APPROVAL SHEET

The complete report of Genetics experiment with title “TAXIS RESPONSE

TO THE MOBILE” was created by:
name : Muh. Ghazali Rahman
reg. No. : 081404158
group : VI (Sixth)
class : D(ICP)
department : Biology Department
After checked by assistant and assistant coordinator, so this report is accepted.

Makassar, November 2010

Coordinator Assistant Assistant

Jupri Titin Muthmainna

Lecturer

Drs. Jutje S Lahay

NIP : 1974 0452000032004
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

A. Background
All organisms have the behaviors. Behavior is a form of response to
internal and external conditions. A behavioral response when the response is said
to have been patterned, which gives the same specific response to certain stimuli.
Behavior can also be interpreted as an activity of an organism due to the presence
of a stimulus. In observing the behavior, we tend to put ourselves on the organisms
that we observe, namely by assuming that the organism was seeing and feeling like
us. This is anthropomorphism (Y: anthropos = man), the interpretation of the
behavior of other organisms such as human behavior. The more we get to know an
organism, the more we interpret these behaviors are anthropomorphic.
Often an animal behavior occurs because the influence of genetic
(innate behavior or innate behavior), and as a result of learning or experience that
can be caused by the environment. In the development of behavioral ecology of a
debate between an opinion stating that the behavior found in an organism is a
natural effect or because of the care or maintenance, this is an ongoing debate.
Results from different studies, it is known that the occurrence of a behavior is
caused by both, ie genetic and environmental (learning process), resulting in a
development nature.
The behavior of biological vision is an activity or activities of the
organism in question. Thus human behavior is essentially an activity from the man
himself. Therefore, human behavior has a very broad expanse, covering walk, talk,
react, get dressed, and so forth. Even the internal activities (internal activity) such
as thinking, perception and emotion is also a human behavior. For the purposes of
the analysis framework can be said that behavior is what is done by the organism,
can be observed either directly or indirectly. Behavior and behavioral symptoms
 seen in the activities of organisms are influenced both by genetic factors (heredity)
and environment. In general we can say that genetic and environmental factors is a
determinant of the behavior of living things including human behavior.

B. Purpose
The purpose of this practical work are to know about to study the response
shown by animals in a dark place to the stimulus in the form of light and the animals
response in the light place of the stimulus in the form of light.
C. Benefit
The benefit of this practical work are to know more about to study the response
shown by animals in a dark place to the stimulus in the form of light and the animals
response in the light place of the stimulus in the form of light
 CHAPTER II
PREVIEW OF LITERATURE

Ants are social insects of the family Formicidae (play /fɔrˈmɪsɪdiː/) and,
along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants
evolved from wasp-like ancestors in the mid-Cretaceous period between 110 and 130
million years ago and diversified after the rise of flowering plants. More than 12,500
out of an estimated total of 22,000 species have been classified.[3][4] They are easily
identified by their elbowed antennae and a distinctive node-like structure that forms a
slender waist. Ants form colonies that range in size from a few dozen predatory
individuals living in small natural cavities to highly organised colonies which may
occupy large territories and consist of millions of individuals. These larger colonies
consist mostly of sterile wingless females forming castes of "workers", "soldiers", or
other specialised groups. Nearly all ant colonies also have some fertile males called
"drones" and one or more fertile females called "queens". The colonies are sometimes
described as superorganisms because the ants appear to operate as a unified entity,
collectively working together to support the colony (Anonyma, 2011).
Ants have colonised almost every landmass on Earth. The only places lacking
indigenous ants are Antarctica and a few remote or inhospitable islands. Ants thrive
in most ecosystems, and may form 15–25% of the terrestrial animal biomass.[6] Their
success in so many environments has been attributed to their social organisation and
their ability to modify habitats, tap resources, and defend themselves. Their long co-
evolution with other species has led to mimetic, commensal, parasitic, and mutualistic
relationships (Anonymb, 2011)
The response to the stimulus is one of the main characteristics of life so that in
the presence of this trait of organisms able to respond (responses) to various
environmental factors and changes in the vicinity. Movements of animals in their
environment is not random but rather responses to various stimuli in their
environment, either directly or indirectly. One form of response is the taxis in the
form of migratory movement is directly oriented toward a stimulus. Taxis generally
encountered in invertebrate animals. The animals that inhabit the habitat will be
concentrated in places with the most suitable conditions for the fulfillment of the
requirements of their respective lives. thus can be said that every animal has a
different microhabitat according to the needs of each life. Various environmental
factors such as temperature, humidity, and sunlight is a factor that is required by
animals, but sometimes it can also operate as one limiting factor. For example sun
light for the animals that live in a protected area can be considered as an another
stimulus that can cause the animal to respond to light is avoided (Lahay, 2011).
According to (Lahay, 2011) The oriented responses to light can be categorized
as follows:
a. fototaksis positive, if the animal found in the room that bears the bright
light.
b. fototaksis negative, if the animal is found in a room that is free of light
(dark).
c. fototaksis intermediate, the indoor animals found in the transition between a
bright room with dark room.
The integration of orientation (directional response of a stimulus) with kinesis
(locomotor sense of a stimulus) yields a taxis. In biology taxis is movement that is
directed with respect to a stimulus such as an object, a light or an odor source.
Kinesis and taxis are often paired with prefixed to indicate the nature of stimulus that
motivates the response. Attractive stimuli are termed positive, repulsive nature are
negative. The nature of stimulus is used as prefix for the type of movement (anemo =
wind, geo = gravity, photo = light and so on). Hence, positive taxis occurs as a result
of attraction to light. This can be figured out by looking at the parts of the phrase.
Positive refers to attraction, so incated that movement towards. Photo refers to light,
and taxis means oriented movement. So positive taxis means movement toward light.
In the same vein, negative anemotaxis means moving downwind, and so on. A moth
that flies that flies toward a light is positive phototractic. A cockroach moving away
from light is negative phototractic. Any envieronmental stimulus with a directional
source can be used as to orient a taxis (Breed and Moore, 2010).
Most animal spend a great deal of time moving around in their environment,
but most of them have some sort of nest or “home base” from which they move out
regularly to find resources. Such behavior require that the animal know where it is in
relation to its home and how get back there. Some animals move long distances from
their homes and may have different summer and winter homes that are separated from
another by one thousands kilometers. Migration between different ranges require very
sophisticated navigational abilities, but many animals are able to get about with
simple mechanisms. The simplest orientations movement are known as taxes
(singular = taxis) in which the animal assume a particular spatial relationship to an
orienting stimulus (Sarkar, 2003).
The nature of stimulus is denoted by adding the appropriate prefix the word
“taxis” a phototaxis. Phototaxis is movement guided by a light, geotaxis is a
movement by gravity ; a chemotaxis is movement guided by detections of some
chemical substance. A further distinction can be made between positive taxis
(movement towards the stimulus) and a negative taxis (movement away from
stimulus). Many invertebrates posses a light-compass reaction, generally using the
sun, in which the angle between the direction of movement and directions of stimulus
is kept constant. Ant use this type of orientation in moving to and from their nest, but
they can not compensate for movement for the sun (Sarkar, 2003).
In addition to positive phototaxis, many animals may be drawn to artificial
light source as a result of using them as reference cues in light-compass orientation
systems. Bees, moth, and many bird species can maintain critical course bearing by
using the sun, moon, an individual bright star, or star groups as reference points. An
animal that that select an artificial light source as a reference point for its light
compass might not be able to maintain a constant orientation. To keep a straight
course, an animal using a light compass keeps the bearing to a light reference at a
constant angel with the course bearing it has selected. When earth bounds, artificial
source is used as a light reference, the deviation between the initial course bearing
and the light reference bearing will change with the position of the animal and defeat
the function of a light-compass (Clemmons and Buchholz, 1997).
Photoreception is the sensing of visible light, which consists a certain
wavelength of electromagnetic energy, the repeating disturbances in electrical and
magnetic field in the atmosphere. You can visualize this disturbance as waves much
like the repeating disturbance or tiny waves caused by a stone thrown in a still pond.
In organisms having a positive phototaxis, a behavioral adaptations in which an
organism moves toward the light, the animals moves until the sensations coming
from the eyes are equal and strong. Many species of flying insects exhibit negative
phototaxis, the animal moves until the sensation coming from the eyes equal and
weak. The common cockroach is an example of an animals that exhibit negative
phototaxis (Alters, 2000).
The presence or absence of the light influences the behavior of freshwater
animals to marked degree. Forms like may-fly nymphs are negatively phototatic and
seek the underside of stones where there is a minimum of light, This response serves
not only to protects the animals from predator, but also to enable it to avoid the full
force of the current in the swiftly flowing streams where it lives. In many of the
water-fleas such as Polyphemus which form an important part of the plankton in
static water, behavior varies with the light intensity (Dowdeswell, W.H, 2006).
Phototaxis is the ability of organisms to move directionally in response to a
light source. Many cyanobacteria exhibit phototaxis, both towards and away from a
light source. In the environment, the ability to move into optimal light conditions for
photosynthesis is likely to be an advantage. We are particularly interested in how
cells perceive light of different wavelengths; the photoreceptors involved and the
signal transduction cascade involved in this process (Anonymb, 2011).
 To dissect the process of motility and phototaxis in Synechocystis sp. we
generated a library of transposon-tagged motility-mutants. Several of these tagged-
motility mutants mapped to chemotaxis-like genes at loci which we named the tax
loci. The roles of chemotaxis proteins in signal transduction are fairly well-
understood in flagellated enteric bacteria, but much less so in other systems.
Synechocystis sp. has three tax loci, two of which are involved in motility responses. 
Disruption of the tax1 locus (which contains a photoreceptor, TaxD1) produces
mutants that are negatively phototactic while tax3 mutants are non-motile (Anonymb,
2011).
 CHAPTER III
EXPERIMENT METHOD

A. Time and Place

Day / date : Monday/ October 26th 2009
Time : 01.20 until 03.00 pm wita
Place : At biology laboratory west the second floor part FMIPA
UNM
B. Tool and Material
1. Tools:
a. Ruler
b. Pen
2. Materials:
a. Paper sheet
b. The index finger and ring finger of itself
C. Work procedures
1. Prepared the tools and materials.
2. Made a clear horizontal line at paper sheet.
3. Put down right hand above paper sheet in such a manner so that seen
comparison ring finger with the index finger at line which we have been made
before.
4. Determined which finger is longer between ring finger and the index finger.
5. Determined possibility of genotype based on description as following :

Genotype Male Female

TT Short Index Finger Short
Tt Short Index Finger Long
Tt Long Index Finger Long
6. Noted the result of observation.
B. Discussion
CHAPTER V
 CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

A. Conclusion
After done this experiment we can conclude several things, that is: first, If our
blood dropped by anti-A serum and there is agglutination so the blood groups is A.
Second, if our blood dropped by anti-B serum and there is agglutination so the blood
groups is B. Third, if our blood dropped by anti-A and anti-B serum and there is
agglutination so the blood groups is AB. The last, if our blood dropped by anti-A
serum and there is no agglutination so the blood groups is O.

B. Suggestion
a. For Laboratory
1. Laboratory should prepare complete equipment and materials which will be
use in practicum, so easy for apprentice to done the practicum.
2. Laboratory should complete the practicum rooms with air conditioner or
fan so make apprentice glad to be stay in laboratory.
b. For Apprentice
1. Apprentice should prepare anything they need before enter into laboratory,
so they will easy to done practicum.
2. Apprentice should work together with teammate, so practicum will be
faster and the results good.
c. For Assistant
1. Assistant should give more explaining
about practical that will done.
2. Assistant should guide and help apprentice so practical work will done
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Clemmons Janine, Buchholz Thomas. 1997. First Edition. Behavioral approaches to

conservation in the wild. Cambridge University Press : United Kingdom

Dowdeswell, W.H.2006. Genetics 101. . Second Edition. Greenword Press : United

States.

Michael D. Breed, Janice 2010. Moore. Animal Behavior. Elsevier Academic Press :
United States of America

Sandra Alters. 2000. Biology: understanding life. Third Edition. Jones and Bartleet
Publishers Inc : Canada..

rd
Wikipedia. 2010. Taxis. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allele. Accessed at April 23
2011

Anonym. 2011.Phototaxis. http://dpb.carnegiescience.edu/labs/bhaya-

lab/projects/phototaxis
Phototaxis is the ability of organisms to move directionally in response to a light
source.  Many cyanobacteria exhibit phototaxis, both towards and away from a light
source.  In the environment, the ability to move into optimal light conditions for
photosynthesis is likely to be an advantage. We are particularly interested in how
cells perceive light of different wavelengths; the photoreceptors involved and the
signal transduction cascade involved in this process.

To dissect the process of motility and phototaxis in Synechocystis sp. we generated a

library of transposon-tagged motility-mutants. Several of these tagged-motility
mutants mapped to chemotaxis-like genes at loci which we named the tax loci. The
roles of chemotaxis proteins in signal transduction are fairly well-understood in
flagellated enteric bacteria, but much less so in other systems. Synechocystis sp. has
three tax loci, two of which are involved in motility responses.  Disruption of the tax1
locus (which contains a photoreceptor, TaxD1) produces mutants that are negatively
phototactic while tax3 mutants are non-motile and have no pili. Several novel mutants
that are aberrant in phototaxis are being characterized using biochemical and genetic
approaches. We have developed a preliminary model of phototaxis and are
developing a system to analyze phototaxis in thermophilic cyanobacteria isolated
from microbial mats.
 
We have shown that in the model organism Synechocystis. sp. phototaxis is a surface-
dependent phenomenon that requires Type IV pili rather than flagella. Many Gram
negative bacteria have Type IV pili, which are long multi-functional, proteinaceous
surface appendages. Interestingly,  Type IV pili are required for diverse functions
such as social motility, host-pathogen recognition, the ability to take up exogenous
DNA and in biofilm formation.

Currently we are using time lapse video microscopy and tracking programs to follow
single cells and populations to ask basic questions about the parameters that govern
motility. In collaboration with Doron Levy (Department of Mathematics, University
of Maryland) we are modeling social dynamics in surface dependent motility. We
have recently also set up collaborations with K.C. Huang’s group (Department of
Bioengineering, Stanford) to simulate and control surface dependent motility. It is
likely that cells function as groups and dynamics of group communication may be
mediated through pili and molecular signals such as cAMP. The role of
communication is particularly relevant to microbial mats and other bacterial
communities in natural environments.
 

MOVIES AND IMAGES: COMING SOON!