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The historiography of early India reveals significant changes over time. The various ‘schools’ of
history writing are often presented and understood in terms of one school making way for the other
in a neat, forward progression. The reality is more complex. There was considerable variety within the
schools; some of them co-existed in dialogue or conflict with one another, and there are examples of
writings that go against the grain and do not fit into the dominant historiographical trends of their
time.

Orientalists’ historiography

The 18th and 19th centuries were dominated by the writings of European scholars, referred to as
Orientalists or Indologists, although they often described themselves as ‘antiquarians’. Many of them
worked for the East India Company or the British Government of India. The founding of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal in 1784 provided an institutional focus for scholars working in fields such as textual
study, epigraphy, numismatics, and history. A major contribution of the Indologists lay in their efforts
to collect, edit, and translate ancient texts. In this, they depended heavily on information provided by
‘native informants.’ Indology soon spread beyond the British empire and became a subject of study in
European universities.

Apart from the study of ancient texts, the 19th century witnessed developments in epigraphy,
numismatics, archaeology, and the study of art and architecture. The decipherment of Ashokan
Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts were breakthroughs. The analysis of coins contributed to the
construction of a framework of political history. Officers of the Geological Survey discovered
prehistoric stone tools and laid the basis of Indian prehistory. The Archaeological Survey of India,
established in 1871, has over the decades made important contributions to unearthing and analyzing
the material remains of India’s past. The contributions and breakthroughs of the 18th and 19th
centuries were rooted in a colonial context, and this is evident in certain features of Indological
writing:

1. The Brahmanical perspective of ancient Sanskrit texts was often uncritically taken as reflecting
the Indian past.
2. Social and religious institutions and traditions were critiqued from a Western viewpoint. Indian
society was presented as static, and its political systems despotic, over the centuries.
3. Race, religion, and ethnicity were confused with one another, and there was a tendency to
exaggerate the impact of foreign influence on ancient India.
4.
 This is when the classification of the Indian past into Hindu, Muslim, and British periods took
root.
Nationalist historiography

Indian scholars of the late 19th century and the first half of the 20th century made major
contributions to constructing a connected narrative of ancient India. These historians, who wrote
against the background of an emergent, and later increasingly strong, national movement, are
generally referred to as Nationalist historians. They wove together data from texts, inscriptions, coins,
and other material remains to show the contours of the ancient Indian past.

1. The nationalist tinge in these scholars’ writings can be seen in their insistence on the
indigenous roots of cultural developments. It is reflected in their search for golden ages, which
led to their exalting the age of the Vedas and the Gupta Empire.
2. Contributions were made in the field of political history. South India was brought into the
narrative and the study of regional polities progressed.
3. Non-monarchical polities were discovered and celebrated to counter the idea that India had
never known anything but despotic rule.
4. The periodisation of the Indian past into Hindu, Muslim, and British periods was, however,
retained. It coalesced with a communal tendency to valorise the ‘Hindu period’ and to project
the advent of the Turks and Islam as a calamity and tragedy.
Marxist historiography

The 1950s saw the emergence of Marxist historiography, which went on to play an influential role in
the construction of the history of early India.

1. In the long run, the Marxist historians shifted the focus from an event-centred history
dominated by political narrative to the delineation of social and economic structures and
processes, especially those related to class stratification and agrarian relations.
2. Marxist historiography contributed to uncovering the history of non-elite groups, some of which
had suffered subordination and marginalisation.
3. While making these valuable interventions and contributions, Marxist writings often tended to
work with unilinear historical models derived from Western historical and anthropological
writings.
4. Texts were sometimes read uncritically, with insufficient attention paid to their problematic
chronology and peculiarities of genre. Archaeological data were included, but the basic
framework of the historical narrative remained text-centric.
5. Initially, the focus on class meant less attention to other bases of social stratification such as
caste and gender. Religion and culture were sidelined, or mechanically presented as reflections
of socio-economic structures.
Despite important differences, the major historiographical schools shared similarities. Certain tenets
of these schools continue to thrive. Some of the fundamental premises and methods of Orientalist
historiography still hold their ground, and histories of Third World countries such as India remain
Eurocentric. Appeals to the ancient and early medieval past are often dictated by nationalist or
communalist agendas. Marxist historiography continues to be an influential force in early Indian
historiography.

Future Progress

A critical understanding of historiography, one that recognizes the contributions and limitations of
past and present ideological and theoretical frameworks, is essential to understanding where the
history of early India stands. However, the advances of the future are likely to be the result of
questioning and thinking beyond the boundaries of existing historiographical positions and
methodologies.

Currently, there are two parallel images of ancient India — one based on literary sources, the other on
archaeology. Texts and archaeology generate different sorts of historical narratives. Historians
generally use archaeological evidence selectively as a corroborative source when it matches
hypotheses based on their interpretation of texts. Archaeologists have not adequately explored the
historical implications of archaeological data.

In view of the information offered by rapidly growing archaeological data, historical narratives can no
longer remain text-centric. A more sophisticated approach towards textual study has to be
accompanied by an incorporation of archaeological evidence. This will lead to a more nuanced image
of ancient India.

Histories of early India should ideally represent the various regions and communities of the
subcontinent in their diversity. However, while the heartlands of great empires and kingdoms are well
represented, many regions are not. These have to be brought in. Bringing more people into history
requires initiatives to uncover groups that have been subordinated and marginalized. This is not easy,
given that a great proportion of the source material available to historians has been created by elite
groups and reflects their ideas and interests. Nevertheless, the past of people who have been hidden
from history has to be uncovered and written, and these histories must become an integral part of the
narrative of the ancient Indian past.