY 2021
Table of Contents

Contents Page

1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Process Description .......................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Process Selection ............................................................................................................. 2

1.3 Process Flow Diagram...................................................................................................... 3

1.3.1 Flowsheet of the Process ........................................................................................... 4

1.4 Mass Balance ................................................................................................................... 5

1.4.1 Mass Balance – Evaporator 2 .................................................................................... 6

1.4.2 Mass Balance – Heat Exchanger 4 ............................................................................ 7

1.4.3 Mass Balance – Evaporator 1 .................................................................................... 8

1.4.4 Mass Balance – Heat Exchanger 3 ............................................................................ 9

1.4.5 Mass Balance – Tank 1 ............................................................................................ 10

1.4.6 Mass Balance – Heat Exchanger 2 .......................................................................... 11

1.4.7 Mass Balance – Separator ....................................................................................... 12

1.4.8 Mass Balance – Heat Exchanger 1 .......................................................................... 13

1.4.9 Mass Balance – Pump 1 .......................................................................................... 14

1.4.10 Mass Balance – Reactor ........................................................................................ 15

1.4.11 Mass Balance – Filter ............................................................................................. 16

1.4.12 Mass Balance – Pump 2 ........................................................................................ 17

1.4.13 Mass Balance – Mixer ............................................................................................ 18

1.5 Software Mass Balance .................................................................................................. 19

 1.5.1 Simulation in Excel ................................................................................................... 19

1.5.2 Comparison Mass Balance ...................................................................................... 21

2.0 Reactor ............................................................................................................................. 22

2.1 Fundamental Knowledge ................................................................................................ 22

2.1.1 Mode of Operation ................................................................................................... 22

2.1.2 Phases Present ........................................................................................................ 23

2.1.3 Types of reactors ..................................................................................................... 24

2.1.4 Materials for The Reactors ....................................................................................... 28

2.1.5 Agitator .................................................................................................................... 29

2.2 Details Calculation .......................................................................................................... 30

2.3 Mechanical Drawing ....................................................................................................... 38

2.3.1 AutoCAD Drawing .................................................................................................... 38

2.3.2 3D Drawing Using PDMS And Autodesk Inventor .................................................... 39

2.4 Specification Datasheet .................................................................................................. 40

3.0 Distillation Column (Separator) ....................................................................................... 41

3.1 Fundamental Knowledge ................................................................................................ 41

3.1.1 Purpose of Distillation Column ................................................................................. 41

3.1.2 Types of Distillation Column ................................................................................. 41

3.1.3 Main Components and Basic Operation ................................................................... 45

3.1.4 Working Principles of Distillation Column ................................................................. 45

3.2 Details Calculation .......................................................................................................... 46

3.3 Mechanical Drawing ....................................................................................................... 57

 3.3.1 2D Drawing With Dimensions (Autocad Software) ................................................... 57

3.3.2 Isometric 3D Drawing (Inventor Software) ................................................................ 58

3.3.3 Isometric 3D Drawing (Inventor Software) – Sieve Tray ........................................... 59

3.4 Specification Datasheet .................................................................................................. 60

4.0 Heat Exchanger ................................................................................................................ 62

4.1 Fundamental Knowledge ................................................................................................ 62

4.1.1 Purpose ................................................................................................................... 62

4.1.2 Design Intention ....................................................................................................... 63

4.1.3 Type of Heat Exchanger........................................................................................... 63

4.1.4 Working Principle ..................................................................................................... 65

4.2 Detail Calculation............................................................................................................ 66

4.2.1 Heat Exchanger 1 (E-101)........................................................................................ 66

4.2.2 Heat Exchanger 2 (E-102)........................................................................................ 70

4.2.3 Heat Exchanger 3 (E-103)........................................................................................ 75

4.2.4 Heat Exchanger 4 (E-104)........................................................................................ 79

4.3 Mechanical Drawing................................................................................................... 83

4.3.1 PDMS Software Drawing.......................................................................................... 83

4.3.2 Inventor Software Drawing ....................................................................................... 83

4.4 Specification Data Sheet ................................................................................................ 85

5.0 Mixer ............................................................................................................................. 89

5.1 Fundamental Knowledge ................................................................................................ 89

5.1.1 Purpose of Distillation Column ................................................................................. 89

 5.1.2 Importance of Mixing Technology ....................................................................... 89

5.1.3 Types of Mixer .................................................................................................... 90

5.1.4 Mechanism of Mixer ................................................................................................. 92

5.2 Details Calculation .......................................................................................................... 93

5.3 Mechanical Drawing ....................................................................................................... 96

5.3.1 2D Drawing with Dimensions (AutoCAD Software)................................................... 96

5.4 Specification Datasheet .................................................................................................. 98

6.0 Evaporator ........................................................................................................................ 99

6.1 Fundamental Knowledge ................................................................................................ 99

6.1.1 Types of Evaporators ............................................................................................. 100

6.2 Details Calculation ........................................................................................................ 103

6.2.1 Evaporator 1 .......................................................................................................... 103

6.2.2 Evaporator 2 .......................................................................................................... 108

6.3 Mechanical Drawing................................................................................................. 113

6.3.1 2D Drawing with Dimensions (AutoCAD Software) ........................................... 113

6.3.2 3D Drawing (Inventor Software) ........................................................................ 114

6.4 Specification Datasheet ........................................................................................... 115

7.0 Filter ................................................................................................................................ 117

7.1 Fundamental Knowledge .............................................................................................. 117

7.1.1 Filtration Process ................................................................................................... 117

7.1.2 Factors Influencing Filtration .................................................................................. 118

7.1.3 Materials of the Filter Medium ................................................................................ 118

 7.1.4 Types of Filters ...................................................................................................... 119

8.0 Pump ............................................................................................................................... 122

8.1 Fundamental Knowledge .............................................................................................. 122

8.1.1 Purpose ................................................................................................................. 122

8.1.2 Design Intention ..................................................................................................... 122

8.1.3 Type of Equipment ................................................................................................. 122

8.1.4 Working Principle ................................................................................................... 125

9.0 Tank ................................................................................................................................ 126

9.1 Fundamental Knowledge .............................................................................................. 126

9.1.1 Purpose ................................................................................................................. 126

9.1.2 Design Intention ..................................................................................................... 126

9.1.3 Type of Storage Tank ............................................................................................. 127

9.1.4 Working Principle ................................................................................................... 131

References ........................................................................................................................... 132

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Process Description

Based on Design Project1, there are two process that have been identified: wet process
and thermal process. After further research on both processes, the chosen process for
phosphoric acid production is wet process due to its advantages compared to the thermal
process.

I. Wet process

Phosphoric acid is produced in a wet process by reacting with naturally occurring

phosphate rock to sulfuric acid (H2SO4). The phosphate rock, along with sulfuric acid, is dried,
crushed and then continually fed into the reactor. The reaction combines calcium from phosphate
rock, forming calcium sulphate (CaSO4), commonly referred to as gypsum, with sulphate.
Gypsum is separated by filtration from reaction solution. In U. S. facilities di-hydrate process are
generally used to produce gypsum in the form of calcium sulphate with two water molecules (H2O)
(CaSO4∙2H2O) or calcium sulphate di-hydrate). Japanese facilities use a hemihydrate process
that produces calcium sulphate with a half molecule of water (CaSO4 ½ H2O). This one step
hemihydrate process has the advantage of producing wet process phosphoric acid with a higher
P2O5 concentration and less impurities than the dihydrate process. Due to these advantages,
some U. S. companies have recently converted to the hemihydrate process.

𝐶𝑎3(𝑃𝑂4)2 + 3𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 + 6𝐻2𝑂 → 2𝐻3𝑃𝑂4 + 3[𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂4 ∙ 2𝐻2𝑂 ]

93% sulfuric acid is normally used to make the strongest phosphoric acid possible and to
decrease the evaporation costs. Wet phosphoric acid usually contains P2O5 from 26 to 30 per
cent. For fertilizer production, the acid must be further concentrated in most cases to meet the
phosphate feed material specifications. By using 2 or 3 vacuum evaporators, phosphoric acid is
usually concentrated to 40 to 55 per cent P2O5 depending on the types of fertilizer to be produced.

1
 Table 1: Advantages and Disadvantages of Wet Process

No. Advantages Disadvantages

Wet process acid is produced directly
from phosphatic ores, and is
The reaction between phosphate rock
1 characterized by relatively high
and sulphuric acid is self-limiting.
production volume, low cost and low
purity.
Around 4%-6% of phosphorus
pentoxide are lost due to most of
2 Operating temperature are low.
them co-crystallised with the calcium
sulphate.
Wet rock can be used, so drying costs
3
are saved.

1.2 Process Selection

As a conclusion, the process that is selected to produce phosphoric acid is wet process.
This is because the process does not require high energy to process the reactant and with that
the cost of this process would be much lower compared to the cost of thermal process. Other
than that, in wet process, the quantity of production of phosphoric acid are much higher compared
to thermal process although the purity of the acid produced in wet process are lower than the acid
produced in thermal process. Due to its high quantity of production in this process that we chose,
the required amount of phosphoric acid needed to produce which is 335,000 metric ton per annum
can be achieve by this wet process selection.

2
1.3 Process Flow Diagram

Figure 1: Process Flow Diagram

3
1.3.1 Flowsheet of the Process

Table 2: Flowsheet of the Process

FLOWRATE NO OF STREAM
(kmol/min) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 5.2792 5.2792 0.0000 2.9036 2.9036 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
H2O 0.0000 5.8511 9.2033 15.0545 7.5316 7.5229 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 7.5229 7.5229 4.1794 4.1794 3.3435 1.6718 1.6718 5.8511 5.8511 1.6718
H2SO4 0.0000 0.0000 7.5300 4.5824 0.0000 4.1794 4.1794 4.1794 4.1794 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
CaSO4 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 7.1269 7.1269 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
H3PO4 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 4.7513 0.0000 5.0153 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 5.0153 5.0153 0.0000 0.0000 5.0153 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 5.0153
TOTAL FLOWRATE
5.2792 11.1303 16.7333 34.4187 17.5621 16.7175 4.1794 4.1794 4.1794 12.5381 12.5381 4.1794 4.1794 8.3588 1.6718 1.6718 5.8511 5.8511 6.6870
(kmol/min)

ENTHALPY (kJ/min) -11,457,200 534,803 -86,632 -480,033 173,716 -194,043 72,257 -77,339

TEMPERATURE (°C) 25 25 25 76.84 76.84 76.84 160 25 25 160 76.84 100 25 73.5 100 25 25 25 74.47
PRESSURE (atm) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

4
1.4 Mass Balance

In this part, the mass balance for each of the equipment are calculated based on the
given production rate. Atomic balance is used to calculate the mass balance of the reactor.
Comparison of the mass balance between manual calculation and using software, which is
Excel are shown in the table.

𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑛 1𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟

𝑛̇ = 335 000 × × × × ×
𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 0.001 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜𝑛 98 𝑘𝑔 355 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 6.69
𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2 + 3𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 2𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4 + 3𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂4

Molecular weight of phosphoric acid = 98 kmol/kg

The plant operates for 355 days a year, 24 hours a day.

Assumption:

Yield = 95% (Hussein et al., 2018)

Conversion = 45% (Hussein et al., 2018)

5
1.4.1 Mass Balance – Evaporator 2

Out – Stream 19
In – Stream 14 Out – Stream 15
Species
kmol/min kmol/min
kmol/min
-
Ca3(PO4)2 - -
1.67
H2O 3.34 1.67
-
H2SO4 - -
-
CaSO4 - -
5.02
H3PO4 5.02 -
6.69
Total 8.36 1.67

6
1.4.2 Mass Balance – Heat Exchanger 4

In – Stream 15 Out – Stream 16

Species
kmol/min
kmol/min

Ca3(PO4)2 - -

H2O 1.67 1.67

H2SO4 - -

CaSO4 - -

H3PO4 - -

Total 1.67 1.67

7
1.4.3 Mass Balance – Evaporator 1

Out – Stream 14
In – Stream 11 Out – Stream 12
Species
kmol/min kmol/min
kmol/min
-
Ca3(PO4)2 - -
3.34
H2O 7.53 4.19
-
H2SO4 - -
-
CaSO4 - -
5.02
H3PO4 5.02 -
8.36
Total 12.55 4.19

8
1.4.4 Mass Balance – Heat Exchanger 3

In – Stream 12 Out – Stream 13

Species
kmol/min
kmol/min

Ca3(PO4)2 - -

H2O 4.19 4.19

H2SO4 - -

CaSO4 - -

H3PO4 - -

Total 4.19 4.19

9
1.4.5 Mass Balance – Tank 1

In – Stream 13 In – Stream 16 Out – Stream 17

Species
kmol/min kmol/min
kmol/min

Ca3(PO4)2 - - -

H2O 4.19 1.67 5.86

H2SO4 - - -

CaSO4 - - -

H3PO4 - - -

Total 4.19 1.67 5.86

10
1.4.6 Mass Balance – Heat Exchanger 2

In – Stream 10 Out – Stream 11

Species
kmol/min
kmol/min

Ca3(PO4)2 - -

H2O 7.53 7.53

H2SO4 - -

CaSO4 - -

H3PO4 5.02 5.02

Total 12.55 12.55

11
1.4.7 Mass Balance – Separator

Out – Stream 10
In – Stream 6 Out – Stream 7
Species
kmol/min kmol/min
kmol/min
-
Ca3(PO4)2 - -
7.53
H2O 7.53 -
-
H2SO4 4.18 4.18
-
CaSO4 - -
5.02
H3PO4 5.02 -
12.55
Total 16.73 4.18

12
1.4.8 Mass Balance – Heat Exchanger 1

In – Stream 7 Out – Stream 8

Species
kmol/min
kmol/min

Ca3(PO4)2 - -

H2O - -

H2SO4 4.18 4.18

CaSO4 - -

H3PO4 - -

Total 4.18 4.18

13
1.4.9 Mass Balance – Pump 1

In – Stream 8 Out – Stream 9

Species
kmol/min
kmol/min

Ca3(PO4)2 - -

H2O - -

H2SO4 4.18 4.18

CaSO4 - -

H3PO4 - -

Total 4.18 4.18

14
1.4.10 Mass Balance – Reactor

In – Stream 2 In – Stream 3 In – Stream 9 Out – Stream 4

Species
kmol/min kmol/min kmol/min kmol/min

Ca3(PO4)2 5.28 - - 2.90

H2O 5.86 9.20 - 15.06

H2SO4 - 7.53 4.18 4.18

CaSO4 - - - 7.53

H3PO4 - - - 5.02

Total 11.14 16.73 4.18 34.69

15
1.4.11 Mass Balance – Filter

Out – Stream 6
In – Stream 4 Out – Stream 5
Species
kmol/min kmol/min
kmol/min
-
Ca3(PO4)2 2.90 2.90
7.53
H2O 15.06 7.53
4.18
H2SO4 4.18 -
-
CaSO4 7.53 7.53
5.02
H3PO4 5.02 -
16.73
Total 34.69 17.96

16
1.4.12 Mass Balance – Pump 2

In – Stream 17 Out – Stream 18

Species
kmol/min
kmol/min

Ca3(PO4)2 - -

H2O 5.86 5.86

H2SO4 - -

CaSO4 - -

H3PO4 - -

Total 5.86 5.86

17
1.4.13 Mass Balance – Mixer

In – Stream 1 In – Stream 18 Out – Stream 2

Species
kmol/min kmol/min kmol/min

Ca3(PO4)2 5.28 - 5.28

H2O - 5.86 5.86

H2SO4 - - -

CaSO4 - - -

H3PO4 - - -

Total 5.28 5.86 11.14

18
1.5 Software Mass Balance

1.5.1 Simulation in Excel

To prove the performance of the modification made to the process, this designated
process needs to be simulated in Excel simulator as it can perform mass balance with accurate
calculations. Excel is a spreadsheet program for manipulating data. It can store, arrange,
organize, calculate, and display data in table form. Excel formulas are often used to perform
automated math operations to data in the spreadsheet. Formula can be used to perform many
operations and tasks automatically.

The main objective of the simulation is to calculate the mass balance with the easier
way plus to achieve an accurate mass flowrates value for each equipment. After that, the
simulation value obtained will be comparing with the manual calculation in order to determine
the different percentage of both calculation methods. A table is construct in this report to
observe the whole mass balance calculated for the entire process.

19
20
1.5.2 Comparison Mass Balance

Table 3: Comparison Mass Balance Between Manual and Excel Simulation

Stream Mass Balance Different

no. Manual (kmol/min) Excel (kmol/min) percentage (%)

1 5.28 5.2792 0.02%

2 11.14 11.1303 0.09%

3 16.73 16.7333 0.02%

4 34.69 34.4187 0.78%

5 17.96 17.5621 2.22%

6 16.73 16.7175 0.07%

7 4.18 4.1794 0.01%

8 4.18 4.1794 0.01%

9 4.18 4.1794 0.01%

10 12.55 12.5381 0.09%

11 12.55 12.5381 0.09%

12 4.19 4.1794 0.25%

13 4.19 4.1794 0.25%

14 8.36 8.3588 0.01%

15 1.67 1.6718 0.1%

16 1.67 1.6718 0.1%

17 5.86 5.8511 0.15%

18 5.86 5.8511 0.15%

19 6.69 6.6870 0.04%

Based on table above, it can be observed that the highest different percentage
obtained is stream number 5 and followed by stream number 4. This is because the reaction
mainly took place at those streams so it’s quite impossible to gain the similar value for manual
and excel simulation. However, the rest streams resulted quite similar value between manual
and excel simulation, which not more than 0.3% different percentage. Overall, the mass
balance for both manual and excel simulation is acceptable.

21
2.0 Reactor

2.1 Fundamental Knowledge

Reactor is the heart of a chemical reaction. A chemical reactor is any type of vessel
that is used to transform raw materials to desired products (Foutch & Johannes, 2003). In all
cases, a reactor must provide enough time for chemical reaction to take place. All chemical
processes are centered in a chemical reactor. The design of a chemical reactor is the most
important factors in determining the overall process economics.

After chemical reaction, a series of physical treatment steps are usually required to
purify the product and to recycle the unreacted raw materials back to the reactor. For small
scale production, a batch reactor is normally used in the industry, while for large/ high volume
reactions, flow reactors commonly used (Foutch & Johannes, 2003).

2.1.1 Mode of Operation

i. Batch Process

For a reactor, there are two modes of operation involved: batch and continuous. Batch
processing involves the processing of materials in bulk. It is widely used in the pharmaceutical,
chemical, and biochemical industry (Yuan et al., 2006). In batch process, all the reactants are
added at the beginning of the process and the product are extracted when the desired
conversion is achieved. This process is suitable for a small-scale production and processes
that involves biological materials. Other than that, it is used for the production of different range
of products such as pigments and polymers. Batch reactors are usually used when a company
wants to produce a range of products involving different reactants and reactor conditions using
the same equipment for these reactions. Batch process is widely used due to their flexibility
which produces high-value products for a certain period of time. Batch operation is often
preferred because the reactor can be thoroughly cleaned between each batch. When
undesirable side-reactions occurs, it causes rapid fouling and contamination to the vessel.

22
 ii. Continuous Process

For continuous process, the reactants are fed continuously into the reactor and the
product are withdrawn continuously throughout the process. This process is usually used for
large scale production since it has steady state conditions. Products generates from the
continuous process tends to have a more consistent quality compared to batch process
because the parameter such as residence time, temperature and pressure are controlled
better in continuous process. Continuous process a lower production costs than the batch
production. However, it lacks the flexibility of batch productions. Other than that, less wastes
are produced from the process and it requires less space for the storage of raw materials and
end products, which leads to a more efficient operation.

2.1.2 Phases Present

i. Homogeneous Reactions

Homogenous reaction refers to a reaction when all the reactants, products and catalyst
used are in the form of one single phase. There are three phases of matter: solid phase, liquid
phase and gaseous phase. For instance, if the reaction is homogeneous, and the reactants
are in liquid phase, it means that the products are also in liquid phase. The most important
homogeneous reactions are the reactions between gases and the reactions between liquids
or substances that dissolved in liquids. Homogeneous reactions are usually very simple
reactions compared to heterogeneous reactions because the chemical changes that takes
place solely depends on the nature of the interactions between reactants.

ii. Heterogeneous Reactions

Heterogeneous reactions refer to a reaction where there are two or more phases
involved in the reactor. This means that any of the reactants, products and catalyst can be
either in solid, liquid or gas phase. Due to this reason, heterogeneous reactions lack
uniformity. Moreover, the reactions that take place on the surface of a catalyst of a different
phase are also heterogeneous. These reactions are considered as more complex since the
phase of matter and the nature of interaction between the reactants are different.

23
2.1.3 Types of reactors

Reactors are classified according to its geometry type. The types of reactors are stirred
tank reactor, tubular reactors, packed bed reactors and fluidized bed reactors.

i. Stirred Tank Reactor

Stirred tank reactors is a vessel that consist of a mechanical agitator and a cooling
jacket or coils. It is often operated as batch reactors or continuous reactors. Stirred tank is
considered as the basic chemical reactor and the tank sizes are vary from few liters to
thousands of liters. Stirred tank are particularly suitable for homogeneous and heterogeneous
liquid-liquid and liquid-gas reactions. They are also used for reactions that involve finely
suspended solids, which are held in suspension by the agitation. As the degree of agitation is
under the designer’s control, stirred tank reactors are particularly suitable for reactions where
good mass transfer or heat transfer is required. The power requirements for the depends on
the degree of agitation that is required and will range from 0.2 kW/m3 to 2 kW/m3 for intense
mixing. Stirred tank reactors can be divided into two categories, which are batch reactors, and
continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR).

In continuous stirred tank reactor, the reactants are fed continuously into the reactor.
According to Foutch & Johannes (2003), the assumptions for ideal CSTR are: the composition
and temperature are uniform everywhere in the tanks, the product composition are the same
as in the tank, and the tank operates at steady state. The advantages of this reactors are good
temperature control is easily maintained, cheap to construct, the reactor has large heat
capacity, and the interior of the reactor is accessible. Despite the advantages, the conversion
of reactant to product per volume of reactor is small compared to other flow reactors.

Figure 2: Stirred Tank Reactors

24
 ii. Tubular Reactors

A tubular flow reactor consists of a tube through which reactants flow and are
converted to products by certain chemical reaction. Tubular reactors are generally used for
gaseous reactions but are also suitable for some liquid phase reactions. Tubular reactor may
have a varying diameter along the flow path. Small diameter tubes are used to increase the
surface area to volume ratio for high heat transfer rates process (Sinnot, 2005). Arrangement
of the reactors in series or in parallel may be used depending on the process. Both horizontal
and vertical orientations are common for the reactor. Tubular reactor is normally designed to
deal with high pressures and high rates of heat transfer. Inside the reactor, fluids flow through
it at high velocities. At these high velocities, the products are unable to diffuse back, so there
is little or no back mixing.

With a constant flow rate, the conditions at any one point remain constant with time
and changes in time of the reaction are measured in terms of the position along the length of
the tube. The reaction rate is faster at the pipe inlet because the concentration of reactants is
at its highest and the reaction rate reduces as the reactants flow through the pipe due to the
decrease in concentration of the reactant. Tubular reactors are used in the steam cracking of
ethane, propane and butane and naphtha to produce alkenes.

Figure 3: Tubular Reactor

25
 iii. Packed Bed Reactor

Packed bed reactors are very versatile and are used in many chemical processing
applications such as absorption, distillation, stripping, separation processes, and catalytic
reactions. It is one of the most widely used industrial reactors and may or may not be catalytic.
The bed is usually a column with the actual dimensions influenced by temperature and
pressure drop in addition to the reaction kinetics. The physical dimensions of the beds can
vary greatly. Typical reactors consist of a chamber, such as a tube or channel that contains
catalyst particles or pellets, and a liquid that flows through the catalyst. The liquid interacts
with the catalyst across the length of the tube, altering the chemical composition of the
substance.

Figure 4: Packed Bed Reactor

26
 iv. Fluidized Bed Reactor

Fluidization occurs when a fluid is passed upward through a bed of fine solids. Gases
or liquids channel around the packed bed of solids at low flow rate, and pressure of the bed
decreases linearly with flow rate. When the flow rate is higher, the gas or liquid force is
sufficient to lift the bed and bubbling action are observed during this stage. The configuration
of this reactor is usually in a vertical formed. The height of the fluidized bed is controlled by
the gas contact time, solids retention time, bubble size, particle size, and bubble velocity. The
bubble size affects the efficiency of the reactors. The fluidized solid inside the reactor may be
a reactant, catalyst or an inert. Fluidized bed reactors are larger than fixed bed reactors and
are more expensive to construct. However, it is easier to control the conditions and the process
is more efficient.

Figure 5: Fluidized Bed Reactor

The advantages of fluidized bed are it assures that heat is distributed uniformly across
the bed, reducing hot spots that may occur in fixed-bed reactors. The small particle sizes in
the bed allow for a large surface area per unit of mass which improves the heat and mass
transfer characteristics. Configuration of the reactors allows the catalyst to be removed for
regeneration without disrupting the bed's operation. This is useful for a catalyst that needs to
be regenerated frequently. There are some drawbacks of using a fluidized bed. The equipment
is usually massive, so the gas velocities must be controlled to prevent particle blowout,
abrasion from the deterioration. Improper bed operation with large bubble sizes can
dramatically reduce the conversion.

27
2.1.4 Materials for The Reactors

Common building materials used for equipments in process plants include carbon
steel, stainless steel, steel alloys, graphite, glass, titanium, plastic, Monel, and many more.
Selection of a suitable material must consider the suitability of the material for fabrication
(particularly welding) as well as the compatibility of the material with the process environment.
Table 4 shows the common types of materials used for the equipment with its design stress
at certain temperature.

Table 4: Common Materials for The Equipment (Sinnot, 2005)

28
2.1.5 Agitator

Agitation is the process of keeping a mixture that has been mixed in the proper mixed
state required for the end products, while mixing refers to the actual stirring of different liquids
or materials to blend them together into an end product or mixture. Once this mixture is mixed,
it may require agitation to keep the mixture in the proper mixed state. Agitator is used to stir
liquid or mixture of liquids. In industry, there are two types of agitators that are commonly used:
mechanical agitator and electronically controlled agitators. Figure 6 below shows the
examples of mechanical agitators.

Figure 6: Examples of Mechanical Agitators

29
2.2 Details Calculation

1. Initial Molar Flow Rate, FA0

Initial Molar flow rate, FA0 = 5.28 kmol/min

2. Mass Flowrate, 𝒎̇

Molar flowrate, FA0 = 5.28 kmol/min

Molecular weight Ca3(PO4)2 = 310.18 g/mol

𝑚̇ = 𝐹𝐴0 × 𝑀𝑊

𝑚̇ = 5.28 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛 × 310.18 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ = 1673.75
𝑚𝑖𝑛

3. Volumetric Flow Rate, 𝒗𝟎

Density Ca3(PO4)2 = 3140 kg/m3

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝜌=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝑚̇
𝑣̇ =
𝜌

1637.75 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚3
𝑣0 = = = 0.5216
3140 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 𝑚𝑖𝑛

4. Initial Concentration, CA0

𝐹𝐴0
𝐶𝐴0 =
𝑣0

5.28 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐶𝐴0 =
0.5216 𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 𝑚3 1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝐶𝐴0 = 10.12 3
× 3
× = 10.12
𝑚 1000 𝑑𝑚 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚3

30
 5. Volume of Reactor, VR

For CSTR, volume of reactor is calculated using the formula:

𝐹𝐴0 𝑋
𝑉𝑅 =
−𝑟𝐴

Based on the reaction rate constant (Fogler, 2004), assume that the reaction is second order.

−𝑟𝐴 = 𝑘𝐶𝐴 2

The reaction is in liquid phase.

𝐶𝐴 = 𝐶𝐴0 (1 − 𝑋)

Combining the equations:

𝐹𝐴0 𝑋 𝐹𝐴0 𝑋 𝐹𝐴0 𝑋

𝑉𝑅 = = 2 =
−𝑟𝐴 𝑘𝐶𝐴 𝑘𝐶𝐴0 2 (1 − 𝑋)2

Volume of Reactor, VR

𝐹𝐴0 𝑋 𝐹𝐴0 𝑋 𝐹𝐴0 𝑋

𝑉𝑅 = = 2 =
−𝑟𝐴 𝑘𝐶𝐴 𝑘𝐶𝐴0 2 (1 − 𝑋)2

𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 103 𝑚𝑜𝑙

5.28 × × 0.45
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
2
𝑑𝑚3 𝑚𝑜𝑙
0.311 × (5.566 ) × (1 − 0.45)2
𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑠 𝑑𝑚3

𝑉𝑅 = 815.22 𝑑𝑚3 = 0.8152 𝑚3

FA0 = 10.12 mol/dm3

Conversion, X = 45% (Hussein et al., 2018)

Reaction rate constant, k = 2.2 dm3/mol.s (Fogler, 2004)

31
 6. Diameter and Height of Reactor

𝜋𝐷 2 𝐻
𝑉𝑅 =
4

4𝑉𝑅
𝐷𝑅 = √
3𝜋

The standard ratio of diameter to height is 1:3

𝐻𝑅 = 3𝐷

Diameter of Reactor, DR

Substitute the equation,

𝜋𝐷 2 (3𝐷)
𝑉𝑅 =
4

4𝑉𝑅 = 𝜋3𝐷3

4𝑉𝑅 = 3𝜋𝐷 3

4𝑉𝑅
𝐷3 =
3𝜋

4(0.8152 𝑚3 )
𝐷3 =
3𝜋

𝐷 = 0.702 𝑚

Height of Reactor, HR

4𝑉𝑅
𝐻=
𝜋𝐷 2

4 (0.815 𝑚3 )
𝐻=
𝜋 × (0.702 𝑚)2

𝐻 = 2.106 𝑚

32
 7. Thickness of Reactor

The material chosen for this reactor is Stainless Steel 304.

𝑃𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑡= +𝐶
2𝑆𝑒 − 𝑃𝑖

𝑁
0.1115 × 351 𝑚𝑚
𝑡= 𝑚𝑚2 + 4 𝑚𝑚
𝑁 𝑁
2 (145 ) (1.0) − 0.1115
𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚2

𝑡 = 4.14 𝑚𝑚

Pi = Internal Pressure = 1.1 atm = 0.1115 N/mm2

Ri = Internal Radius of Reactor = 0.351 m = 351 mm

S = Design Stress = 145 N/mm2 (Sinnot, 2005)

e =Joint Efficiency = 1.0 (Sinnot, 2005)

C = Corrosion Allowance = 4.0 mm (Sinnot, 2005)

33
 8. Head and Closure of Reactor

𝑃𝑖 𝐷𝑖
𝑡𝑚 =
4𝑆𝑒 − 0.4𝑃𝑖

𝑁
0.1115 × 702 𝑚𝑚
𝑡𝑚 = 𝑚𝑚2
𝑁 𝑁
4 (145 ) (1.0) − 0.4 (0.1115 )
𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚2

𝑡𝑚 = 0.135 𝑚𝑚

Radius of Hemisphere:

𝐷𝑅
𝑅𝐻𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 =
2

0.702 𝑚
𝑅𝐻𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = = 0.351 𝑚
2

Volume of Hemisphere:

2 𝐷 3
𝑉𝐻𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝜋 ( )
3 2

2 0.702 𝑚 3
𝑉𝐻𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝜋 ( ) = 0.0906 𝑚3
3 2

34
 9. Agitator Design

Type of Agitator: Turbine Blade

Material of The Agitator: Commercial Cold Rolled Steel

Number of Blades = 6

Agitator Diameter, Da

1 1
𝐷𝑎 = = (702 𝑚𝑚)
3𝐷𝑖 3

𝐷𝑎 = 234 𝑚𝑚

Agitator Height Above Vessel Floor

𝐸 = 𝐷𝑎

𝐸 = 234 𝑚𝑚

Length of Agitator Blade

𝐷𝑎
𝐿=
4

234 𝑚𝑚
𝐿= = 58.5 𝑚𝑚
4

Width of agitator Blade

𝐷𝑎
𝑊=
5

234 𝑚𝑚
𝑊= = 46.8 𝑚𝑚
5

35
 i. Reynolds Number

𝐷 2 𝑁𝜌
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

𝑘𝑔
(0.234 𝑚)2 (8.33 𝑠 −1 ) (1990 )
𝑚3
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑘𝑔
0.014 𝑚𝑠

𝑅𝑒 = 64833.84

Da = Agitator Diameter = 0.234 m

Assume that the agitator speed is 500 rpm,

N = Agitator Speed = 500 rpm = 8.33 s-1

𝜌 = Fluid Density = 1990 kg/m3

µ = Fluid Viscosity = 0.014 kg/ms

ii. Power Number, Np

𝑃
𝑁𝑝 =
𝜌𝑁 3 𝐷𝑎 5

𝑃 = 𝑁𝑝 𝜌𝑁 3 𝐷𝑎 5

𝑘𝑔
𝑃 = 6 (1990 ) (8.33 𝑠 −1 )3 (0.234 𝑚)5
𝑚3

𝑃 = 4841.93 𝑊

Assume that the power number, Np = 6

P = Power (W)

N = Agitator Speed = 500 rpm = 8.33 s-1

𝜌 = Fluid Density = 1990 kg/m3

Da = Agitator Diameter = 0.234 m

36
 10. General Design Considerations

i. Design Pressure

One of the essential requirements to design reactor is the material used need to withstand the
maximum pressure. For safety purpose, 10% of the additional pressure from original pressure
need to be included.

𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 + (1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 × 10%)

𝑃 = 1.1 𝑎𝑡𝑚

ii. Design Temperature

The maximum temperature allowable for the reactor vessel should have a safety limit of 10°C.

The temperature for the reaction is 76.84°C.

𝑇 = 76.84 °C + 10 °C

𝑇 = 86.84 °C ≈ 90 °C

37
2.3 Mechanical Drawing

2.3.1 AutoCAD Drawing

Figure 7: Front View of the CSTR

Figure 8: Top View of the CSTR

38
2.3.2 3D Drawing Using PDMS And Autodesk Inventor

Figure 9: 3D Model using PDMS Figure 10: 3D Model using Inventor

39
2.4 Specification Datasheet

Table 5: Specifications Datasheet for Reactor

Specifications Datasheet

Specifications Description

Equipment Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor

Equipment ID R-101

Author Sharifah Nur Adila binti Syed Nasir

To produce phosphoric acid from the reaction
Function
between phosphate rock and sulphuric acid
Operating Pressure 1 atm

Design Pressure 1.1 atm

Operating Temperature 76.84°C

Design Temperature 90°C

Reactor Design

Diameter of Reactor 0.702 m

Height of Reactor 2.106 m

Volume of Reactor 0.8152 m3

Thickness of Reactor 4.14 mm

Material of Construction Stainless Steel 304

Agitator Design

Type of Agitator Turbine Blade

Material Commercial Cold Rolled Steel

No of Blades 6

Speed of Motor 500 rpm

Diameter of Agitator 234 mm

Agitator Height Above Vessel Floor 234 mm

Length of Agitator Blade 58.5 mm

Width of Agitator Blade 46.8 mm

Reynolds Number 64833.84

Power 4841.93 W

40
3.0 Distillation Column (Separator)

3.1 Fundamental Knowledge

3.1.1 Purpose of Distillation Column

Distillation refers the mechanism used by the heating of the mixture (inlet) at a
temperature between its boiling points for separation of two (or more) components into its
virgin state (SRSEnginnering, 2016). Based on our process, the mixture of phosphoric acid,
sulphuric acid and water are heated until 160°C to exceed the boiling point of phosphoric acid
(158°C) and water (100°C). Since we have more than two components, we are required to
use multicomponent distillation. Phosphoric acid and water will boil and change into vapour
(more volatile) and release as light key then proceed to heat exchanger process. Meanwhile
the sulphuric acid will remain as liquid (less volatile) and recycle back into reactor. A
fractionating distillation column is used to make this process more efficient.

3.1.2 Types of Distillation Column

Batch
The feed into the column will be entered batchwise in
batch operation. This indicates, a batch is mounted on
the column and the distillation process can then be
done. A next feed batch is added until the ideal task is
accomplished.

Types of
column

Continuous
A constant feed stream is processed by continuous
columns. No interruptions can occured unless the
column or the adjacent process units are problematic.
They can handle high performance and are the
commonest of the two styles.

One way of classifying distillation column type is by verifying the way they function. In
this case, we required a huge batch size to operate our production so continuous column is
much better to be selected. The main advantages of continuous processes are efficiency and
quantity. Batch size for batch distillation is dictated by the size of the still pot but continuous
batch do not have this limitation.

41
 Binary column
The feed contains only two components

Types of
continuous
column

Multi-component column
The feed contains more than two components

As stated above, our inlet for distillation column consists of three different components
with the same phases. Phosphoric acid (H3PO4), sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and water (H2O) are
in liquid phase. Once all of it entering the distillation column, it will separate into vapour and
liquid phase, depends on boiling point. Hence, we are required to use multi-component column
since our feed contains more than two components. More volatile components will become
the light key and the less volatile will become the heavy key.

Tray column
Able to handle wide range of gas and liquid
flow rates thus its efficiency can be predicted
more accurately

Types of
column
internals

Packed column
Packages are used fow low capacity
operations. Particularly useful in the field of
vacuum distillation

42
 Between these two types of column internals, tray column is much better for our
production since it is suitable for huge capacity and production. Besides, the operation will be
smoother and more accurate, hence will affect the purity of our production.

Bubble caps
Type of distillation column internal which froms a
positive vapour seal at each plate

Sieve trays
A metal plate with a bunch of holes cut in them. Part of
the plate is cut away so that liquid can flow down the
Types of trays column

Valve trays
Similar to bubble cap plate but instead of a solid cap
with slots in it, a moveable riser sits in place of the
bubble cap

Sieve trays are chosen for our distillation column. Sieve tray has good capacity and
moderate efficiency compared to the valve tray and bubble cup tray (Munters, n.d.). Compared
to other trays, the main advantages of the sieve tray include a low maintenance and low
floating trend. The sieve tile is simple and effectively manufactured.

Figure 11: Sieve Trays

43
 Carbon steel

Stainless steel
Types of
material

Monel

Among various classes of steels, carbon steel is most used material for construction
of petroleum refinery static equipment. Almost 98% of refinery equipment constructed from
different grades of carbon steel. The various advantage of using carbon steel in refinery
equipment is low cost, intermediate corrosion resistance, availability, easy to recycle, excellent
weld-ability, oxidation resistance at intermediate temperatures etc. The types of carbon steel
that we used is A561 Grade 70. This steel plate grade is a medium carbon alloy that also
contains amounts of manganese, phosphorus, sulphur, and silicon (Azo Material, 2009).

Figure 12: Comparison of Relative Cost of Carbon Steel and Other Materials

44
3.1.3 Main Components and Basic Operation

Vertical shell Tray/plates Reboiler Condenser

• where the • used to • to provide the • to cool and

separation liquid enhance necessary condense the
components is component vaporisation vapour leaving
carried out separations the top of the
column

The mixture to be processed is known as the feed and is usually added to a tray known
as the feed tray somewhere close to the center of the column (Tham, 2016). The feed tray
splits the column into a top section (enriched or rectified) and a bottom section (striped). The
feed is collected in the boiler at the bottom of the column. The vapour in the reboiler is
reinserted into the unit below the column. The substance extracted from the boiler is called
the bottom product. The vapour moves the column and is cooled by a condenser as it leaves
the top of the unit. The liquid that stored in a holding vessel is called the reflux drum. The
condensed liquid that is removed from the unit is known as top product.

3.1.4 Working Principles of Distillation Column

There is a set of stacked plates in the distillation column. At one or more points a liquid
feed containing the two or more liquids mixture joins the column. Liquid flows across the trays,
and vapour bubbles through the liquid through hole in the trays. Due to several surfaces, as
liquid passes the column, a crucial step for distillation column will occurred where the vapour
comes into contact numerous times with it. The molecule of the low boiling material absorbs
the free energy to convert from liquid to vapour phase meanwhile the other molecule remains
at its phase because the condition still the same. A large amount of liquid consists mainly of
the liquid with higher boiling point at the base of the distillation column. The vapour pressure
of a solvent at a given temperature is the balance pressure of the molecules exiting the liquid
surface and accessing it. There are some critical aspects of vapour pressure:

➢ Energy input raises vapour pressure

➢ Vapour pressure is related to boiling
➢ A liquid could be said boil when the pressure vapour is equal with surrounding pressure
➢ Distillation occurs because of the differences in the volatility of the components in the
liquid mixture

45
3.2 Details Calculation

1) Vapour Pressure

In order to calculate the vapour pressure for both components, we need to determine which
one is light key and heavy key. Products that more volatile will be light key and the other will
be heavy key. Volatilization related to the boiling point of the components, the higher its boiling
point, less volatile (heavy key), In this case, boiling point of phosphoric acid is less than
sulphuric acid. Hence, phosphoric acid is the light key and sulphuric acid is the heavy key.

NIST Chemistry WebBook

H3PO4 (more volatile)
Boiling point = 158°C

A = 4.96817

B = 2249.289

C = -12.294

H3PO4

𝐵
Log10 PLK = 𝐴 − [(𝑇+𝐶)]

2249.289
Log10 PLK = 4.96817 − [(158+273.15)−12.294)]

PLK = 0.3964 bar

46
 H2SO4 (less volatile)

Boiling point = 337°C

H2SO4

PHK = 0.15 bar (Shankman & Gordon, 1936).

2) Relative Volatility

The relative volatility can be calculated by dividing vapour pressure of light key with vapour
pressure of heavy key (Coulson & Richardson, 2005).

𝑃
α = 𝑃 𝐿𝐾
𝐻𝐾

0.3964
α= 0.15
bar

α = 2.6427

3) Minimum Number of Stages (Fenske Equation)

Assumption from (Towler, 2009) Molar fraction (mass balance)

XLK, D = 0.99 XLK, B = 0.4

XHK, B = 0.01 XHK, D = 1.0

𝑋
[( 𝐻𝐾 ) ]
𝑋𝐿𝐾 𝑑 ( 𝑋𝐿𝐾 )
𝑋𝐻𝐾 𝑏
Nmin = log
log α

1.0 0.4
[(0.99)𝑥 (0.01)]
Nmin = log
log 2.6427

Nmin = 3.81 ≈ 4 stages

47
4) Number of Theoretical Trays

The number of theoretical trays equals the number of theoretical

stages minus 1, because the reboiler is seen as a theoretical step.

Number of trays = Number of stages – 1 (reboiler)

Number of trays = 4 – 1

Number of trays = 3

5) Minimum Reflux Ratio (Underwood Equation)

1 𝑋 𝛼(1−𝑋𝐿𝐾,𝐷 )
Rmin = 𝛼−1 [ 𝑋𝐿𝐾,𝐷 − 1−𝑋𝐿𝐾,𝐹
]
𝐿𝐾,𝐹

1 0.99 2.6427(1−0.99)
Rmin = [ − ]
(2.6427−1) 0.3 1−0.3

Rmin = 1.99 ≈ 2

6) Reflux Ratio

Many columns are built for a low reflux ratio between 1.2 and 1.5 times since it is basically the
minimum running cost range.

R = 1.5 Rmin

R = 1.5(1.99)

R = 2.895

*more than 1, separation is possible

48
7) Number of Ideal Stages

Figure 13: Erbar-Maddox correlation (Erbar and Maddox, 1961)

Rmin / (Rmin+1)

𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 1.99
= = 0.67
𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛 +1 1.99+1

R / (R+1)

𝑅 2.895
𝑅+1
= 2.895+1 = 0.74

49
From Figure 13, the ideal number of stages can be estimated.

𝑁𝑚
𝑁
= 0.64

11.8
= 0.64
𝑁

11.8
N = 0.64

N = 7.55 ≈ 8 stages

8) Feed Point Location (Kirkbride Equation)

𝑁 B 𝑥𝑓,𝐻𝐾 𝑥
Log [𝑁𝑇 ] = 0.206 log [(𝐷)( 𝑥 )(𝑥 𝑏,𝐿𝐾 )2 ]
𝑆 𝑓,𝐿𝐾 𝑑,𝐻𝐾

𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑁 12.55 0.25 0.4 2
Log [ 𝑇 ] = 0.206 log [( 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 )( )( ) ]
𝑁𝑆 4.18 0.3 1.0
𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑁
Log [𝑁𝑇 ] = 0.0131
𝑆

𝑁
[ 𝑇 ] = 1.03
𝑁𝑆

For R = 2.895, N = 8

Number of stages excluding reboiler = 7

NT + Ns = 7

NS = 7 – NT

NS = 7 – 1.03 NS

2.03 NS = 7

NS = 3.45 ≈ at 4th stage

50
9) Density Vapour & Liquid

The density of vapour and liquid needs to be calculated by using the ideal gas law equation
first before determine the column diameter.

Vapour density, ρv

Molar flowrate, n 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙

4.18 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Gas constant, R 𝑚3 .𝑎𝑡𝑚

8.20573 𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾

Temperature, T 431.15 K

Pressure, P 1 atm

Mass flowrate, ṁ 6.8269x10-3

𝑘𝑔
𝑠

Pv = nRT

nRT
v=
P

𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚3 .𝑎𝑡𝑚
(4.18𝑥103 )(8.20573 )(431.15𝐾)
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾
v= 1 atm

𝑚3 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
v = 14788424.05 x
𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠

𝑚3
v = 246473.7342 𝑠

ṁ
ρv = 𝑣

𝑘𝑔
6.8269x10−3
ρv = 𝑠
𝑚3
246473.7342
𝑠

𝑘𝑔
ρv = 0.0277 𝑚3

51
Liquid density, ρl

Molar flowrate, n 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙

12.55 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Gas constant, R 𝑚3 .𝑎𝑡𝑚

8.20573
𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾

Temperature, T 610.15 K

Pressure, P 1 atm

Mass flowrate, ṁ 0.0205

𝑘𝑔
𝑠

Pv = nRT

nRT
v=
P

𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚3 .𝑎𝑡𝑚
(12.55𝑥103 )(8.20573 )(610.15𝐾)
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙.𝐾
v= 1 atm

𝑚3 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
v = 62834413.3 x
𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠

𝑚3
v = 1047240.222 𝑠

ṁ
ρl = 𝑣

𝑘𝑔
0.0205
ρl = 𝑠
𝑚3
1047240.222
𝑠

𝑘𝑔
ρl = 0.0196 𝑚3

52
10) Liquid-Vapour Flow Factor, FLV

Vapour mass flowrate, VW 𝑘𝑔

0.0068 𝑠

Liquid mass flowrate, LW 𝑘𝑔

0.0205 𝑠

L ρ
FLV = V𝑊 √ρ𝑣
𝑊 𝐿

0.0205 0.0277
FLV = 0.0068 √0.0196

FLV = 3.58

11) Tray Spacing

The final column height depends on the distance between the trays. Tray spacing that typically
used is from 0.15 m (6 in.) until 1 m (36 in.) The tray spacing from 0.3 m to 0.6 m is usually
used for columns that more than 1 m diameter. In this project, 0.5 m (18 in.) was selected as
initial estimate.

12) Vapour Velocity

(0.0277−0.0196) 1/2
uv = [-0.17(0.5)2 + 0.27(0.5) – 0.047][ 0.0196
]

uv = 0.0293 m/s

13) Column Diameter

4𝑉𝑊
DC = √
𝜋ρ𝑣 𝑢𝑣

4(0.0068)
DC = √𝜋(0.0277)(0.0293)

DC = 3.27 m

53
14) Height of Distillation Column

The height is determined by multiplying the number of stages by the distance between the
trays. Apart from the area occupied by the trays, the column's upper and lower height is
desired. The base of the tower should be large enough to act as a liquid storehouse.

Assumption from (Sinnott, 2005).

Extra feedspace (EF) = 1.5 m

Disengagement space (DS) = 3.0 m

Skirt height (SH) = 1.5 m

HC = (N-1) h1 + EF + DS + SH

HC = (8-1) (0.5) + 1.5 + 3.0 + 1.5

HC = 9.5 ≈ 10 m

15) Area of Distillation Column

𝜋(𝐷𝐶 )2 𝜋(3.27)2
4
= 4
= 8.4 m2

16) Total Number of Holes

By identifying the area of one hole and hole area, the total amount of the hole can be
estimated. The height of the hole for carbon steel will be around the width of the tray.
Theoretically, the flow of the product influenced by the number of holes, the more number of
holes, the easier the product’s flow (Benton, 2020).

Total Column Cross-Sectional Area, Ac

𝐷
Ac = 𝜋( 2𝐶 )2

3.27 2
Ac = 𝜋( 2
)

Ac = 8.4 m2

54
Cross-Sectional Area of Downcomer, Ad = 12% of total

Ad = 0.12 x 8.4 m2

Ad = 1.008 m2

Active Area, Aa

Aa = Ac – 2Ad

Aa = 8.4 – 2(1.008)

Aa = 6.384 m2

Hole Area = 10% from active area

x = 0.1 x 6.384

x = 0.6384 m2

Assumption from (Sinnott, 2005).

Hole size, dh = 5 mm

Area of one hole, y

𝜋
y = 4 (𝑑ℎ )2

𝜋 1𝑚
y = 4 (5 𝑚𝑚 𝑥 1000 𝑚𝑚
)2

y = 0.0015 m2

Total Number of Holes, z

ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
z = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒

0.6384
z = 0.0015

z = 41398 holes

55
17) Column Thickness

For carbon and low-alloy steels, a minimum allowance of 2 mm and the design stress of 115
N/mm2 should be used (Coulson & Richardson, 2005).

Internal diameter, Di 3270 mm

Internal pressure, Pi 11.5 N/mm2
Design stress, f 115 N/mm2
Corrosion allowance, c 2 mm

This allowance adds extra thickness to account for uniform metal loss over the equipment’s
expected service life. The key word here is uniform. Mild carbon steel uniformly corrodes due
to the galvanic cell potential of the interlaced ferrite-cementite grain structure, called pearlite

𝑃𝑅
𝑖 𝑖
t = [2𝑆𝑒− 𝑃
]+C
𝑖

𝑁
(11.5 )(3270 𝑚𝑚)
𝑚𝑚2
t=[ 𝑁 𝑁 ] + 2 mm
2(115 )−11.5
𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚2

t = 174.11 mm

18) Head Thickness

According to its solid form and its capacity to withstand high pressures, the head type that is
suitable for building the distillation tower is hemispherical shape.

Assumption from (Sinnott, 2005).

The optimum ratio for head thickness is 0.6

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
= 0.6

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
174.11
= 0.6

head thickness = 104.47 mm

56
3.3 Mechanical Drawing

3.3.1 2D Drawing With Dimensions (Autocad Software)

Front view

Top view

57
3.3.2 Isometric 3D Drawing (Inventor Software)

Front view 3D view

Top view

58
3.3.3 Isometric 3D Drawing (Inventor Software) – Sieve Tray

Front view

Top view

3D view

59
3.4 Specification Datasheet

Item name: Distillation column (Separator)

Item no: FG-102

Author: Muhammad Alif Irfan bin Abu Bakar

Table 6: Distillation Column (Separator) Specification Datasheet

Mechanical design

Specification Description

Types of column Continuous

Types of continuous column Multi-component column

Types of column internals Tray column

Type of trays Sieve trays

Material Carbon steel

Operational design

Specification Unit Description

Number of stages - 8 stages

Feed point location - 4th stages

Tray spacing m 0.5

Column diameter m 3.27

60
Column height m 10

Column area m2 8.4

Column thickness mm 174.11

Corrosion allowance mm 2

Head thickness mm 104.47

Hole area m2 0.6384

Hole size mm 5

Area of one hole m2 0.0015

Number of holes - 41398

61
4.0 Heat Exchanger

4.1 Fundamental Knowledge

4.1.1 Purpose

Heat exchangers can be used in a variety of locations, typically operating to

heat or cool buildings or to improve the efficiency of engines and machines.
Refrigerators and air conditioners, for example, use heat exchangers in the opposite
way that central heating systems does by draining heat from a compartment or space
that isn't needed and pump it away in a fluid to another location where it can be dumped
out of the way. The cooling fluid is fully enclosed inside a network of pipes, so it never
comes into direct contact with the air: it extracts heat energy from the air within and
dumps it in the air outside, so it never mixes with it.

Exhaust gases from power plants or generators also produce heat that is
wasted by escaping into the open air. That is a waste of energy, which a heat
exchanger will help to minimise even though not eliminate, some heat will still be lost.
Heat exchangers installed inside exhaust tail pipes or smokestacks are one solution to
this issue. The hot exhaust gases brush against copper fins with water flowing through
them as they rise. The heat is carried away by the water and returned to the plant.
There, it could be directly recycled, possibly warming the cold gases that feed into the
engine or furnace, thus saving energy that would otherwise be used to heat them up.

Other than that, in buses the fluid used to cool the diesel engine is often
transferred through a heat exchanger, with the heat reclaimed being used to warm cold
air pumped up from the passenger compartment's floor. This eliminates the need for
extra, inefficient electric heaters within the bus. Another form of heat exchanger is a
car radiator. The radiator cools the engine by circulating water through a series of
parallel aluminium fins that are exposed to the cold. Cold air flowing past the radiator
eliminates some of the heat as the car travels, cooling the water and heating the air to
keep the engine running smoothly. The waste heat from the radiator is used to heat
the passenger compartment, like how it is done on a truck.

62
 Another common use of heat exchanger is to pre-heat a cold fluid entering a
heated process system using heat from hot fluid exiting the system. This reduces the
energy input necessary to heat the incoming fluid to working temperature. Specific
applications for heat exchangers include:

• Heating a cooler fluid using the heat from a hotter fluid

• Cooling a hot fluid by transferring its heat to a cooler fluid
• Boiling a liquid using the heat from a hotter fluid
• Boiling a liquid while condensing a hotter gaseous fluid
• Condensing a gaseous fluid by means of a cooler fluid

4.1.2 Design Intention

The calculation of the minimum heat transfer area needed for a given heat duty is the
primary goal of any heat exchanger design, as it determines the heat exchanger's
overall cost. With various design variables such as tube outer diameter, pitch, and
length; tube passes; baffle spacing; baffle cut, and so on, a variety of configurations
are possible. As a result, the design engineer needs an effective strategy for locating
the global minimum.

4.1.3 Type of Heat Exchanger

a. Double Tube Heat Exchangers:

Double tube heat exchangers use what is known as a tube within a tube structure.
There are two pipes where one is built inside the other. Just like the example
above, one fluid flows through the inner pipe while the second fluid flows around
the first fluid in the outer pipe. This type of heat exchanger is known for being the
most basic and affordable of all. Its size makes it ideal for tight spaces, allowing for
some extra flexibility in the layout of the manufacturing process.

63
b. Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers:

Out of all the types of heat exchangers, shell and tube heat exchangers are the
most versatile. A shell and tube heat exchanger is designed with a number of tubes
placed inside a cylindrical shell. The popular design of this type of heat exchanger
allows for a wide range of pressures and temperatures. If you need to cool or heat
a large number of fluids or gases, the application of the shell and tube heat
exchanger is an option to consider. While smaller in size compared to some of the
other types, a shell and tube heat exchanger can be easily broken-down, making
cleaning and repairs easy.

c. Tube in Tube Heat Exchangers:

Like the other types of heat exchangers, a tube in tube heat exchanger is
comprised of two tubes, one for each fluid. However, the tubes are coiled together
to form an outside and inside pattern. The application for a tube in tube design can
get creative. Since the tubes are coiled together, most designs for this type are
compact. Applications for a tube in tube heat exchanger center around high
temperature and high pressure. Since it runs at a higher output, a tube in tube heat
exchanger tends to have greater efficiency.

d. Plate Heat Exchangers:

While all of the types of heat exchangers discussed so far have a similar design,
the plate heat exchanger is the exception. Metal plates are used to transfer heat
between two fluids. The plate is a metal shell, with spaces inside each plate that
act as hallways for fluids to travel through. With a plate heat exchanger, there is a
greater surface area in contact with the fluids, so it has better rates of heat transfer
compared to all other types. Although plate heat exchangers can be more
expensive, the efficiency gained by the design is a big plus. This type of heat
exchanger is best used in places like power plants because of its durability and low
repair rates.

64
4.1.4 Working Principle

Heat exchanger facilitates heat transfer from one medium to another. Often
these media are two process fluid streams such as - oil, water, steam, gas, air etc. In
general, one fluid must be significantly hotter than the other. So, we have a hot and a
cold fluid and a heat exchanger enables the heat to flow from hot fluid to cold through
a metallic wall.

Figure 14: Heat flow

Heat exchanger channels the flow of hot and cold streams through passages
separated from each other by metal surface. Thanks to the high heat conductivity of
the metal, heat flows from hot stream to the cold one. So, the hot fluid exits the heat
exchanger, a little colder. And cold stream goes out a little hotter. That is why heat
exchangers are widely used for heating up or cooling down a fluid stream in a
processing plant.

65
4.2 Detail Calculation

4.2.1 Heat Exchanger 1 (E-101)

1. Log Mean Temperature, TLM

The LMTD represents the driving force between process streams. The use of the LMTD
represents an averaging of the driving force since the temperature difference between the two
streams changes as it flows through the exchanger.

(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )−(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
TLM = (𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
ln(𝑇1
2 − 𝑡1 )

(160−50)−(25−20)
= (160−50)
ln (25−20)

= 33.97°C

2. Heat Transfer Rate, Q

Heat transfer rate is the amount of heat that needed to transfer from a hot side to the cold side
over unit of time.

𝑄 = n̊ 𝐶𝑝Δ𝑇

n̊ = (4.18 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/min) × (60min/1hr) × (98.079g/1mol)

= 24.5982×103 kg/hr

Q = 24.5982×103 kg/hr × (1.34kj/kg.K) × (433.15 K – 298.15 K) × (1hr/60min) ×

(1min/60s)

= 1236.06 kJ/s

66
3. Heat Transfer Area, A

The overall heat transfer coefficient, U represents the ease with which heat is transferred from
one medium to another. The range of overall heat transfer coefficient, U based on organic
solvent and water whereby U, 250 – 750 W/m2°C

𝑄
A=
𝑈 × ΔTm

1236.06 𝑊
= W
750 2 ×33.97°C
𝑚 °C

= 48.52 m2

4. Area of One Tube, At

Tube length, L is by typical length of tube used in industry which is 3 m and typical diameter
of the tube applied in industry with 20 mm.

Area one tube: 𝜋 × 𝐿 × do

At = 𝜋 × 20×10-3m × 3m

At = 0.19 m2

5. Number of Tubes, Nt

𝐴
Nt =
At

48.52 𝑚2
=
0.19 𝑚2

= 260 tubes

6. Tube Cross Sectional Area

Ac = πr2

= π × (10×10-3m)2

= 3.1416×10-4 m2

67
7. Tube Length

𝐴
L=
π 𝑑𝑜 𝑁𝑡

48.52 𝑚2
=
3.142 ×20 mm × 257

= 3.00 m

8. Inner Diameter of Tube, di

𝑑𝑜
di =
𝑑𝑟

0.02 𝑚
di =
1.3

= 0.015 m

9. Bundle Diameter, Db

1
𝑁𝑡 𝑛
Db = 𝑑𝑜 ( )
𝐾1

1
257 2.207
= 20𝑚𝑚 ( )
0.215

= 0.50 m

10. Shell Diameter, Ds

𝑃 2
1 𝐴 ( 𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑜 1
𝑑𝑜
Ds = 0.637 √ [ ]2
0.93 𝐿

0.025𝑚 2
1 48.52𝑚2 ( ) 0.02𝑚 1
0.02𝑚
= 0.637 √ [ ]2
0.93 3𝑚

= 0.47 m

68
11. Baffle Spacing, Bs

Bs = 1 x Ds

= 1 x 0.4696m

= 0.47 m

12. Number of Baffles, nb

𝐿𝑡
nb = −1
𝐵𝑠

3𝑚
= −1
0.47𝑚

= 6 baffles

13. Shell Area, As

𝐷𝑠 × 𝐵𝑠 ×(𝑃𝑡 −𝐷𝑡 )
As =
𝑃𝑡

0.47𝑚 × 0.47 ×(0.025𝑚−0.02𝑚)

=
0.025𝑚

= 0.044 m2

14. Effective Diameter, de

𝑃𝑡 1 𝑑𝑜 2
de = 4( × 0.87𝑃𝑡 − 𝜋 )
2 2 4

0.025𝑚 1 (0.02𝑚)2
= 4[ × 0.87(0.025𝑚) − (3.142) ]
2 2 4

= 4.59×10-4 m

69
4.2.2 Heat Exchanger 2 (E-102)

1. Log Mean Temperature, TLM

The LMTD represents the driving force between process streams. The use of the LMTD
represents an averaging of the driving force since the temperature difference between the two
streams changes as it flows through the exchanger.

(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )−(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
TLM = (𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
ln(𝑇1
2 − 𝑡1 )

(160−50)−(76.84−20)
= (160−50)
ln(76.84−20)

= 80.52°C

2. Heat Transfer Rate, Q

Heat transfer rate is the amount of heat that needed to transfer from a hot side to the cold side
over unit of time.

a) Phosphoric acid

𝑄 = n̊ 𝐶𝑝Δ𝑇

n̊ = (5.02 kmol/min) × (60min/1hr) × (97.994 g/1mol)

= 29.52×103 kg/hr

Q = 29.52×103 kg/hr × (1.79 J/g.K) × (83.16K) × (1hr/60min) × (1min/60s)

= 1220.62 kJ/s

70
 b) Water

𝑄 = n̊ 𝐶𝑝Δ𝑇

n̊ = (7.53 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙/min) × (60min/1hr) × (18.02g/1mol)

= 8.14×103 kg/hr

Q = 8.14×103 kg/hr × (4.18J/g.K) × (83.16K) × (1hr/60min) × (1min/60s)

= 785.98 kJ/s

QT = 1220.62 kJ/s + 785.98 kJ/s = 2006.60 kJ/s

3. Heat Transfer Area, A

The overall heat transfer coefficient, U represents the ease with which heat is transferred from
one medium to another. The range of overall heat transfer coefficient, U based on organic
solvent and water whereby U, 250 – 750 W/m2°C

𝑄
A=
𝑈 × ΔTm

2006.60 𝑊
= W
750 2 ×80.52°C
𝑚 °C

= 33.23 m2

4. Area of One Tube, At

Tube length, L is by typical length of tube used in industry which is 3 m and typical diameter
of the tube applied in industry with 20 mm.

Area one tube: 𝜋 × 𝐿 × do

At = 𝜋 × 20×10-3m × 3m

At = 0.19 m2

71
5. Number of Tubes, Nt

𝐴
Nt =
At

33.23 𝑚2
=
0.19 𝑚2

= 175 tubes

6. Tube Cross Sectional Area

Ac = πr2

= π × (10×10-3m)2

= 3.14×10-4 m2

7. Tube Length

𝐴
L=
π 𝑑𝑜 𝑁𝑡

33.23 𝑚2
=
3.142 ×20 mm × 175

= 3.02 m

8. Inner Diameter of Tube, di

𝑑𝑜
di =
𝑑𝑟

0.02 𝑚
di =
1.3

= 0.015 m

72
9. Bundle Diameter, Db

1
𝑁𝑡 𝑛
Db = 𝑑𝑜 ( )
𝐾1

1
175 2.207
= 20𝑚𝑚 ( )
0.215

= 0.42 m

10. Shell Diameter, Ds

𝑃 2
1 𝐴 ( 𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑜 1
𝑑𝑜
Ds = 0.637 √ [ ]2
0.93 𝐿

0.025 𝑚 2
1 33.23 𝑚2 ( ) 0.02 𝑚 1
0.02 𝑚
= 0.637 √ [ ]2
0.93 3𝑚

= 0.35 m

11. Baffle Spacing, Bs

Bs = 1 x Ds

= 1 x 0.35m

= 0.35 m

12. Number of Baffles, nb

𝐿𝑡
nb = −1
𝐵𝑠

3𝑚
= −1
0.35 𝑚

= 7 baffles

73
13. Shell Area, As

𝐷𝑠 × 𝐵𝑠 ×(𝑃𝑡 −𝐷𝑡 )
As =
𝑃𝑡

0.35𝑚 × 0.35𝑚 ×(0.025𝑚−0.02𝑚)

=
0.025𝑚

= 0.025 m2

14. Effective Diameter, de

𝑃𝑡 1 𝑑𝑜 2
de = 4( × 0.87𝑃𝑡 − 𝜋 )
2 2 4

0.025𝑚 1 (0.02𝑚)2
= 4[ × 0.87(0.025𝑚) − (3.142) ]
2 2 4

= 4.59×10-4 m

74
4.2.3 Heat Exchanger 3 (E-103)

1. Log Mean Temperature, TLM

The LMTD represents the driving force between process streams. The use of the LMTD
represents an averaging of the driving force since the temperature difference between the two
streams changes as it flows through the exchanger.

(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )−(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
TLM = (𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
ln(𝑇1
2 − 𝑡1 )

(100−50)−(25−20)
= (100−50)
ln (25−20)

= 19.54 °C

2. Heat Transfer Rate, Q

Heat transfer rate is the amount of heat that needed to transfer from a hot side to the cold side
over unit of time.

𝑄 = n̊ 𝐶𝑝Δ𝑇

n̊ = (4.19 kmol/min) × (60min/1hr) × (18.02g/1mol)

= 4.53×103 kg/hr

Q = 4.53×103 kg/hr × (4.18 J/g.K) × (75K) × (1hr/60min) × (1min/60s)

= 394.49 kJ/s

75
3. Heat Transfer Area, A

The overall heat transfer coefficient, U represents the ease with which heat is transferred from
one medium to another. The range of overall heat transfer coefficient, U based on organic
solvent and water whereby U, 250 – 750 W/m2°C

𝑄
A=
𝑈 × ΔTm

394.49 𝑊
= W
800 2 ×19.54°C
𝑚 °C

= 25.24 m2

4. Area of One Tube, At

Tube length, L is by typical length of tube used in industry which is 3 m and typical diameter
of the tube applied in industry with 20 mm.

Area one tube: 𝜋 × 𝐿 × do

At = 𝜋 × 20×10-3m × 3m

At = 0.19 m2

5. Number of Tubes, Nt

𝐴
Nt =
At

25.24 𝑚2
=
0.19 𝑚2

= 130 tubes

6. Tube Cross Sectional Area

Ac = πr2

= π × (10×10-3m)2

= 3.14×10-4 m2

76
7. Tube Length

𝐴
L=
π 𝑑𝑜 𝑁𝑡

25.24 𝑚2
=
3.142 ×20 mm × 132

= 3.04 m

8. Inner Diameter of Tube, di

𝑑𝑜
di =
𝑑𝑟

0.02 𝑚
di =
1.3

= 0.015 m

9. Bundle Diameter, Db

1
𝑁𝑡 𝑛
Db = 𝑑𝑜 ( )
𝐾1

1
132 2.207
= 20𝑚𝑚 ( )
0.215

= 0.37 m

10. Shell Diameter, Ds

𝑃 2
1 𝐴 ( 𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑜 1
𝑑𝑜
Ds = 0.637 √ [ ]2
0.93 𝐿

0.025 𝑚 2
1 25.24 𝑚2 ( ) 0.02 𝑚 1
0.02 𝑚
= 0.637 √ [ ]2
0.93 3𝑚

= 0.30 m

77
11. Baffle Spacing, Bs

Bs = 1 x Ds

= 1 x 0.30m

= 0.30 m

12. Number of Baffles, nb

𝐿𝑡
nb = −1
𝐵𝑠

3𝑚
= −1
0.30 𝑚

= 9 baffles

13. Shell Area, As

𝐷𝑠 × 𝐵𝑠 ×(𝑃𝑡 −𝐷𝑡 )
As =
𝑃𝑡

0.30𝑚 × 0.30𝑚 ×(0.025𝑚−0.02𝑚)

=
0.025𝑚

= 0.018 m2

14. Effective Diameter, de

𝑃𝑡 1 𝑑𝑜 2
de = 4( × 0.87𝑃𝑡 − 𝜋 )
2 2 4

0.025𝑚 1 (0.02𝑚)2
= 4[ × 0.87(0.025𝑚) − (3.142) ]
2 2 4

= 4.59×10-4 m

78
4.2.4 Heat Exchanger 4 (E-104)

1. Log Mean Temperature, TLM

The LMTD represents the driving force between process streams. The use of the LMTD
represents an averaging of the driving force since the temperature difference between the two
streams changes as it flows through the exchanger.

(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )−(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
TLM = (𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
ln(𝑇1
2 − 𝑡1 )

(100−50)−(25−20)
= (100−50)
ln (25−20)

= 19.54 °C

2. Heat Transfer Rate, Q

Heat transfer rate is the amount of heat that needed to transfer from a hot side to the cold side
over unit of time.

𝑄 = n̊ 𝐶𝑝Δ𝑇

n̊ = (1.67 kmol/min) × (60min/1hr) × (18.02 g/1mol)

= 1.81×103 kg/hr

Q = 1.81×103 kg/hr × (4.18 J/g.K) × (75K) × (1hr/60min) × (1min/60s)

= 157.62 kJ/s

79
3. Heat Transfer Area, A

The overall heat transfer coefficient, U represents the ease with which heat is transferred from
one medium to another. The range of overall heat transfer coefficient, U based on organic
solvent and water whereby U, 250 – 750 W/m2°C

𝑄
A=
𝑈 × ΔTm

157.62 𝑊
= W
800 2 ×19.54°C
𝑚 °C

= 10.09 m2

4. Area of One Tube, At

Tube length, L is by typical length of tube used in industry which is 3 m and typical diameter
of the tube applied in industry with 20 mm.

Area one tube: 𝜋 × 𝐿 × do

At = 𝜋 × 20×10-3m × 3m

At = 0.19 m2

5. Number of Tubes, Nt

𝐴
Nt =
At

10.09 𝑚2
=
0.19 𝑚2

= 50 tubes

6. Tube Cross Sectional Area

Ac = πr2

= π × (10×10-3m)2

= 3.14×10-4 m2

80
7. Tube Length

𝐴
L=
π 𝑑𝑜 𝑁𝑡

10.09 𝑚2
=
3.142 ×20 mm × 53

= 3.03 m

8. Inner Diameter of Tube, di

𝑑𝑜
di =
𝑑𝑟

0.02 𝑚
di =
1.3

= 0.015 m

9. Bundle Diameter, Db

1
𝑁𝑡 𝑛
Db = 𝑑𝑜 ( )
𝐾1

1
53 2.207
= 20𝑚𝑚 ( )
0.215

= 0.24 m

10. Shell Diameter, Ds

𝑃 2
1 𝐴 ( 𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑜 1
𝑑𝑜
Ds = 0.637 √ [ ]2
0.93 𝐿

0.025 𝑚 2
1 10.09 𝑚2 ( ) 0.02 𝑚 1
0.02 𝑚
= 0.637 √ [ ]2
0.93 3𝑚

= 0.19 m

81
11. Baffle Spacing, Bs

Bs = 1 x Ds

= 1 x 0.19m

= 0.19 m

12. Number of Baffles, nb

𝐿𝑡
nb = −1
𝐵𝑠

3𝑚
= −1
0.19 𝑚

= 14 baffles

13. Shell Area, As

𝐷𝑠 × 𝐵𝑠 ×(𝑃𝑡 −𝐷𝑡 )
As =
𝑃𝑡

0.19𝑚 × 0.19𝑚 ×(0.025𝑚−0.02𝑚)

=
0.025𝑚

= 0.0072 m2

14. Effective Diameter, de

𝑃𝑡 1 𝑑𝑜 2
de = 4( × 0.87𝑃𝑡 − 𝜋 )
2 2 4

0.025𝑚 1 (0.02𝑚)2
= 4[ × 0.87(0.025𝑚) − (3.142) ]
2 2 4

= 4.59×10-4 m

82
4.3 Mechanical Drawing

4.3.1 PDMS Software Drawing

Figure 15: Side View of Heat Exchanger

Figure 16: 3D Model of Heat Exchanger

4.3.2 Inventor Software Drawing

Figure 17: 3D Model of Heat Exchanger

83
Figure 18: Front View of Heat Exchanger

Figure 19: Side View of Heat Exchanger

84
4.4 Specification Data Sheet

Table 7: Data Sheet of Heat Exchanger 1

Specification Datasheet
Item Name Heat Exchanger 1
Item No E-101
Author Muhammad Aqil Dhamiri
Operating Condition Data
Heat Transfer Rate 1236.06 kJ/s
LMTD 33.97°C
Heat Transfer Area 48.52 m2
Tube Side
Area of One Tube 0.19 m2
Number of Tubes 260 tubes
No of Passes 1
Tube Per Pass 260 tubes
Tube Per Cross Area 0.00031 m2
Shell Side
Bundle Diameter 0.50 m
Shell Diameter 0.50m
Tube Pitch 0.025 m
Number of Baffles 6
Baffle Spacing 0.47 m
Shell Area 0.044 m2
Effective Diameter 0.00046 m

85
 Table 8: Data Sheet of Heat Exchanger 2

Specification Datasheet
Item Name Heat Exchanger 2
Item No E-102
Author Muhammad Aqil Dhamiri
Operating Condition Data
Heat Transfer Rate 2006.60 kJ/s
LMTD 80.52 °C
Heat Transfer Area 33.23 m2
Tube Side
Area of One Tube 0.19 m2
Number of Tubes 175 tubes
No of Passes 1
Tube Per Pass 175 tubes
Tube Per Cross Area 0.00031 m2
Shell Side
Bundle Diameter 0.42 m
Shell Diameter 0.35 m
Tube Pitch 0.025 m
Number of Baffles 7
Baffle Spacing 0.35 m
Shell Area 0.025 m2
Effective Diameter 0.00046 m

86
 Table 9: Data Sheet of Heat Exchanger 3

Specification Datasheet
Item Name Heat Exchanger 3
Item No E-103
Author Muhammad Aqil Dhamiri
Operating Condition Data
Heat Transfer Rate 394.49 kJ/s
LMTD 19.54 °C
Heat Transfer Area 25.24 m2
Tube Side
Area of One Tube 0.19 m2
Number of Tubes 130 tubes
No of Passes 1
Tube Per Pass 130 tubes
Tube Per Cross Area 0.00031 m2
Shell Side
Bundle Diameter 0.37 m
Shell Diameter 0.30 m
Tube Pitch 0.025 m
Number of Baffles 9
Baffle Spacing 0.30 m
Shell Area 0.018 m2
Effective Diameter 0.00046 m

87
 Table 10: Data Sheet of Heat Exchanger 4

Specification Datasheet
Item Name Heat Exchanger 4
Item No E-104
Author Muhammad Aqil Dhamiri
Operating Condition Data
Heat Transfer Rate 157.62 kJ/s
LMTD 19.54 °C
Heat Transfer Area 10.09 m2
Tube Side
Area of One Tube 0.19 m2
Number of Tubes 50 tubes
No of Passes 1
Tube Per Pass 50 tubes
Tube Per Cross Area 0.00031 m2
Shell Side
Bundle Diameter 0.24 m
Shell Diameter 0.19 m
Tube Pitch 0.025 m
Number of Baffles 14
Baffle Spacing 0.19 m
Shell Area 0.0072 m2
Effective Diameter 0.00046 m

88
5.0 Mixer

5.1 Fundamental Knowledge

5.1.1 Purpose of Distillation Column

In several various systems, at the beginning or at the end, mixers play a significant
part. Any systems will need the precise mixing of multiple feed streams before a reaction
begins. Additional procedures involve the combining of the final products (Dotzenrod, N.,
2015). Both functions are served by mixers. Products of all physical states can be blended
together, no matter if it is the gas mixing, liquid mixing, gas-liquid mixing or solid-liquid mixing.

Based on our project, we require a solid (phosphate rock) to mixed with a liquid (water).
This is due to the fact that the solids insoluble and need to be transformed as a slurry. Often
times, stirred tanks are used to mix these physical states. This kind of mixture is usually
combined at ambient pressure and the completed mixture is later pumped at process pressure
(Towler and Sinnot, 2012).

5.1.2 Importance of Mixing Technology

Mixing is a vital step since the consistency and characteristics of the finished product
are based on the mix quality. Improper mixture leads to a substance that has not been
homogenized and lacks compatibility with desirable properties, such as chemical structure,
colour, shape, taste, reactiveness, and particle size.

The wide variety of mixing processes in industrial applications and their ever-
increasing complexity demand careful selection and design and scale to guarantee effective
and efficient blending. Better mixing efficiency results in reduced batch cycle times and
running costs. Competitive manufacturing line today needs durable equipment that can mix
instantly, lower power consumption, versatility of equipment, better maintenance, and a range
of individual characteristics.

A mixer has ceased to be a crucial and definitive business tool, not a generic producing
tool. Because profitability and competitive advantage rely on subtle product quality changes
due to gains in output mixing and reliability (Bright Hub Engineering, 2009).

89
5.1.3 Types of Mixer

Medium-shear
Usually used for thick, viscous mixtures

Types of shear

Low-shear
Usually used for watery and liquid mixtures

For our project, feed (phosphate rock and water) will be mixed together before transfer
into reactor. The viscosity of the mixture could be higher due to phosphate rock, so medium
shear with medium flow is more suitable for our plant. In order to break down the phosphate
rock, much power is required but somehow the speed applied cannot be too fast because the
mixture is thick. The mixture must be moved around the container to make sure all phosphate
rock and water mix (Loeschen, D., 2019).

Rotational flow

Axial flow
Flow patterns

Radial flow

90
 Axial flow is the most effective bulk flow of all three patterns. The individual blades are
bent backward with axial flow. This style of flow offers a wide variety of conditions for great
mixing. Suspending solids in the liquid mix is therefore very effective. (Loeschen, D., 2019).

Straight blade

Pitched

Types of impellers

Hydrofoil

Dispersion blade

Hydrofoil is the best combination with axial flow and also suspension needs. The kind
of impeller has blades with the greatest amount of angle. They are almost parallel with the
bottom of the tank. When they spin, they force most of the mixture downward. However, the
steep angle of hydrofoil limits their effectiveness for dispersion and high viscosity mixing.
Fortunately, the feed mixture of our project is considered as medium viscosity.

Figure 20: Hydrofoil or High Efficiency Impeller

91
5.1.4 Mechanism of Mixer

Three basic mechanisms can be present in a mixing operation: molecular diffusion,

eddy diffusion and bulk or convective flow. Molecular diffusion is spontaneous, driven by the
gradients of concentration and temperature and can be found in the mixing of miscible liquids
of low viscosities and all gases. In most practical operations it is a slow process and eddy
diffusion must be superimposed on it to speed up mixing. Eddy diffusion results
from turbulence the flow of fluids and requires greater energy input. In the mixing of fluids
thus, viscosity is the dominant property of the system resisting mixing and the lower it is the
easier the turbulent, conditions can be achieved and the quicker the mixing operation.

All research points to the need of providing the correct balance between the levels of
turbulence and flow circulation rates to ensure effective mixing of systems. A top to bottom
axial-flow circulating propeller, for example, is very well suited for homogenizing miscible
liquids and keeping solid sediments suspended in large tanks. Gas-in-liquid dispersions, on
the other hand, are better achieved using radial-flow turbine type impellers which produce high
shear zones near the impeller blade tips to break the incoming gas into fine bubbles (Benkreira
& Hadj, 2011). Very fine bubbles indicate very good mixing but usually require greater
coalescing times, hence, yield poor mass transfer. Turbulence levels induced by the impeller
must be tuned to produce optimal size bubbles. Even higher shear can be obtained with fast
moving saw tooth-disc stirrers which are particularly suited for emulsification and dispersion
of liquids over a wide range of viscosities.

92
 5.2 Details Calculation

N2 = 5.86 kmol/min

100% H2O (l)

N1 = 5.28 kmol/min
Ca3(PO4)2 (l)
Mixer
Ca3(PO4)2 (s)
H2O (l)

1) Volumetric Flowrate of Mixer

ṁ = n1 x mw

𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝑔
ṁ = 5.28 x 310.18
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑘𝑔
ṁ = 1637.7504
𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑔 1 𝑘𝑔 1003 𝑐𝑚3
ρ = 3.14 x x
𝑐𝑚3 1000 𝑔 1 𝑚3

𝑘𝑔
ρ = 3140
𝑚3

93
 ṁ
vo =
ρ

1637.7504
vo =
3140

𝑚3 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
vo = 0.5216 x
𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠

𝑚3
vo = 8.6933 x 10-3
𝑠

2) Volume of Mixer

τ = 5 min = 300 s (assumption)

V = vo x τ

𝑚3
V = 8.6933 x 10-3 x 300 s
𝑠

1000 𝐿
V = 2.608 m3 x
1 𝑚3

V = 2608 L

3) Diameter and Height of Vessel

Impeller type – Axial

N = 8000 rpm (Coulson & Richardson, 2005)

The form of mixer is a cylindrical vessel.

𝜋𝐷𝑇 ℎ
V=
4

𝜋𝐷𝑇 ℎ
2.608 = ------- (1)
4

Where 1.5 h = 2.0 DT

h = 1.33 DT ------- (2)

94
Substitute (2) into (1)

𝜋𝐷𝑇 (1.33𝐷𝑇 )
2.608 =
4

1.33 (DT)2 = 3.3206

DT = 1.58 m

h = 1.33 (1.58)

h = 2.1 m

4) Area of Vessel

A = 2𝜋rh + 𝜋r2

A = 2𝜋 (0.79) (2.1) + 𝜋 (0.79)2

A = 12.38 m2

5) Impeller & Blade

By referring to Chemical Engineering Design book, Volume 6, 4th edition (Coulson &
Richardson, 2005),

Impeller diameter; p = 1.0 D

𝐷 p = 1.0 (0.63)
𝐷𝑇
= 0.4

p = 0.63 m
D = 0.4 DT

D = 0.4 (1.58)

D = 0.63 m

Blade pitch;

𝑝
= 1.0
𝐷

95
5.3 Mechanical Drawing

5.3.1 2D Drawing with Dimensions (AutoCAD Software)

Motor

Front view Top view

Impeller Vessel

96
5.3.2 3D Drawing (Inventor Software)

Front view 3D view

Top view

97
5.4 Specification Datasheet

Item name: Mixer

Item no: M-101

Author: Muhammad Alif Irfan bin Abu Bakar

Table 11: Mixer Specification Datasheet

Mechanical Design

Specification Description

Types of Mixer Solid-liquid mixing

Types of Shear Medium-shear

Flow Patterns Axial flow

Type of Impellers Hydrofoil

Operational Design

Specification Unit Description

Volume of Mixer m3 2.608

Diameter of Vessel m 1.58

Height of Vessel m 2.1

Area of Vessel m2 12.38

Impeller Diameter m 0.63

Blade Pitch m 0.63

98
6.0 Evaporator

6.1 Fundamental Knowledge

Evaporation is a unit operation that separates a liquid from solids by means of heat
transfer via vaporization or boiling (Hackett, 2018). Evaporating a portion of the solvent
concentrates the solute into a more viscous liquid product. Evaporation is regularly used in the
food processing, chemical, and pharmaceutical industries. The primary function of evaporators is
to concentrate a solution by the evaporation of the more volatile solvent and the required end
product is the concentrated liquid.

Evaporation is the process of concentrating a process solution by vaporising the solvent

in the solution under a given pressure and heating it until it reaches its boiling point. When enough
energy is obtained to separate the water molecules in the form of vapour from a solid solution or
liquid, the evaporation process is complete. The evaporation process takes place under vacuum
and atmospheric pressure conditions. The following factors are important for evaporation
process:

i. Concentration: The initial and final concentration of solute in the solution should be
considered. As the concentration increases, the boiling point rises.
ii. Foaming: Few products have tendency to foam, which reduces the heat transfer.
iii. Heat Sensitivity: Food products such as milk is sensitive to high temperature. If the
exposure time is exceeded, the milk proteins will be damaged.
iv. Scale Formation/ Fouling: Solids depositions on the evaporator surface is common.
Fouling reduces the heat transfer efficiency, and the cleaning process is difficult.
v. Materials of Construction: Stainless steel is the most common metal used for
evaporators in the industry.
vi. Specific Heat: Changes with the concentration of solution. More heat is required at high
specific heat values.
vii. Gas Liberation: Few products liberate gases when heated under boiling pressures.
viii. Toxicity: The gases liberated may be toxic and should be handle carefully.
ix. Viscosity: Increasing viscosity of the solution during evaporation increases the contact
time and there are chances of burning or damage the product.
x. Capacity: The amount of water evaporated per hour. It depends on the surface area of
heat transfer, temperature difference and overall heat transfer coefficient.

99
6.1.1 Types of Evaporators

An evaporator system consists of a heat exchanger that provides sensible heat to raise
the boiling point of the product and provide latent heat of vaporisation. Separator is used for the
separation of vapour and concentrate. Condenser removes the resulting vapour as condensate
and a vacuum system as the process is carried out under reduced pressure. Based on the nature
of heat transfer surface, evaporators can be classified as:

Figure 21: Evaporation Process

i. Natural/Forced Evaporator

Natural circulation evaporators work based on the natural circulation of the product
caused by the density differences that arise from heating. In an evaporator using tubing, when
the water begins to boil, bubbles will rise and cause circulation, facilitating the separation of the
liquid and the vapor the top of the heating tubes. The amount of evaporation depends on the
temperature difference between the steam and the solution. Problems arise when the tubes are
not well-immersed in the solution causing the system to be dried out.

100
 Forced circulation is used to counter with the problem by inserting a pump to increase
pressure and circulation. Forced circulation occurs when hydrostatic head prevents boiling at the
heating surface. Forced circulation evaporators are commonly used in in the waste stream,
crystallizers, viscous fluids and other difficult process fluids as suppress boiling can reduce the
scaling and fouling problems. A pump can also be used to fouling by suppresses the bubble
formation. Other issues involved is the undefined residence time and the high consumption of
steam at high temperature.

ii. Falling Film Evaporator

This reactor is generally made of 4 to 8 meters of tubes enclosed by steam jackets.

Uniform distribution of the solution is important when using this type of reactor. The solution
enters and gains velocity as it flows downward. The gain in velocity is attributed to the vapor being
evolved against the heating medium, which flows downward as well. Falling film evaporator is
usually used for high viscous solution in the chemical, sugar, and food industries.

iii. Rising Film Evaporator

Boiling occurs inside the tubes due to outside heating (usually by steam). The formation
of water vapor bubbles within the tube produces an ascensional flow that enhances the heat
transfer coefficient. The evaporators are quite efficient, but the disadvantage is the evaporator
are prone to quick scaling on the internal surface of the tubes. The tubes are normally 4 meters
long and sometimes a small recycle is provided. in length. Occasionally, a small recycling bin is
given Sizing this type of evaporator is usually a delicate task, since it requires a precise evaluation
of the actual level of the process liquor inside the tubes.

iv. Horizontal Tube Evaporator

The evaporator tube is called horizontal because the tubes are arranged horizontally. The
heating chamber is formed by the horizontal tubes, which are supported by two plates. The steam
enters the tubes and condenses to give up its heat of condensation. There cannot be any
condensate steam since a purge eliminates it. The evaporation chamber comprises a vertical
cylindrical body, closed bases, the solvent evaporated with an outlet at the top and another outlet
for the concentrated solution at the bottom. These evaporators are usually made of iron or steel
plate with a diameter of approximately 2 meters and 3 meters high. The diameter of the tubes is
usually 2 to 3 inches.

101
 v. Vertical Tube Evaporator

This type of evaporator is so common in process industry and sometimes are known as
standard evaporator. The tubes inside a short-tube vertical evaporator are between 2 and 3 inch
in diameter. These tubes are expanded into sheets that span the diameter of the evaporator.
Around 1000 tubes are fitted in a vessel. The tubes are fitted with fluids and encompassed by
steam. In short tube vertical evaporators, feed enters the evaporator from the bottom. It then rises
through the tubes. As the feed is heated inside the tubes, evaporation takes place. The
liquid/vapor mixture continues to rise up to the remaining length of the tubes and into the vapor
head. The vapor flows out the top of the vapor head, while the liquor falls back to the bottom of
the evaporator, where it is combined with incoming feed. The recycle rate within the evaporator
is much greater than the feed rate. A down take ensures that the liquid from the vapor head is
recycled to the bottom of the evaporator in the minimum time.

102
6.2 Details Calculation

100 mol% H2O (g)

6.2.1 Evaporator 1
100°C, 1 atm

40 mol% H3PO4 (l)

Evaporator 1
60 mol% H2O (l)

76.84°C, 1 atm 60 mol% H3PO4 (l)

40 mol% H2O (l)

73.5°C, 1 atm

1) Log Mean Temperature, TLM

The LMTD represents the driving force between process streams. The use of the LMTD
represents an averaging of the driving force since the temperature difference between the two
streams changes as it flows through the exchanger.

(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )−(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
TLM = (𝑇 − 𝑡 )
ln(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 )
2 1

(76.84−50)−(100−25)
TLM = (76.84−50)
ln (100−25)

TLM = 46.87°C

103
2) Heat Transfer Rate, Q

Heat transfer rate is the amount of heat that needed to transfer from a hot side to the cold side
over unit of time.

𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑔
n̊ H2O = (7.53 )×( ) × (18.02 )
𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 ℎ𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑘𝑔
n̊ H2O = 8.14×103
ℎ𝑟

Q H2O = n̊𝐶𝑝Δ𝑇

𝑘𝑔 𝐽 1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Q H2O = 8.14×103 × (4.18 ) × (23.16°C) × ( )×( )
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑔.°𝐶 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠

𝑘𝐽
Q H2O = 218.93
𝑠

𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑔
n̊ H3PO4 = (5.02 )×( ) × (97.994 )
𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 ℎ𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑘𝑔
n̊ H3PO4 = 29.52×103
ℎ𝑟

Q H3PO4 = n̊𝐶𝑝Δ𝑇

𝑘𝑔 𝐽 1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Q H3PO4 = 29.52×103 × (1.79 ) × (23.16°C) × ( )×( )
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑔.°𝐶 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠

𝑘𝐽
Q H3PO4 = 339.94
𝑠

QT = Q H2O + Q H3PO4

QT = 218.93 + 339.94

𝑘𝐽
QT = 558.77
𝑠

104
3) Heat Transfer Area, A

The overall heat transfer coefficient, U represents the ease with which heat is transferred from
one medium to another. The range of overall heat transfer coefficient, U based on organic solvent
and water whereby U, 250 – 750 W/m2°C

𝑄
A=
𝑈 × ΔTm

558.77 𝑊
A=
750 W2 ×46.87°C
𝑚 °C

A = 15.9 m2

4) Area of One Tube, At

Tube length, L is by typical length of tube used in industry which is 3 m and typical diameter of
the tube applied in industry with 20 mm.

Area one tube: 𝜋 × 𝐿 × do

At = 𝜋 × 20×10-3m × 3m

At = 0.19 m2

5) Number of Tubes, Nt

𝐴
Nt =
At

15.9 𝑚2
Nt =
0.19 𝑚2

Nt = 83.7 tubes ≈ 84 tubes

6) Tube Cross Sectional Area

Ac = πr2

Ac = π × (10×10-3m)2

Ac = 3.14×10-4 m2
105
7) Tube Length

𝐴
L=
π 𝑑𝑜 𝑁𝑡

15.9 𝑚2
L=
3.142 ×20 mm × 83.7

L = 3.05 m

8) Inner Diameter of Tube, di

𝑑𝑜
di =
𝑑𝑟

0.02 𝑚
di =
1.3

di = 0.015 m

9) Bundle Diameter, Db

1
𝑁𝑡 𝑛
Db = 𝑑𝑜 ( )
𝐾1

1
83.7 2.207
Db = 0.02 ( )
0.215

Db = 0.3 m

10) Shell Diameter, Ds

𝑃 2
1 𝐴 ( 𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑜 1
𝑑𝑜
Ds =0.63√ [ ]2
0.93 𝐿

0.025 2
1 15.9 ( ) 0.02 1
0.02
Ds = 0.637√ [ ]2
0.93 3

Ds = 0.24 m

106
11) Baffle Spacing, Bs

Bs = 1 x Ds

Bs = 1 x 0.24 m

Bs = 0.24 m

12) Number of Baffles, nb

𝐿𝑡
nb = −1
𝐵𝑠

3
nb = −1
0.24

nb = 11.5 ≈ 12 baffles

13) Shell Area, As

𝐷𝑠 × 𝐵𝑠 ×(𝑃𝑡 −𝐷𝑡 )
As =
𝑃𝑡

0.24𝑚 × 0.24𝑚 ×(0.025𝑚−0.02𝑚)

As =
0.025𝑚

As = 0.012 m2

14) Effective Diameter, de

𝑃𝑡 1 𝑑𝑜 2
de = 4( × 0.87𝑃𝑡 − 𝜋 )
2 2 4

0.025𝑚 1 (0.02𝑚)2
de = 4[ × 0.87(0.025𝑚) − (3.142) ]
2 2 4

de = 4.59×10-4 m

107
6.2.2 Evaporator 2

1. Log Mean Temperature Difference, LMTD

Log Mean Temperature Difference is used to determine the driving force for exchanged heat.

(𝑇1 − 𝑡2 ) − (𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
(𝑇 − 𝑡2 )
ln 1
(𝑇2 − 𝑡1 )
(73.50 − 55) − (74.47 − 25)
∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 =
(73.50 − 55)
ln
(74.47 − 25)

∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 = 31.49 °𝐶

2. Heat Transfer Rate, Q

Heat transfer rate is the amount of heat that needed to transfer from a hot side to the cold side
over unit of time.

𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝∆𝑇

i. Phosphoric Acid

𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝑔 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔
𝑚 = 5.02 × 98 × = 29517.6
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟

𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 29517.6 × 1.79 × (328.15 − 298.15)𝐾
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

𝑘𝐽 1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑄 = 1585095.12 × ×
ℎ𝑟 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠

𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 440.30 = 440.30 𝑘𝑊
𝑠

108
 ii. Water

𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑘𝑔 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔
𝑚 = 3.34 × 18 × = 3607.2
𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 3607.2 × 4.18 × (328.15 − 298.15)𝐾
ℎ𝑟 𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

𝑘𝐽 1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑄 = 452342.88 × ×
ℎ𝑟 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠

𝑘𝐽
𝑄 = 125.65 = 125.65𝑘𝑊
𝑠

𝑄𝑇 = 440.30 𝑘𝑊 + 125.65 𝑘𝑊

𝑄𝑇 = 565.95 𝑘𝑊

3. Heat Transfer Surface Area, A

The overall heat transfer coefficient, U represents the ease with which heat is transferred from
one medium to another. The range of overall heat transfer coefficient, U based on organic solvent
and water whereby U, 250 – 750 W/m2°C

𝑄
𝐴=
𝑈∆𝑇𝑚

565.95 × 103 𝑊
𝐴=
𝑊
750 2 × 30 °𝐶
𝑚 °𝐶

𝐴 = 25.15 𝑚2

4. Tube Surface Area, At

Tube length, L is by typical length of tube used in industry which is 3 m and typical diameter of
the tube applied in industry with 20 mm.

𝐴𝑡 = 𝜋 × 𝑑0 × 𝐿

𝐴𝑡 = 𝜋 × 0.02 𝑚 × 3 𝑚

𝐴𝑡 = 0.19 𝑚2

109
5. Number of Tubes, Nt

𝐴
𝑁𝑡 =
𝐴𝑡

25.15 𝑚2
𝑁𝑡 =
0.19 𝑚2

𝑁𝑡 = 132.36 ≈ 133 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠

6. Tube Cross Sectional Area

𝐴𝐶 = 𝜋 𝑟 2

𝐴𝐶 = 𝜋 × (0.01 𝑚)2

𝐴𝐶 = 3.14 × 10−4 𝑚2

7. Tube Length

𝐴
𝐿=
𝜋𝑑0 𝑁𝑡

25.15 𝑚2
𝐿=
𝜋 × 0.02 𝑚 × 133

𝐿 = 3.01 𝑚

8. Inner Diameter of Tube, di

𝑑0
𝑑𝑖 =
𝑑𝑟

0.02 𝑚
𝑑𝑖 =
1.3

𝑑𝑖 = 0.015 𝑚

110
9. Bundle Diameter, Db

1
𝑁𝑡 𝑛
𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑0 ( )
𝐾1

1
133 2.207
𝐷𝑏 = 20 𝑚𝑚 × ( )
0.215

𝐷𝑏 = 0.37 𝑚

10. Shell Diameter, Ds

1
𝑃𝑡 2 2
1 𝐴 ( ) 𝑑0
𝑑0
𝐷𝑆 = 0.637 √
0.93 𝐿
[ ]

1
2 0.03175 𝑚 2 2
1 25.15 𝑚 × ( 0.02 𝑚 ) × 0.02 𝑚
𝐷𝑆 = 0.637 √ [ ]
0.93 3.01 𝑚

𝐷𝑆 = 0.43 𝑚

11. Baffle Spacing, Bs

𝐵𝑠 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 × 𝐷𝑠

𝐵𝑠 = 1 × 0.43 𝑚

𝐵𝑠 = 0.43 𝑚

12. Number of Baffles, nb

𝐿𝑇
𝑛𝑏 = −1
𝐵𝑠

3.01 𝑚
𝑛𝑏 = −1
0.43 𝑚

𝑛𝑏 = 6 𝑏𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑠

111
13. Shell Area, As

𝐷𝑠 × 𝐵𝑠 × (𝑃𝑡 − 𝐷𝑡 )
𝐴𝑠 =
𝑃𝑡

0.43 𝑚 × 0.43 𝑚 × (0.03175 𝑚 − 0.02 𝑚)

𝐴=
0.03175 𝑚

𝐴 = 0.068 𝑚2

14. Effective Diameter, de

𝑃𝑡 1 𝑑0 2
𝑑𝑒 = 4 ( × 0.87𝑃𝑡 − 𝜋 )
2 2 4

0.03175 𝑚 1 (0.02 𝑚)2

𝑑𝑒 = 4 ( × 0.87(0.03175 𝑚) − × 𝜋 × )
2 2 4

𝑑𝑒 = 2.81 × 10−4 𝑚

112
6.3 Mechanical Drawing

6.3.1 2D Drawing with Dimensions (AutoCAD Software)

Front view

Top view

113
6.3.2 3D Drawing (Inventor Software)

Front view 3D view

Top view

114
6.4 Specification Datasheet

Item name: Evaporator 1

Item no: FE-101

Author: Muhammad Alif Irfan bin Abu Bakar

Table 12: Evaporator 1 specification datasheet

Operating Condition Data

Heat Transfer Rate 558.77 kJ/s

Lmtd 46.87°C

Heat Transfer Area 15.9 m2

Tube Side

Area of One Tube 0.19 m2

Number of Tubes 84 tubes

Tube Length 3.05 m

Tube Per Pass 84 tubes

Tube Per Cross Area 0.00031 m2

Shell Side

Bundle Diameter 0.305 m

Shell Diameter 0.24 m

Tube Pitch 0.025 m

Number of Baffles 12

Baffle Spacing 0.24 m

Shell Area 0.012 m2

Effective Diameter 0.00046 m

115
 Table 13: Specification Datasheet for Evaporator 2

Specifications Datasheet

Specifications Description

Equipment Evaporator 2

Equipment ID FE-102

Author Sharifah Nur Adila binti Syed Nasir

Function To concentrate the phosphoric acid

Operating Conditions
Heat Transfer Rate 565.95 kJ/s
LMTD 31.49 °C
Heat Transfer Area 25.15 m2
Material Stainless Steel 304

Tubes Design
Tube Surface Area 0.19 m2
Number of Tubes 133 tubes
Tube Cross Sectional Area 3.14 x 10-4 m2
Tube Length 3.01 m
Inner Diameter of Tube 0.015 m
Number of passes 1
Tube Cross Sectional Area 3.14 x 10-4 m2

Shell Design
Bundle Diameter 0.37 m
Shell Diameter 0.43 m
Tube Pitch 0.03175 m
Number of Baffles 6
Baffle Spacing 0.43 m
Shell Area 0.068 m2
Effective Diameter 2.81 x 10-4 m

116
7.0 Filter

7.1 Fundamental Knowledge

Filtration is defined as a process of separating solids from a fluid by passing the same
through a porous medium that retains the solids but allows the fluid to pass through. According
to Britannica (2017), filtration is the process in which solid particles that in a liquid/ gaseous fluid
are removed by the use of a filter medium that permits the fluid to pass through but retains the
solid particles. Below are some terms used in filtration process.

• Slurry – suspension to be filtered

• Filter medium – porous medium used to retain solid
• Filter cake – accumulated solids on the filter
• Filtrate – clear liquid passing through the filter

The basic requirements for filtration are: a filter medium; a fluid with suspended solids; a
driving force such as a pressure difference to cause fluid to flow; and a mechanical device that
holds the filter medium, contains the fluid, and permits the application of force. The filter may
have special provisions for removal of the filter cake or other solid particles, for washing the cake,
and possibly for drying the cake. The various methods used for treating and removing the cake,
for removing the clarified filtrate, and for creating the driving force on the fluid have been
combined in various ways to produce a great variety of filter equipment.

7.1.1 Filtration Process

Figure 22: Filtration Process

117
7.1.2 Factors Influencing Filtration

Properties of Properties of Properties of

Objectives Temperature
solid Liquids Solids In Slurry

•Particle Shape •Density •Rate of •Whether the •Temperature

•Particle Size •Viscosity formation of solid or liquid of suspension
•Particle •Corrosiveness filter cake is to be
Charge especially in collected or
early stage of both are to be
•Density
filtration collected
•Particle Size
Distribution
•Rigidity or
compressibility
of solid under
pressure
•Tendency of
particle to
flocculate or
adhere
together

Figure 23: Factors that influence the Filtration Process

7.1.3 Materials of the Filter Medium

Figure 24: Materials of Filter Medium

118
7.1.4 Types of Filters

Filters may be classified according to the nature of the driving force that causes filtration
(i.e., gravity filters, pressure filters, and vacuum filters). They also are described according to
mechanical characteristics (i.e., plate-and-frame filters, leaf filters, rotary-drum filters, top-feed
filters, disk-type filters, sand-bed filters, and precoat filters). Filters may operate on either a batch
or continuous basis.

i. Gravity Filter

The gravity filter is the oldest and simplest type. The most common filter installed in city
water plants is gravity sand-bed filter. This type of filter uses tanks that are usually made of
concrete. At the bottom of the tank is a grating or false bottom; above this is coarse gravel or
crushed rock of graded size; at the very top are layers of quartz sand of uniform size. Sand-bed
filters are operated under pressure in closed vessels to give high-capacity service. Crushed coke
of graded size is used to filter sulfuric acid in lead-lined boxes, crushed limestone of graded size
is used to filter alkaline liquors, and charcoal beds are used to purify organic liquids through both
filtration and adsorption.

ii. Pressure/Vacuum Filters

In comparison to gravity filters, pressure or vacuum filters are widely used in industry.
Since the driving force provided by pressure or vacuum is much greater than gravity, the filtration
rate is much higher. A vacuum cleaner with a dust bag or paper filter, or an automotive engine
with an oil filter cartridge, are examples of pressure filters in everyday life. Many industrial
processes involve the filtration of slurries that contain high concentrations of suspended solids.
Pressure or vacuum filters with a thin filter medium such as a filter cloth or woven metal screen
are preferred because the filter beds fill rapidly when used with slurries that have a high solids
content.

119
 iii. Plate and Frame Filter Press

A filter press is an equipment used for liquid-solid separation. The filter press uses
pressure filtration to separate the liquids and solids. A slurry is pumped into the filter press and
dewatered under pressure. The volume and type of slurry that needs to be dewatered determine
the design of each filter press. The main components in filter press are the frame, filter plates,
manifold (piping and valves), and filter cloth. The slurry is pumped into a corner hole and flows
into each frame, allowing solid particles to accumulate on the filter cloths. The remaining filtered
liquid then moves to a drainage port in the flush plate and into a corner hole that is not being used
for feeding the slurry. The filtrate then travels to discharge piping and is directed to the next step
in the process. After some time, the frames become filled with solids, the slurry feed pump turns
off, and the filter press is ready to open. Each of the frame should contain a filter cake, which is
solids formed on the filter cloths. The filter cakes are then scraped out of the frames using a
spatula, ideally falling into a cake hopper placed below the press.

iv. Leaf Filter

Leaf filters are used in the industries on batch basis. The leaves consist of a centre section
of coarse metal mesh that supports the filter medium and permits the filtrate to escape. This
centre section is covered on either side with the filter medium, which usually is a woven wire
screen of appropriate mesh size. The leaves may be circular or rectangular and are assembled
on a frame with ports for removal of the filtrate. The assembly is usually enclosed in a pressure
vessel that also contains the slurry. After sufficient filter cake is deposited on the leaves, the
pressure is removed, the vessel opened, and the leaf assembly with filter cake taken out. The
cake is removed by water spray or by applying air pressure to the filtrate line. In terms of
operation, the leaf filter costs less than press filter because of the advantageous provisions for
efficient washing and cake discharge without removing the leaves.

v. Rotary Drum Filter

The rotary-drum vacuum filter is used extensively in industry for the continuous filtration
that contains high content of suspended solids. The filter consists of a cylindrical drum with
internal divisions, ports and valves for application of the vacuum and removal of the filtrate. The
drum is covered with the filter medium, usually a woven wire screen or cloth, and is partially
submerged in a trough of slurry. The partial vacuum inside the drum causes the filtrate to flow
into the drum and out the ports, depositing a filter cake on the surface of the drum. As the drum
rotates, the cake may be sprayed with wash water and then removed by scrapers.

120
 vi. Belt filter

Horizontal belt filters provide a continuous vacuum on a horizontal plane. The slurries are
fed onto a filter cloth that is supported by a travelling drainage belt. The filters are mostly applied
in situation where low cake moisture is desirable. The slurry is fed onto the vacuum belt to
separate the liquid from the solids. In applications where no further slurry processing is required,
this simple, straightforward design works well and is cost effective. Depending on the application,
filter cake is dry enough for disposal without further costly drying or can be reused elsewhere in
the process. Separated liquid can be reprocessed to improve clarity before it is discharged back
into the waterway.

121
8.0 Pump

8.1 Fundamental Knowledge

8.1.1 Purpose

A pump is any system that aids in the movement of a fluid. Pumps transfer fluids down
or out of a pipe by displacing it. To displace the fluid, most pumps use a compressional
operation. In order to displace the fluid, this compressional action often necessitates the
use of a motor that exerts pressure on it. This motor can run on a variety of fuels if it has
enough strength to move the fluid around. Positive displacement or rotodynamic pumps
are the most common types of pumps.

Pumps are also useful in processes that require a lot of hydraulic pressure. Heavy-
duty machinery exemplifies this. Heavy-duty machinery often necessitates a high
discharge pressure and a low suction pressure. Fluid will rise from a certain depth due to
low pressure at the suction side of the pump, while high pressure at the discharge side of
the pump will force fluid to lift before it reaches the desired height.

8.1.2 Design Intention

Pump is a machine or mechanical equipment which is required to lift liquid from

low level to high level or to flow liquid from low pressure area to high pressure area or as
a booster in a piping network system. Other than that, pump is also known as a machine
used for transferring quantities of fluids or gases from one location to another.

8.1.3 Type of Equipment

Pumps are categorized according to the applications they represent, the materials
they are made of the liquids they treat, and even their spatial orientation. All these
classifications, however, are limited in scope and tend to overlap significantly. The theory
by which energy is applied to the fluid is the basis for a simpler method of pump
classification. Both pump forms fall into one of two groups under this scheme.

122
a. Dynamic (Centrifugal) Pumps – Energy is continuously added to increase the
fluid velocities within the machine.

Dynamic pumps use centrifugal force to develop velocity in the liquid being
handled. The velocity is then converted to pressure. As kinetic energy is decreased,
pressure is increased. This pressure difference drives the fluid through the system or
plant. Dynamic (Centrifugal) pumps use a rotating impeller to create a vacuum to move
fluid. The pump’s impeller rotates within the housing and reduces pressure at the inlet.
This motion then drives fluid to the outside of the pump’s housing, which increases
the pressure enough to send it out the discharge.

Dynamic (Centrifugal) pumps are the most common pump type for the transfer of
low viscosity fluids in high flow rate, low pressure installations, which makes them
ideal for applications that require the pump to deal with large volumes. The centrifugal
pump design is often associated with the transfer of water but is also a popular solution
for handling thin fuels and chemicals.

Dynamic (Centrifugal) pumps benefit from a simple design with few moving parts,
resulting in lower maintenance requirements and costs. This makes them suited to
applications where the pump is used often or is even continuously run.

Figure 25: Cross Section of Centrifugal Pump

123
b. Positive Displacement Pumps – Energy is periodically added by application of
force to one or more movable boundaries of enclosed, fluid-containing
volumes.

Positive displacement pumps use the reciprocating motion of pistons, plungers, or

diaphragms to move the liquid through the pump. The discharge from reciprocating
pumps is in pulses rather than a smooth flow of liquid.

Positive displacement pumps are characterized by an operation that moves fluid

by trapping a fixed volume, usually in a cavity, and then forces that trapped fluid into
the discharge pipe.

Positive displacement pumps are usually selected for their ability to handle high
viscosity fluids at high pressures and relatively low flows as their efficiency isn’t
affected by pressure. Whilst centrifugal pumps are the most common type of pump
installed due to their simplicity, positive displacement pumps are a solution that can
handle more difficult conditions where centrifugal pumps may fail, thanks to their ability
to be run at any point on their curve.

Positive displacement pumps are able to handle variations in pressure, flow and
viscosity and remain efficient, unlike centrifugal pumps which do not operate well off
the center of their curve. As their flow rate remains constant (proportional to the speed
of operation), smooth and low pulsating despite changes in the pressure, positive
displacement pumps such as peristaltic, piston and diaphragm pumps are ideal
solutions for dosing applications as it allows accurate metering to be carried out.

Figure 26: Cross Section of Positive Displacement Pump

124
8.1.4 Working Principle

The working principle of a pump is to enhance the fluid’s pressure to provide the driving
strength which is necessary for flow. Usually, the pressure filter supply pump is a centrifugal
type pump, and the working principle is that slurry penetrates the pump during the rotating
impeller’s eye which informs a circular motion.

125
9.0 Tank

9.1 Fundamental Knowledge

9.1.1 Purpose

The storage of potable water in vessels or tanks is vital to the effective operation
of any water delivery system. There are two main uses for storage tanks. The first is
to provide storage space, while the second is to provide pressure to the distribution
system. Depending on its position within the system and the type of configuration, a
tank may serve one or both purposes.

Providing sufficient storage volume is generally the function of a water storage

tank. A typical operating day in any public water system involves varying demands for
the water. The other function of storage tanks is to provide pressure. All water
distribution systems must have a means of pressurizing the system. The most
common method of creating system pressure is by using an elevated water storage
tank to develop the necessary feet of head to force water through the system. If the
land around the distribution systems allows, a ground-storage tank can be constructed
on a high hill to serve as an elevated storage tank. Another method of pressurizing
water distribution system is by using hydropneumatic tanks although they usually
provide very small amount of reserve storage and are not adequate for fire-protection
purposes.

9.1.2 Design Intention

The Storage tanks are generally used to store oil, gas, fuel and chemical liquids
or raw material to facilitate the functioning of a refinery. The chemical sector, cosmetic
processing, plastic processing, steel sector, refineries, power and energy generation,
graphic and paper industry, food and beverage industry are the main users of
industrial storage tanks. They are perfect to store organic and non-organic liquids and
vapors.

126
9.1.3 Type of Storage Tank

a. Fixed Roof Tanks

A typical fixed-roof tank, which is shown in Figure 23 below, consists of a

cylindrical steel shell with a cone- or dome-shaped roof that is permanently affixed
to the tank shell. Most recently built tanks are of all-welded construction and are
designed to be both liquid- and vapor-tight. However, older tanks may be of riveted
or bolted construction and may not be vapor-tight. A breather valve (pressure-
vacuum valve), which is commonly installed on many fixed-roof tanks, allows the
tank to operate at a slight internal pressure or vacuum. Breather vents are typically
set at 0.19 kPa (0.75 in. w.c.) on atmospheric pressure fixed-roof tanks. Because
this valve prevents the release of vapors during only very small changes in
temperature, barometric pressure, or liquid level, the emissions from a fixed-roof
tank can be appreciable. For fixed-roof tanks, the nominal capacity is the
geometric volume from the bottom of the tank up to the curb angle, which is a
metallic angle that is welded along the periphery at the top of the cylindrical portion
of the tank.

Figure 27: Fixed Roof Tank

127
b. Horizontal Tanks

Horizontal tanks are constructed for both above ground and underground
service. Figures 8 present schematics of typical underground and above-ground
horizontal tanks. Horizontal tanks are usually constructed of steel, steel with a
fiberglass overlay, or fiberglass-reinforced polyester. Horizontal tanks are
generally small storage tanks with capacities of less than 75,710 L (20,000
gallons). Horizontal tanks are constructed such that the length of the tank is not
greater than six times the diameter to ensure structural integrity. Horizontal tanks
are usually equipped with pressure-vacuum vents, gauge hatches and sample
wells, and manholes to provide accessibility to these tanks. In addition,
underground tanks may be cathodically protected to prevent corrosion of the tank
shell. Cathodic protection is accomplished by placing sacrificial anodes in the tank
that are connected to an impressed current system or by using galvanic anodes in
the tank. However, internal cathodic protection is no longer widely used in the
petroleum industry, due to corrosion inhibitors that are now found in most refined
petroleum products.

(a)

Figure 28: Horizontal tank

128
c. Pressure Tanks

Two classes of pressure tanks are in general use: low pressure (2.5 to 15
psig) and high pressure (higher than 15 psig). Pressure tanks generally are used
for storing organic liquids and gases with high vapor pressures and are found in
many sizes and shapes, depending on the operating pressure of the tank.
Pressure tanks are equipped with a pressure/vacuum vent that is set to prevent
venting loss from boiling and breathing loss from daily temperature or barometric
pressure changes. The pressure tank allows the pump to run occasionally instead
of every time a faucet is opened. The basic system is often enhanced, either by
necessity or for improved performance, with a constant pressure delivery system.

Figure 29: Pressure Tank

129
d. Variable Vapor Space Tanks

Variable vapor space tanks are equipped with expandable vapor reservoirs
to accommodate vapor volume fluctuations attributable to temperature and
barometric pressure changes. Although variable vapor space tanks are sometimes
used independently, they are normally connected to the vapor spaces of one or
more fixed roof tanks. The two most common types of variable vapor space tanks
are lifter roof tanks and flexible diaphragm tanks. Lifter roof tanks have a
telescoping roof that fits loosely around the outside of the main tank wall. The
space between the roof and the wall is closed by either a wet seal, which is a
trough filled with liquid, or a dry seal, which uses a flexible coated fabric. Flexible
diaphragm tanks use flexible membranes to provide expandable volume. They
may be either separate gasholder units or integral units mounted atop fixed roof
tanks. Variable vapor space tank losses occur during tank filling when vapor is
displaced by liquid. Loss of vapor occurs only when the tank's vapor storage
capacity is exceeded.

Figure 30: Variable Vapor Space Tanks

130
9.1.4 Working Principle

All gases, liquids, and solids have weight because of the Earth’s gravitational
forces. In order for a liquid, such as water, to create a downward force it must be
contained within a vessel. Otherwise, it will simply flatten out on the surface. When
dealing with liquids, the force exerted by the weight of a contained liquid is expressed
in terms of the weight of the liquid over a certain area of flat surface, expressed in
pounds per square inch (psi). For example, freshwater weighs 62.4 pounds per cubic
foot. In other words, the pressure exerted on a one-square-foot surface that is one
foot deep is 62.4 pounds per square foot (psf).

131
References

4 Heat Exchanger Types and Applications. (2021, February 17). Zwirner Equipment Company.
https://www.zwirnerequipment.com/blog/heat-exchanger-types-and-applications/

Agarwal, T. (2019, May 27). Motor Pump: Working Principle, Types, Specifications, and
Differences. ElProCus - Electronic Projects for Engineering Students.
https://www.elprocus.com/what-is-pump-working-principle-types/

Benkreira & Hadj. (2011, February 14). Mixing. [Online]. [Accessed 19th March, 2021]. Available
from World Wide Web: MIXING (thermopedia.com)

Bright Hub Engineering. (2009, July 10). What is mixing and blending? What are mixers, blenders
or agitators? [Online]. [Accessed 4th March, 2021]. Available from World Wide Web:
What is Mixing and Blending? What are Mixers, Blenders, or Agitators? - Bright Hub
Engineering

Britannica, T. E. of E. (2017). Filtration. https://www.britannica.com/science/filtration-chemistry

Chemical Engineering World. (n.d.). Packed column versus tray column. [Online]. [Accessed 9th
March, 2021]. Available from World Wide Web: Packed column versus Tray column -
Chemical Engineering World

Dotzenrod, N. (2015). Mixer and splitter. [Online]. [Accessed 25th March, 2021]. Available from
World Wide Web: Mixer and Splitter - processdesign (northwestern.edu)

Fogler, H. S. (2004). Elements of Chemical Reaction Engineering. In Prentice-Hall India (3rd Ed).

Foutch, G. L., & Johannes, A. H. (2003). Reactors in Process Engineering. In Encyclopedia of

Physical Science and Technology (Third, pp. 23–43). Elsevier.
https://doi.org/10.1016/b0-12-227410-5/00654-2

Hackett, B. W. (2018). The Essentials of Continuous Evaporation.

https://www.aiche.org/resources/publications/cep/2018/may/essentials-continuous-
evaporation

Heat exchanger working principles. (2019, November 13). EnggCyclopedia.

https://www.enggcyclopedia.com/2019/11/heat-exchanger-working-principles/

Heat exchangers. (2020, March 26). Explain That Stuff. https://www.explainthatstuff.com/how-

heat-exchangers-work.html
132
Hussein, R., Sahib, K., & Atwan, A. (2018). Phosphoric Acid Production. 484–489.
https://www.draw.io/#G0B-0Gjo1he80GVXFucXluSEx6bUk

Loeschen, D. (2019, June 25). Mixer basics – How to choose a mixer. [Online]. [Accessed 9th
March, 2021]. Available from World Wide Web: MIXER BASICS - HOW TO CHOOSE A
MIXER – Mixer Direct

Munters. (n.d.). Sieve trays. [Online]. [Accessed 9th March, 2021]. Available from World Wide
Web: Sieve Trays | Munters

NIST Chemistry Web Book. (2018). Phosphoric acid. [Online]. [Accessed 4th March, 2021].
Available from World Wide Web: Phosphoric acid, trimethyl ester (nist.gov)

Primo, J. (2012). PDHonline Course M371 (2 PDH) Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers Basic
Calculations. 371, 3–4. https://www.pdhonline.com/courses/m371/m371content.pdf

S., W. (n.d.). PUMP - A machine used for the purpose of transferring quantities of fluids and or
gases, from one place to another. Explore. Retrieved March 31, 2021, from
http://www.wermac.org/equipment/pumps_general.html

Scott, D. (2019, March 2). How Does a Pump Work? Sciencing. https://sciencing.com/how-does-
5004050-a-pump-work.html

Shankman, S. & Gordon. A., R. (1939, May 29). The vapour pressure of aqueous solutions of
sulphuric acid. [Online]. [Accessed 5th March, 2021]. Available from World Wide Web:
The Vapor Pressure of Aqueous Solutions of Sulfuric Acid | Journal of the American
Chemical Society (acs.org)

Sinnot, R. K. (2005). Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering (Fourth). Elsevier

Butterworth-Heinemann.

Smith, J. (2020, January 10). Types of dilation columns. [Online]. [Accessed 9th March, 2021].
Available from World Wide Web: Types of distillation columns | Headlands Distilling Co.

SRS Engineering Corporation. (2016). How columns work? [Online]. [Accessed 9th March, 2021].
Available from World Wide Web: How Columns Work? - SRS Engineering HomeSRS
Engineering Home

STI Group - Industrial, Midstream & Fabrication Services. (2016, August 3). Heat Exchangers
and Their Role at Industrial Facilities. https://setxind.com/maintenance/heat-
exchangers-industrial-plants/
133
T. (2020, May 12). Introduction to Pumps. The Process Piping.
https://www.theprocesspiping.com/introduction-to-
pumps/#:%7E:text=Pump%20is%20a%20machine%20or,motor%20into%20fluid%20fl
ow%20energy.

Tham, M., T. (2016). Basic distillation equipment and operation. [Online]. [Accessed 10th March,
2021]. Available from World Wide Web: Basic Equipment and Operation of Distillation
Columns (rccostello.com)

Yuan, L., Xing Huo, X., Hui, Z., & Guo Yin, Z. (2006). Fault diagnosis of batch process based on
CMPCA using DTW. Fault Detection, Supervision and Safety of Technical Processes,
2, 1198–1203. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-008044485-7/50202-5

134