C.UDAYAKUMAR/ASST.

PROFESSOR /BCA/MGR/HOSUR

SEMESTER III CORE III - FUNDAMENTALS OF DIGITAL COMPUTERS

UNIT-1

Analog signals

 An analog signal is a continuous wave

 An analog signal is represented by a sine wave
 An analog signal is described by the amplitude, period or frequency,
 Analog signal has no fixed range.
 An analog signal is more prone to distortion(bend ,twist).
 An analog signal transmits data in the form of a wave.
 The human voice is the best example of an analog signal.

Amplitude

The amplitude of a sound wave is the measure of the height of the wave

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Time period

Time taken to complete one vibration is called Time period

Frequency

The frequency is the number of oscillation per unit time.

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Digital signals

 A digital signal is a discrete wave that carries information in binary

form.
 A digital signal is represented by square waves.
 A digital signal is described by bit rate and bit intervals.

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 Digital signal has a finite numbers i.e. 0 and 1.

 A digital signal is less prone to distortion.
 A digital signal carries data in the binary form i.e. 0 nad 1.
 Signals used for transmission in a computer are the digital signal.

Digital waveforms

Digital waveforms are made of voltage levels that are HIGH AND LOW and also
they contain a series of pulses.

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Voltage is the pressure from an electrical circuit's power source

that pushes charged electrons (current) through a conducting loop,
enabling them to do work such as illuminating a light.

Digital logic

 Digital logic is fundamental in creating electronic devices.

 It is used to create circuits and logic gates, as well as to check computer
chips
 Digital logic is typically embedded into most electronic devices,
including calculators, computers, video games, and watches.
 Digital logic circuits are often known as switching circuits, because in
digital circuits the voltage levels are assumed to be switched from one
value to another value instantaneously
Types of digital logic circuits are combinational logic circuits and
sequential logic circuits.

Combinational digital logic circuits

 Combinational digital logic circuits are basically made up of digital logic

gates like AND gate, OR gate, NOT gate and universal gates (NAND gate
and NOR gate).
 All these gates are combined together to form a complicated switching
circuit.

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 The logic gates are building blocks of combinational logic circuits.

 In a combinational logic circuit, the output at any instant of time
depends only on present input at that particular instant of time
 Combinational circuits do not have any memory devices.
 Combinational circuits are used in microprocessor and microcontroller
for designing the hardware and software components of a computer.

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Classification of combinational digital logic circuits

 Combinational digital logic circuits are classified into three major parts –
arithmetic or logical functions, data transmission and code converter.

The following chart will elaborate the further classifications of combinational

digital logic circuit.

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Sequential circuit

 The sequential circuit is a special type of circuit that has a series of

inputs and outputs.
 The outputs of the sequential circuits depend on both the combination
of present inputs and previous outputs.

1. Event Driven – asynchronous circuits that change state immediately when

enabled.

2. Clock Driven – synchronous circuits that are synchronised to a specific clock

signal.

3. Pulse Driven – which is a combination of the two that responds to triggering

pulses.

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Digital Data Storage

 Digital data storage is essentially the recording of digital information in a

storage medium, usually by electronic means.
 The storage device typically enables a user to store large amounts of
data in a relatively small physical space and makes sharing that
information with others easy.
 The device may be capable of holding the data either temporarily or
permanently.

 Primary Memory is used by the CPU to store/collect data and

information.
 Whereas, Secondary Storage Devices are used to store data permanently
and are accessed by the user.

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 The Primary Memory Devices are always placed close to the CPU.
 Moreover, the primary memory devices stores a tiny amount of data,
when compared to the Secondary Storage Devices.

Primary Memory is further divided into RAM and ROM. Besides that, we also
consider Cache Memory and Registers as Primary Memory. However, Cache
and Registers are placed inside the CPU itself.

1.RAM (Random Access Memory)

SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)

DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)

2.ROM (Read Only Memory)

PROM

EPROM

EEPROM

3.Cache Memory

L1 (Level 1)

L2 (Level 2)

L3 (Level 3)

4.Registers

1. RAM:

 RAM (Random Access Memory) is called the Primary Memory or

Temporary Storage Device.
 The RAM is installed on the Computer’s motherboard.

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 RAM requires constant electrical power to store data.

 Whenever the power is lost, the data in the RAM will be erased.
 That is why it is called a Temporary Storage Device.
 RAM is the most important type of Computer storage device.
 When the CPU is running a program, it obtains the data from the RAM.
 If the RAM contains all the required data, then the performance will be
fast.

DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory):

 D-RAM needs to be recharged constantly to maintain its data.

 The CPU cannot access the data in it while it’s refreshing.
 However, it is cheaper than SRAM.

-> SRAM (Static Random Access Memory):

 Unlike DRAM, Static RAM does not need constant recharging.

Comparatively, S-RAM is faster and expensive than DRAM.
 RAM comes in various sizes, starting from 256 MB to 32 GB.
 The number of RAMs you can install on a computer depends on the
motherboard.
 A motherboard can have 2-8 slots for installing multiple RAMs.

2. ROM:

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 ROM (Read Only Memory) is another type of Primary Memory in the

Computer.
 The ROM is a chip integrated into the motherboard.
 ROM stores only essential system data, which cannot be deleted or
modified by the user.
 ROM is a Non-Volatile memory that stores the data even when there is
no power supply.

There are three types of ROM:

-> PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory)

As the name suggests, the data in PROM is Read-Only, and you cannot
edit or delete it.

-> EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)

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The Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory is erasable by using

ultra-violet rays.

-> EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)

The EEPROM is an Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only

Memory, which we can erase and upgrade using special programs.

3. Cache Memory:

 The CPU stores frequently used or essential data in the Cache Memory.
Cache Memory has three layers that are Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3.
 In the olden days, manufacturers used to place the Cache Memory on
the motherboard, but now they come integrated inside the CPU.

4. Registers:

 Registers are another Type of Computer Storage Device used by the CPU
to perform operations.
 Whenever you send a request to the CPU, it gathers all the data and
information in the registers and executes the program.
 The data is removed after the task is complete.

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 Moreover, the Registers come pre-installed inside the CPU, and they are
faster than Cache Memory & RAM.

Registers are further divided into several types, that are

 Data Register (DR)

 Memory Data Register (MDR)
 Memory Buffer Register (MBR)
 Program Counter (PC)
 Accumulator (AC)
 Instruction Register (IR)
 Memory Address Register (MAR)
 Input Register
 Output Register

Secondary Storage Devices of a Computer:

 Secondary Memory Devices are slower compared to Primary Memory

Devices. But, they can store vast data permanently and also allows users
to transfer data.
 Secondary Storage Devices are also one of the important components of
the Computer.
 Almost all Secondary Devices are Non-Volatile.
 Therefore, the user data is stored safely in them.

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Secondary Storage Devices work on different data storage technologies. Based

on their mechanism, they are divided into three types.

1.Magnetic Storage Devices

HDD (Hard Disk Drive)

FDD (Floppy Disk Drive)

Magnetic Tapes

2.Optical Disks

CD (Compact Disc)

DVD (Digital Versatile Disk)

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BR (Blu-ray Disc)

HVD (Holographics Versatile Disk)

3.Flash Memory

SSD (Solid State Drive) & M.2

Pen Drives

Memory Cards

1. Magnetic Storage Devices:

 Magnetic Storage Devices are Non-Volatile Devices.

 It means the data stored in the devices is permanent.
 We have already discussed that RAM is a Volatile Memory, which stores
data only until the power supply is on.
 Whereas, Magnetic Storage Devices like Hard Disk and Floppy stores
data permanently.

-> HDD (Hard Disk Drive):

 A hard disk contains a Spindle that holds rotating disks called Platters.
These Platter Disks are coated with Magnetic Material that holds the
data.
 The Magnetic Head on the hard disk is responsible for reading and
writing on the hard disk.
 The Hard Disks used to be very massive in size and stored very little data.
Thanks to the growing technology, now we have smaller hard disks that
hold a large amount of data.
 The latest generation hard disks can store data for more than 25 years.

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-> FDD (Floppy Disk Drive):

 Floppy was the first portable storage device, introduced in the year
1971. They are lightweight, small in size, and easy to carry.
 The Floppy Disk uses the same magnetic disk technology as the hard
disk. Programs and files used to be very less in size those days.
 Therefore, the size of the Floppy Disk Drives was also less.
 The First Version of Floppy Drive was 8-inch long with a storage capacity
of 80 KB.
 Eventually(finally), the size of the Floppy Disks was reduced to 3.5-inch,
and its storage capacity extended to 1.44MB.

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-> Magnetic Tapes:

 Though Magnetic Tapes works differently than Hard Disk Drives, they
use the same mechanism.
 The Tapes or Cassettes has a string, which is coated with magnet
material. That’s how the Tapes store data in the olden days.
 Examples of Magnetic Tapes are Camera Roll, Films, Audio Cassettes,
DVR Video Cassettes, etc.
 The Magnetic Tapes hold the data in serial order.
 That is why, in audio cassettes, you need to forward through number 1
and number 2 song to get to song number 3.

2. Optical Discs:

 It stores data in the digital form by using low-efficiency lasers.

 That is why we often use the word Write, instead of copy, when talking
about optical disks.
 Though the Optical disks were able to store much more data than Floppy
drives,

The primary drawbacks of Optical Disk are:

 It is very sensitive.
 It could easily break into pieces if not carried carefully.
 A single scratch on the surface of the Optical Disk can cause data loss.
 Recordable Optical Disks doesn’t allow you to delete or edit existing data
once written.

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-> CD (Compact Disc):

 The Compact Disk has a storage capacity of 700MB.

 It was not possible to erase or modify the written data.
 Moreover, it wasn’t even possible to write data to a previously used CD
even if there is an empty space.
 For Example: Once you record 100 MB of data in a CD-R disc, you cannot
add more data again even if there is 600 MB left in the disc.

There are different types of CDs:

 CD-ROM (CD-Read Only Memory): You can only read the content in the
disc but cannot write.
 CD-R (CD-Recordable): You can record (or write) data into this type of
compact disk only once. Though, you can read it infinite times.
 CD-RW (CD-ReWriter): As the name suggests, you can write data
multiple times on this disk. You can either add new data to the existing
data or wipe(CLEAN) the entire disk and write new data.

-> DVD (Digital Versatile Disc):

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 After a few years of creating CDs, the manufacturers came with an

advanced optical disk storage device.
 DVDs have the same dimension as CDs but can hold up to 4.7 GB of data.

Different Types of DVDs:

 DVD-R, DVD+R (DVD-Recordable): DVD-R is the older version of DVD and

DVD+R is the latest version
 . It is similar to CD-R, as the DVD is only recordable once.
 The only difference between these two is the compatibility issue.
 DVD-R may not be compatible with the latest Drives. Similarly, if you had
an old PC, DVD+R may not be compatible(friendly) with it.

DVD-ROM:

The DVD-ROM only lets you read the data, but not write.

DVD-RW, DVD+RW (DVD-ReWritter):

These ReWritable Versions of DVDs allows you to write data to the disc
multiple times by erasing older one.

-> BRD (Blu-ray Disc)

 Blu-ray is the third generation of optical disks.

 Blu-ray uses the advanced technology of blue-violet rays so that it can
have a shorter wavelength and store more data.
 While CD’s and DVD’s have a single layer, Blue-ray discs can have 3-4
layers.
 Moreover, each layer of Blu-ray disc can store up to 25 GB of data, which
means a triple-layer blue-ray lets you store around 75 GB of data.

-> HVD (Holographics Versatile Disk)

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 It uses collinear holography by collimating red and green lasers.

 Even though the size of HVD is small, it has the ability to hold data in
Terabytes.

3. Flash Memory:

 The Era of Floppys and Disks came to an end after the introduction of
Flash Drives in 1980.
 Flash Drives come in many forms, which are SSD, Pen Drives, Memory
Cards, SD Cards, and more.
 Flash Drives do not have any moving parts, which makes them fast
and more reliable.

->SSD (Solid State Drive):

 SSD is one of the Types of Computer Storage Devices.

 It is much faster than HDD, but also expensive.
 Solid-State Drives sizes about 2.5-inch and used as Internal Storage
Devices.
 In 2021, the latest HDD can store up to 15 TB, while the highest capacity
of SSD is only 4 TB.
 Solid-State Drives of 256GB will cost the same as 1 TB Hard Disk Drive.
 The SSD is recommended for gamers, as it will reduce the loading time.
You can also install Windows on SSD to speed up the booting process by
five times.

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->Pen Drives:
 Pen Drives are another type of Computer storage device that
helps you copy and transfer data from one PC to another.
 Pen Drives comes in several variants from 1GB to 256GB (like 1GB,
2GB, 4GB, 8GB, 16GB, 32GB, 64GB, 128GB, and 256GB).
 These are the size of a finger, lightweight, and portable.
 The PenDrives may not be faster than HDD and SSD, but they are
much faster than the Floppy Drives and Optical Drives.
-> Memory Cards:
 The Memory Cards are sub-divided into three types.
 These Memory Cards are rarely used on a Computer.
 They are made for Digital Cameras and Mobile Phones. Most
laptops have a Memory Card slot on them, which is useful to
transfer data from other devices to the Computer.

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Digital Operations

It includes,

Counter

ALU

Input / Output

Counter

 Counter is an operation easily performed by a digital circuit.

 A Digital circuit design to keep track of a number of flip-flops and
additional electronic circuit.
 It is similar to a storage register, since it is capable of storing a binary
number.

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Arithmetic Logic Unit

 In computing, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a combinational digital

circuit that performs arithmetic and bitwise operations on integer binary
numbers
 In the computer system, ALU is a main component of the central
processing unit, which stands for arithmetic logic unit and performs
arithmetic and logic operations.
 It is also known as an integer unit (IU) that is an integrated circuit within
a CPU
 Which is the last component to perform calculations in the processor
 It has the ability to perform all processes related to arithmetic and logic
operations such as addition, subtraction, and shifting operations,
including Boolean comparisons (XOR, OR, AND, and NOT operations).
Also, binary numbers can accomplish mathematical and bitwise
operations.

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 The arithmetic logic unit is split into AU (arithmetic unit) and LU (logic
unit).
 The operands and code used by the ALU tell it which operations have to
perform according to input data.
 When the ALU completes the processing of input, the information is sent
to the computer's memory.

Digital Computers

 Digital computer works with digits to represent numerals, letters or

other special symbols.

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 Digital computers operate on inputs which are of ON-OFF type and its
output is also in the form of ON-OFF signal.
 Normally, an ON is represented by 1 and OFF is represented by a 0.
 A digital computer can be used to process numeric as well as non-
numeric data.
 It can perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division and also logical operations.
 Most of the computers available today are digital computers:
Based on Configuration

On the basic of configuration of operations, there are four types of

computer. Configuration can be based on architecture, processing,
power, size, memory or capabilities. They are as listed below:

Super Computers

 The most powerful computers in terms of performance and data

processing are the supercomputers.
 These computers are used for research and examination purposes.
 Super computers are very expensive and are very large in size.
 It can accommodate only in large air-conditioned rooms.
 Supercomputers are used for earth quake studies, weather forecasting,
Nuclear weapons testing etc.

Features of Supercomputers:

 Uses AI (Artificial Intelligence)

 They are faster and most powerful;
 They are very expensive.
 They are very large on size.

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 They are used by manufacturing companies.

 They have very high processing speed.

Mainframe Computers

 Mainframe computers are not as powerful as supercomputers, but

certainly they are quite expensive.
 Many large firms and government organizations uses mainframe
computer to run their business operations.
 They can process and store large amount of data. Banks, educational
institutions and insurance companies use them to store data about their
customers, students and insurance policy holders.
 They can also act as a server in a network environment. Also, they can
handle hundreds of users simultaneously.

Features of Mainframe Computers

 They have huge memory capacity.

 They hold the ability to run multiple operating systems.
 They have large number of CPUs with high speed processing power.
 It uses Tightly Coupled Clustering Technology.

Tightly coupling is a coupling technique in which hardware and software

components are highly dependent on each other

Minicomputers

 Minicomputers are used by small businesses and firm.

 They are also called as 'Midrange Computers'. Like mainframe
computers,
 Most minicomputers are multi user systems.
 They are little slower than mainframe computer.

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Features of Minicomputers

 Its size is smaller than a Mainframe or Supercomputers.

 It is less expensive than mainframe or supercomputer.
 It can do several tasks at once.
 It can be used by many people at one time.
 It is used by small enterprise (organization) (project).

Microcomputers

 A Microcomputer is a computer on a smaller scale in comparison to

others and is generally known as PC (Personal Computer).
 It is designed for an individual,
 it has microprocessor
 it has central processing unit (CPU),
 It has memory in the form of RAM (ReadOnly Memory) and ROM (Random
Access Memory), I
 It has I /O ports and a bus system of interconnecting wires housed in a unit
that is usually called a motherboard.
 These are cheapest among all.
 They are specially designed for general usage like entertainment,
education and work purposes.
 Notebooks, PDAs Tablet PC's Smartphone, calculator, are examples of
microcomputers.

Features of Microcomputers

 They are commonly used for personal application.

 They are comparatively cheaper and smaller in size
 It cannot supports multi users.

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 It has low computing power.

 They are very easy to use.

DIGITAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

An integrated circuit (IC) is an electronic device that gathers (or integrates) a

number of electronic components on a small semiconductor chip.

IC Families:
 ICs are categorized by size according to the number of gates
contained on each chip.
 There is no absolute rule, but an IC having fewer than 10 or 12
gates is usually referred to as a small-scale integration (SSI) IC
 ICs having more than 12 but fewer than 100 gates are called
medium-scale integration (MSI) ICs; encoders and decoders are
examples of MSI ICs.
 If there are more than 100 gates but fewer than 1000, the IC is
called a large-scale integration (LSI) IC.

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 An IC having more than 1000 gates is referred to as a very large-

scale integration (VLSI) IC.
 A large complex system such as semiconductor memory or a
microprocessor will be either LSI or VLSI. ICs are further categorized
according to the type of transistors used.

Types of Integrated Circuits

Integrated Circuits are classified into three types:
 Based on Mode of Operation
 Based on Fabrication
 Based on Complexity(complicated process or situation.)
Based on Mode of Operation

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IC’s are classified into two types based on the Mode of Operation or
the signal processed. They are:
Digital IC or Non-Linear IC
Analog IC or Linear IC
Digital IC or Non-Linear IC
Digital Integrated Circuits are the logical networks capable of
performing mathematical calculations and are commercially available as
Memory Chip, Microprocessor, Microcontroller, Counters, Logic gates,
Registers etc. The input/ output value is either logical high/low (0 or 1).
Analog IC or Linear IC
Analog Integrated Circuits are the discrete networks, which processes the
signals that are continuously variable like an audio signal.
The values of voltage or current may vary continuously between
minimum and maximum values.
They are available commercially as Voltage comparators, regulators
Monolithic integrated circuit
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit is a set of
electronic circuits on one small flat piece (or "chip") of semiconductor
material, ..

Hybrid

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A hybrid integrated circuit is a single package that incorporates

individual electronic components

Applications of Integrated Circuit

 The applications of IC’s include:

 They are used in smart phones, mp3 players, laptops, computers.
 IC’s are also used in Television and cameras.

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 They are widely used in aircraft and space craft systems.

 IC’s are the basic component used in scientific calculators and
digital watches.
 They are used in control systems.

Advantages of Integrated Circuit

The advantages include:

 IC’s are smaller in size and hence the circuit is simplified.

 Space required by Integrated Circuit is very less.
 Power consumption is less.
 They are economical(cheap)
 It has the ability to operate at extreme temperatures.

Capacitor

A capacitor is a device that stores electrical energy in an electric field

DIGITAL LOGIC:
THE BASIC GATES:
A digital circuit having one or more input signals but only one output signal
is called a gate.

AND gate

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 The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1)
only if all its inputs are high.
 A dot (.) is used to show the AND operation i.e. A.B or can be
written as AB
Y= A.B

Figure-1:Logic Symbol of AND Gate

Figure-2:Truth Table of AND Gate

Block diagram (Three Input):

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Truth table (Three Input):

OR gate

 The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if

one or more of its inputs are high.
 A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation.

Y= A+B

Figure-4:Logic Symbol of OR Gate

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Block diagram (Three Input):

Truth Table (Three Input):

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NOT gate

 The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted

version of the input at its output.
 It is also known as an inverter.
 If the input variable is A, the inverted output is known as NOT A.
 This is also shown as A' or A with a bar over the top, as shown at
the outputs.
Y= A'

UNIVERSAL LOGIC GATES:

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A universal logic gate is a gate which can implement any Boolean

function without need to use any other gates type.
The universal logic gates are,
 NOR GATE
 NAND GATE
NOR GATE:
The complement of OR gate is called NOR gate. NOR has an OR gate
followed by an inverter (NOT gate).
Block diagram (Two Input):

Symbol for NOR Gate:

Truth table (Two Input):

Block diagram (Three Input):

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Symbol for NOR Gate:

Truth table (Three Input):

NAND gate

A two inputs NAND gate can be implemented by cascading (flow)a two-

input AND gate and a NOT gate (or inverter gate). See the image below

Truth tables for the NAND gate

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AND-OR-INVERT GATES:

 Compound (mix) logic gates AND-OR-Invert (AOI) and OR-AND-

Invert (OAI) are often employed (working) in circuit design because
their construction using MOSFETs is simpler and more efficient than
the sum of the individual gates.
 The MOSFET stands for METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD
EFFECT TRANSISTOR
 AOI and OAI gates can be readily implemented in CMOS circuitry.
 AOI gates are particularly advantaged in that the total number of
transistors (or gates) is less than if the AND, NOT, and OR functions
were implemented separately.
 This results in increased speed, reduced power, smaller area, and
potentially lower fabrication cost.

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POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE LOGIC:

 Positive logic is defined as a high voltage level representing a logic 1

and a low voltage level representing a logic 0.
 Negative logic is the reverse, i.e., a low voltage level represents a
logic 1 and a high voltage level represents a logic 0.
 Positive logic inputs and outputs are also called active high.
 Negative logic inputs and outputs are called active low

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